If every other cross-beat is sounded, the three-against-four (3:4) cross-rhythm is generated. The "slow" cycle of three beats is more metrically destabilizing and dynamic than the six beats. The Afro-Cuban rhythm abakuá (Havana-style) is based on the 3:4 cross-rhythm.[9] The three-beat cycle is represented as half-notes in the following example for visual emphasis.
Three-against-four cross-rhythm. About this sound Play (help·info)
“ In contrast to the four main beat scheme, the rhythmic motion of the three beat scheme is slower. A simultaneous interaction of these two beat schemes with contrasting rhythmic motions produces the next most useful cross rhythmic texture in the development of sub-Saharan dance-drumming. The composite texture of the three-against-four cross rhythm produces a motif covering a length of the musical period. The motif begins with the component beat schemes coinciding and continues with the beat schemes in alternate motions thus showing a progression from a "static" beginning to a "dynamic" continuation
File:Polyrhythm-1.5 with 4 o 4 simultaneously.ogv
Polyrhythm 4:1.5
Even more metrically destabilizing and dynamic than 3:4, is the one and a half beat-against-four (1.5:4) cross-rhythm. Another way to think of it is as three "very slow" cross-beats spanning two main beat cycles (of four beats each), or three beats over two periods (measures), a type of macro "hemiola." In terms of the beat scheme comprising the complete 24-pulse cross-rhythm, the ratio is 3:8. The three cross-beats are shown as whole notes below for visual emphasis.
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When duple pulses (4
4) are grouped in sets of three, the four-against-three (4:3) cross-rhythm is generated. The four cross-beats cycle every three main beats. In terms of cross-rhythm only, this is the same as having duple cross-beats in a triple beat scheme, such as 3
4 or 6
4. The pulses on the top line are grouped in threes for visual emphasis.
4:3 cross-rhythm in modular form.
However, this 4:3 is within a duple beat scheme, with duple (quadruple) subdivisions of the beats. Since the musical period is a cycle of four main beats, the 4:3 cross-rhythm significantly contradicts the period by cycling every three main beats. The complete cross-beat cycle is shown below in relation to the key pattern known in Afro-Cuban music as clave. (Rumba, p. xxxi)[11] The subdivisions are grouped (beamed) in sets of four to reflect the proper metric structure. The complete cross-beat cycle is three claves in length. Within the context of the complete cross-rhythm, there is a macro 4:3—four 4:3 modules-against-three claves. Continuous duple-pulse cross-beats are often sounded by the quinto, the lead drum in the Cuban genres rumba and conga. (Rumba, pps. 69–86)[11][b][c]
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In sub-Saharan rhythm the four main beats are typically divided into three or four pulses, creating a 12-pulse (12
8), or 16-pulse (4
4) cycle. (Ladzekpo, b: "Main Beat Scheme")[5] Every triple-pulse pattern has its duple-pulse correlative; the two pulse structures are two sides of the same coin. Cross-beats are generated by grouping pulses contrary to their given structure, for example: groups of two or four in 12
8 or groups of three or six in 4
4. (Rumba, p. 180)[11] The duple-pulse correlative of the three cross-beats of the hemiola, is a figure known in Afro-Cuban music as tresillo. Tresillo is a Spanish word meaning ‘triplet’—three equal notes within the same time span normally occupied by two notes. As used in Cuban popular music, tresillo refers to the most basic duple-pulse rhythmic cell.[13] The pulse names of tresillo and the three cross-beats of the hemiola are identical: one, one-ah, two-and.
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Early ethnomusicological analysis often perceived African music as polymetric. Pioneers such as A.M. Jones and Anthony King identified the prevailing rhythmic emphasis as metrical accents (main beats), instead of the contrametrical accents (cross-beats) they in fact are. Some of their music examples are polymetric, with multiple and conflicting main beat cycles, each requiring its own separate time signature. King shows two Yoruba dundun pressure drum ("talking drum") phrases in relation to the five-stroke standard pattern, or "clave," played on the kagano dundun (top line).[18] The standard pattern is written in a polymetric 7
8 + 5
8 time signature. One dundun phrase is based on a grouping of three pulses written in 3
8, and the other, a grouping of four pulses written in 4
8. Complicating the transcription further, one polymetric measure is offset from the other two.
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The most common Hindustani tala, Teental, is a regularly-divisible cycle of four measures of four beats each.
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Tintal (or teental, trital; Hindi: तीन ताल) is one of the most famous talas of Hindustani music. It is also the most common tal in North India. The structure of tintal is so symmetrical that it presents a very simple rhythmic structure against which a performance can be laid.[1]
Arrangement[edit]
Tintal has sixteen (16) beats[2] in four equal divisions (vibhag). The period between every two beats is equal. The first beat out of 16 beats is called sam and the 9th beat is called khali ('empty'). To count the Teental, the audience claps on the first beat, claps on the 5th beat, then waves on the 9th beat and lastly again claps on the 13th beat; these three claps (Hindi tin 'three' + tāl 'clap') give the rhythm its name.
16 is the squares of the quadrant model. Four is the number of quadrants in the quadrant model and the number of squares per quadrant
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Bloc party four
The number of strings on a violin, a viola, a cello, double bass, a cuatro and a ukulele, and the number of string pairs on a mandolin.
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Brahms four symphonies
In popular or modern music, the most common time signature is also founded on four beats, i.e., 4/4 having four quarter note beats.
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Gang of four is a british rock band
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Jay Z is known for his rap song 44 fours where he says four forty four times. Jay Z's name Hov, is said to be short of Hova, or the tetragrammaton.
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Weigel held, besides his ordinary teachings, an ‘Astrognostisch-heraldisches Collegium‘ in the open air for a wider public. He tried to join classical and modern thought, in a spirit of ‘synkretismus‘ and point the way to a ‘Via Nova‘. His newly formed ‘Societas Pythagorea‘ aimed at a revival of Pythagorean thoughts. The musical intervals, as a ‘natural’ division, which can be measured on a string, had strong affinities with the ‘tetractys‘ as the leading division principle: 4 : 3 (the fourth), 3 : 2 (the fifth) and 2 : 1 (the octave). Weigel proposed a counting-system on base four, with inventive German names for the various figures, such as:
————————– E R F F – 10
————————— Z W E R F F – 20
————————— D R E F F – 30
————————— S E C H T – 100
————————— S C H O C K – 1000
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Vetrate di chiesa (Church Windows) (1926), four movements of which three are based on Tre Preludi sopra melodie gregoriane for piano
Italian composer Ottorino Respighi composed a piece named St. Gregory the Great (San Gregorio Magno) that features as the fourth and final part of his Church Windows (Vetrate di Chiesa) works, written in 1925.
The fourth moment is different
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Catching the impulse from Hilary and confirmed in it by the success of Arian psalmody, Ambrose composed several original hymns as well, four of which still survive, along with music which may not have changed too much from the original melodies. Each of these hymns has eight four-line stanzas and is written in strict iambic dimeter (that is 2 x 2 iambs). Marked by dignified simplicity, they served as a fruitful model for later times.
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In music theory, traditionally, a tetrachord (Greek: τετράχορδoν, Latin: tetrachordum) is a series of four notes ("chords", from the Greek chordon, "string" or "note") separated by three smaller intervals that span the interval of a perfect fourth, a 4:3 frequency proportion. In modern usage a tetrachord is any four-note segment of a scale or tone row, not necessarily related to a particular system of tuning.
The term tetrachord derives from ancient Greek music theory, where it signified a segment of the Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems bounded by unmovable notes (Greek: ἑστῶτες); the notes between these were movable (Greek: κινούμενοι). It literally means four strings, originally in reference to harp-like instruments such as the lyre or the kithara, with the implicit understanding that the four strings produced adjacent (i.e. conjunct) notes.
Modern music theory makes use of the octave as the basic unit for determining tuning: ancient Greeks used the tetrachord for this purpose. Ancient Greek theorists recognized that the octave is a fundamental interval, but saw it as built from two tetrachords and a whole tone.
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Persian music divides the interval of a fourth differently than the Greek. For example, Al-Farabi describes four genres of the division of the fourth:[20]
The first genre, corresponding to the Greek diatonic, is composed of a tone, a tone and a semitone, as G–A–B–C.
The second genre is composed of a tone, three quarter tones and three quarter tones, as G–A–Bhalf flat–C.
The third genre has a tone and a quarter, three quarter tones and a semitone, as G–Ahalf sharp–B–C.
The fourth genre, corresponding to the Greek chromatic, has a tone and a half, a semitone and a semitone, as G–A♯–B–C.
He continues with four other possible genres "dividing the tone in quarters, eighths, thirds, half thirds, quarter thirds, and combining them in diverse manners".[21] Later, he presents possible positions of the frets on the lute, producing ten intervals dividing the interval of a fourth between the strings:[22]
Ratio: 1/1 256/243 18/17 162/149 54/49 9/8 32/27 81/68 27/22 81/64 4/3
Note name: C C♯ C♯ Cthree quarter sharp Cthree quarter sharp D E♭ E♭ Ehalf flat E F
Cents: 0 90 99 145 168 204 294 303 355 408 498
If one considers that the interval of a fourth between the strings of the lute (Oud) corresponds to a tetrachord, and that there are two tetrachords and a major tone in an octave, this would create a 25-tone scale. A more inclusive description (where Ottoman, Persian and Arabic overlap), of the scale divisions is that of 24 quarter tones (see also Arabian maqam). It should be mentioned that Al-Farabi's, among other Islamic treatises, also contained additional division schemes as well as providing a gloss of the Greek system as Aristoxenian doctrines were often included
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The tetrachord, a fundamentally incomplete fragment, is the basis of two compositional forms constructed upon repetition of that fragment: the complaint and the litany.
The descending tetrachord from tonic to dominant, typically in minor (e.g. A–G–F–E in A minor), had been used since the Renaissance to denote a lamentation. Well-known cases include the ostinato bass of Dido's aria When I am laid in earth in Henry Purcell's Dido and Aeneas, the Crucifixus in Johann Sebastian Bach's Mass in B minor, BWV 232, or the Qui tollis in Mozart's Mass in C minor, KV 427, etc.[24] This tetrachord, known as lamento ("complaint", "lamentation"), has been used until today. A variant form, the full chromatic descent (e.g. A–G♯–G–F♯–F–E in A minor), has been known as Passus duriusculus in the Baroque Figurenlehre.[full citation needed]
There exists a short, free musical form of the Romantic Era, called complaint or complainte (Fr.) or lament.[25] It is typically a set of harmonic variations in homophonic texture, wherein the bass descends through some tetrachord, possibly that of the previous paragraph, but usually one suggesting a minor mode. This tetrachord, treated as a very short ground bass, is repeated again and again over the length of the composition.
Another musical form, of the same time period, is the litany or litanie (Fr.), or lytanie (OE spur).[26] It is also a set of harmonic variations in homophonic texture, but in contrast to the lament, here the tetrachordal fragment – ascending or descending and possibly reordered – is set in the upper voice in the manner of a chorale prelude. Because of the extreme brevity of the theme and number of repetitions required, and free of the binding of chord progression to tetrachord in the lament, the breadth of the harmonic excursion in litany is usually notable.
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A tetratonic scale is a musical scale or mode with four notes per octave. This is in contrast to a heptatonic (seven-note) scale such as the major scale and minor scale, or a dodecatonic (chromatic 12-note ) scale, both common in modern Western music. Tetratonic scales are not common in modern art music, and are generally associated with primitive music
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A tetrad is a set of four notes in music theory. When these four notes form a tertian chord they are more specifically called a seventh chord, after the diatonic interval from the root of the chord to its fourth note (in root position close voicing). Four-note chords are often formed of intervals other than thirds in 20th- and 21st-century music, however, where they are more generally referred to as tetrads (see, for example, Hanson 1960,[page needed], Gamer 1967, 37 & 52, and Forte 1985, 48–51, 53). Allen Forte in his The Structure of Atonal Music never uses the term "tetrad", but occasionally employs the word tetrachord to mean any collection of four pitch classes (Forte 1973, 1, 18, 68, 70, 73, 87, 88, 21, 119, 123, 124, 125, 138, 143, 171, 174, and 223). In 20th-century music theory, such sets of four pitch classes are usually called "tetrachords" (Anon. 2001; Roeder 2001).
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Dance Chapter
QMRIn parkourhe base technique to quadrupedal movement should have you assuming a position where:
> Your hands are placed shoulder width apart directly underneath your shoulders.
> Your back should be parallel to the ground
> Your shins parallel to the ground.
> Knee’s off the ground, toes in contact with the ground.
> Next you should start to move forward!
> When moving you should move alternate arms and legs.
> When the right hand goes forward the left leg should move forward at the same time.
> When the left hand moves forward the right leg should move as well.
> Keep the knees at approximately the same distance from the ground at all times, keep the back parallel with the ground.
Try not to stretch your self out too far, crowd yourself by bringing the knees in too close to the body or stick your backside into the air. Avoid resting the knees on the ground, if you wish to rest then assume a crouched position or stick your backside in the air.
The reason for this particular movement pattern is that it forces the mind to coordinate the body in such a way that it increases your overall body control and awareness; it is also more balanced in a physiological sense.
PROGRESSION
Once you have a firm grounding in the base technique of quadrupedal start to experiment with making it more difficult. Varying the shape and alignment of the body when doing it. Move up and down stairs, on rails, sideways, backwards, get down really low to the ground, do it on your elbows and knees like soldiers under barbed wire, use your imagination. There are many different ways to move on all fours. This is an opportunity to do some of the things that initially should be avoided; sticking the backside in the air, stretching yourself out or crowding yourself. But you only want to do this once you have mastered the base technique.
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Association football is the country's most popular and most televised franchised sport. It’s important venues in Mexico City include the Azteca Stadium, home to the Mexico national football team and giants América, which can seat 105,000 fans, making it the biggest stadium in Latin America. The Olympic Stadium in Ciudad Universitaria is home to the football club giants Universidad Nacional, with a seating capacity of over 63,000. The Estadio Azul, which seats 35,000 fans, is near the World Trade Center Mexico City in the Nochebuena neighborhood, and is home to the giants Cruz Azul. The three teams are based in Mexico City and play in the First Division; they are also part, with Guadalajara-based giants Club Deportivo Guadalajara, of Mexico's traditional "Big Four" (though recent years have tended to erode the teams' leading status at least in standings). The country hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1970 and 1986, and Azteca Stadium is the first stadium in World Cup history to host the final twice.
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Literature Chapter
Mencius's mother is often held up as an exemplary female figure in Chinese culture. One of the most famous traditional Chinese four-character idioms is 孟母三遷 (mèng mǔ sān qiān; literal translation: "Mencius's mother, three moves")
The Four Beginnings (or Sprouts)[edit]
To show innate goodness, Mencius used the example of a child falling down a well. Witnesses of this event immediately feel
“ alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child's parents, nor to seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike the reputation [of lack of humanity if they did not rescue the child]...
The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity; the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety; and the feeling of right or wrong is the beginning of wisdom.
Men have these Four Beginnings just as they have their four limbs. Having these Four Beginnings, but saying that they cannot develop them is to destroy themselves.[14]
”
Human nature has an innate tendency towards goodness, but moral rightness cannot be instructed down to the last detail. This is why merely external controls always fail in improving society. True improvement results from educational cultivation in favorable environments. Likewise, bad environments tend to corrupt the human will. This, however, is not proof of innate evil because a clear thinking person would avoid causing harm to others. This position of Mencius puts him between Confucians such as Xunzi who thought people were innately bad, and Taoists who believed humans did not need cultivation, they just needed to accept their innate, natural, and effortless goodness. The four beginnings/sprouts could grow and develop, or they could fail. In this way Mencius synthesized integral parts of Taoism into Confucianism. Individual effort was needed to cultivate oneself, but one's natural tendencies were good to begin with. The object of education is the cultivation of benevolence, otherwise known as Ren.
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The concept of original mind was first conceived by Mencius but was further developed by Lu. The original mind means that all human beings are born with innate moral knowledge and virtue. This original mind is fourfold as Mencius called them 'four roots of the heart':
Compassion - The root of humaneness (ren).
Shame - The root of righteousness (yi).
Respect - The root of propriety and ritual observance (li).
Knowledge of right and wrong - The root of wisdom (zhi).
[2]
Like real roots in nature these four roots must be nurtured first before flowers to bloom. So, in other words, these four roots of the heart are nothing but just tendencies of the mind. These four roots of the heart need proper nurturing and care to grow strong and healthy to manifest their true nature, which is moral virtue.
Lu believed that moral virtues are innately present in the human heart/mind and that, endowed by Heaven, humaneness and righteousness form the Original Mind of human beings. The original mind is shared by all human beings, both sages and common people, and its truth is ageless and eternal.[3]
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According to Fischer (2012:398-402), Shizi's message is based upon four key ideas: self-cultivation, timeliness, humility, and objectivity. "With the single exception of self-cultivation (修身 or 治身), none of these ideals appear as technical terms in the text. Unlike the more usual advice to be good (仁), proper (義), or virtuous (德), even generalized terms for timeliness, humility, and objectivity are not used; rather, the advice must be inferred from the narrative."
Self-cultivation. The beginning of Chapter 1 recommends self-cultivation through broad learning.
To learn without tiring is that by which one cultivates the self; to teach without becoming bored is that by which one cultivates the people. (If) a cocoon is abandoned and not cultivated, then it will rot away and be discarded. (But if) a female artisan extracts the silk, then this can be used to make beautiful brocade, (fit even for) a great ruler to wear to court. (Your) person is (like) a cocoon: (if) it is abandoned and not cultivated, then (your capacity to) think and act will rot away. (tr. Fischer 2012:1221-1224)
One Shizi fragment (188, tr. Fischer 2012:3103), "Imitate the conch and oyster and close the door", is apparently related to self-cultivation through Daoist meditation
Timeliness. Acting in a timely manner is a recurring textual theme, frequently phrased in terms of shen "spirit; god, deity; spiritual, supernatural" translated as "spiritous". Chapter 2 says:
Misfortunes, at the beginning, are easily dispelled. As for those which cannot be dispelled, avoid them. (Because when) they are fully manifested, (you might) desire to dispel them (but will) be unable, and (you might) desire to avoid them (but will) be unable. Those who deal with (problems) while (still) spiritous: their activities are few but (their) merit is great. ... (When) a house burns and someone saves it, then (we) know their virtue. (But) the elderly who daub chimney cracks to guard (against fire), thereby living their whole lives without the misfortune of stray flames (causing a fire): (their) virtue (remains) unknown! ... Misfortunes also have "chimneys," and (if) worthies were to travel the world to aid in "daubing" them, then the world would have no military suffering, yet none would know their virtue. Therefore it is said: "Sagely people rectify (things) when (they) are yet spiritous [i.e., inchoate]; stupid people contend with (things) after (they) have become obvious." (tr. Fischer 2012:1376-1390)
The following context clarifies the semantics of "spiritous" (tr. Fischer 2012:1407), "This 'spiritousness' is the beginning of the myriad things, the leading thread of the myriad affairs."
Humility. The Shizi teaches that rulers should have humility when seeking good ministers, as well as have eminence when effectively ruling. For instance, this dialogue between Confucius and his disciple Zixia,
"Kong Zi said: 'Zixia, do you know how rulers function as rulers?' Zixia replied: '(If) fish lose the water (they are in), then (they) will die, (but) if water loses the fish (in it, it) is still water.' Kong Zi said: 'You know it!'." An effective ruler needs both to practice humility and to pursue self-cultivation through study. (tr. Fischer 2012:2149-2151)
Objectivity. The text recommends that rulers objectively hire, fire, promote, and demote officials based upon the verifiable results of performance, rather than upon the traditional criteria of nepotism and hereditary rank.
The stupid and wise (decisions) of the many ministers are daily presented before (you): choose those whom are knowledgeable about affairs and order their plans (to be carried out). Those whom the many ministers promote are daily presented before (you): choose those whom are knowledgeable about people and order their promotions (to be carried out). The orderly and disorderly (effects) of the many ministers are daily presented before (you): choose those whom are competent in undertaking tasks and order their governance (to be carried out). ... (If you) use the worthy and employ the competent, (then you) will govern without exertion. (If you) rectify names and examine reality, (then you) will be revered without (having to) punish. (If you) arrive at the facts and see (them) purely, then truth and fallacy will not be obscured. (tr. Fischer 2012:1596-1618)
While many Masters texts discussed the importance of employing worthies and rectifying names, the Shizi exceptionally argued for detached objectivity through "examining reality" (覈實) and "seeing purely" (見素).
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Mohism or Moism (Chinese: 墨家; pinyin: Mòjiā; literally: "School of Mo") was a Chinese philosophy developed by the followers of Mozi (also referred to as Mo Tzu (Master Mo), Latinized as Micius), 470 BC–c.391 BC. It evolved at about the same time as Confucianism, Taoism and Legalism, and was one of the four main philosophic schools during the Spring and Autumn Period (from 770 BC to 480 BC)[1] and the Warring States period (from 479 BC to 221 BC). During that time, Mohism (墨 Mo) was seen as a major rival to Confucianism (儒 Ru). The administrative thought of Mohism was absorbed by Chinese Legalism and its books were later merged into the Taoist canon, all but disappearing as an independent school of thought.
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The four tones of Chinese poetry and dialectology (simplified Chinese: 四声; traditional Chinese: 四聲; pinyin: sìshēng) are four traditional tone classes[1] of Chinese words. They play an important role in Chinese poetry and in comparative studies of tonal development in the modern varieties of Chinese, both in traditional Chinese and in Western linguistics. They correspond to the phonology of Middle Chinese, and are named even or level (平 píng), rising (上 shǎng), departing (or going; 去 qù), and entering or checked (入 rù).[2] (The last three are collectively referred to as oblique 仄 (zè), an important concept in poetic tone patterns.) Due to historic splits and mergers, none of the modern varieties of Chinese have the exact four tones of Middle Chinese, but they are noted in rhyming dictionaries.
According to the usual modern analysis, Early Middle Chinese had three phonemic tones in most syllables, but no tonal distinctions in checked syllables ending in the stop consonants /p/, /t/, /k/. In most circumstances, every syllable had its own tone; hence a multisyllabic word typically had a tone assigned to each syllable. (In modern varieties, the situation is sometimes more complicated. Although each syllable typically still has its own underlying tone in most dialects, some syllables in the speech of some varieties may have their tone modified into other tones or neutralized entirely, by a process known as tone sandhi.)
Traditional Chinese dialectology reckons syllables ending in a stop consonant as possessing a fourth tone, known technically as a checked tone. This tone is known in traditional Chinese linguistics as the entering (入 rù) tone, a term commonly used in English as well. The other three tones were termed the level (or even) tone (平 píng), the rising (上 shǎng) tone, and the departing (or going) tone (去 qù).[3] The practice of setting up the entering tone as a separate class reflects the fact that the actual pitch contour of checked syllables was quite distinct from the pitch contour of any of the sonorant-final syllables. Indeed, implicit in the organisation of the classical rime tables is a different, but structurally equally valid, phonemic analysis, which takes all four tones as phonemic and demotes the difference between stop finals [p t k] and nasal finals [m n ŋ] to allophonic, with stops occurring in entering syllables and nasals elsewhere.[4]
From the perspective of modern historical linguistics, there is often value in treating the "entering tone" as a tone regardless of its phonemic status, because syllables possessing this "tone" typically develop differently from syllables possessing any of the other three "tones". For clarity, these four "tones" are often referred to as tone classes, with each word belonging to one of the four tone classes. This reflects the fact that the lexical division of words into tone classes is based on tone, but not all tone classes necessarily have a distinct phonemic tone associated with them.
The four Early Middle Chinese (EMC) tones are nearly always presented in the order level (平 píng), rising (上 shǎng), departing (去 qù), entering (入 rù), and correspondingly numbered 1 2 3 4 in modern discussions. In Late Middle Chinese (LMC), each of the EMC tone classes split in two, depending on the nature of the initial consonant of the syllable in question. Discussions of LMC and the various modern varieties will often number these split tone classes from 1 through 8, keeping the same ordering as before. For example, LMC/modern tone classes 1 and 2 derive from EMC tone class 1; LMC/modern tone classes 3 and 4 derive from EMC tone class 2; etc. The odd-numbered tone classes 1 3 5 7 are termed dark (陰 yīn), whereas the even-numbered tone classes 2 4 6 8 are termed light (陽 yáng). Hence, for example, LMC/modern tone class 5 is known in Chinese as the yīn qù ("dark departing") tone, indicating that it is the yīn variant of the EMC qù tone (EMC tone 3). In order to clarify the relationship between the EMC and LMC tone classes, some authors notate the LMC tone classes as 1a 1b 2a 2b 3a 3b 4a 4b in place of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8, where a and b correspond directly to Chinese yīn and yáng, respectively.
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In Middle Chinese, each of the tone names carries the tone it identifies: 平 level ꜁biajŋ, 上 rising ꜃dʑɨaŋ, 去 departing kʰɨə꜄, and 入 entering ȵip꜇.[5] However, in some modern Chinese varieties, this is no longer true. This loss of correspondence is most notable in the case of the entering tone—that is, syllables checked in a stop consonant [p̚], [t̚], or [k̚] in Middle Chinese—which has been lost from most dialects of Mandarin and redistributed among the other tones.
In modern Chinese varieties, tones that derive from the four Middle Chinese tone classes may be split into two registers, dark (陰 yīn) and light (陽 yáng) depending on the voicing of the onset. When all four tone-classes split, eight tones result: dark level (陰平), light level (陽平), dark rising (陰上), light rising (陽上), dark departing (陰去), light departing (陽去), dark entering (陰入), and light entering (陽入). Sometimes these have been termed upper and lower registers respectively, although this may be a misnomer, as in some dialects the dark registers may have the lower tone, and the light register the higher tone.
Chinese dictionaries mark the tones with diacritical marks at the four corners of a character:[6] ꜀平 level, ꜂上 rising, 去꜄ departing, and 入꜆ entering. When yin and yang tones are distinguished, these are the diacritics for the yin (dark) tones; the yang (light) tones are indicated by underscoring the diacritic: ꜁平 light level, ꜃上 light rising, 去꜅ light departing, 入꜇ light entering. These diacritics are also sometimes used when the phonetic tone is unknown, as in the reconstructions of Middle Chinese at the beginning of this section. However, in this article the circled numbers ①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧ will be used, as in the table below, with the odd numbers ①③⑤⑦ indicating either 'dark' tones or tones that have not split, and even numbers ②④⑥⑧ indicating 'light' tones. Thus level tones are numbered ①②, the rising tones ③④, the departing tones ⑤⑥, and the entering (checked) tones ⑦⑧.
In Yue (incl. Cantonese) the dark entering tone further splits into high (高陰入) and low (低陰入) registers, depending on the length of the nucleus, for a total of nine tone-classes. Some dialects have a complex tone splittings, where the terms dark and light are insufficient to cover the possibilities.
The number of tone-classes is based on Chinese tradition, and is as much register as it is actual tone. The entering 'tones', for example, are only distinct because they are checked by a final stop consonant, not because they have a tone contour that contrasts with non-entering tones. In dialects such as Shanghainese, tone-classes are numbered even though they are not phonemically distinct.
Origin[edit]
See also: Tonogenesis
The tonal aspect of Chinese dialects that is so important today is believed by linguists to have been absent from Old Chinese, but rather came about in Early Middle Chinese after the loss of various finals.[7] The four tones of Middle Chinese, 平 píng "level", 上 shǎng "rising", 去 qù "departing", and 入 rù "entering", all evolved from different final losses from Old Chinese. The 上, or "rising" tone, arose from the loss of glottal stops at the end of words. Support for this can be seen in Buddhist transcriptions of the Han period, where the "rising" tone was often used to note Sanskrit short vowels. This kind of evolution of the missing glottal stop into a rising tone is similar to what happened in Vietnamese, another tonal language.[8] The 去, or "departing" tone, arose from the loss of [-s] at the end of words. When we look at Chinese loanwords into neighboring East Asian languages, we find support for this theory. For example, in Korean, the word for "comb", pis, is a loan of the Chinese word bì 篦, which means that when the word "comb" was borrowed into Korean, there was still an [-s] sound at the end of the word that later disappeared from Chinese and gave rise to a departing 去 tone. The 入, or "entering" tone consisted of words ending in voiceless stops, [-p], [-t], and [-k]. Finally, the 平, or "level" tone, arose from the lack of sound at the ends of words, where there was neither [-s], a glottal stop, nor [-p], [-t], or [-k].[7]
Distribution in modern Chinese[edit]
Sample dialects and their realization of tone are given below.
Note: Different authors typically have different opinions as to the shapes of Chinese tones. Tones typically have a slight purely phonetic drop at the end in citation form. It is therefore likely that a tone with a drop of one unit (54, say, or 21) is not distinct from a level tone (a 55 or 22); on the other hand, what one author hears as a significant drop (53 or 31) may be perceived by another as a smaller drop; therefore it is often ambiguous whether a transcription like 54 or 21 is a level or contour tone. Similarly, a slight drop before a rise, such as a 214, may be due to the speaker approaching the target tone, and may therefore also not be distinctive (from 14).[9]
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Zhiyi developed a curriculum of practice which was distilled into the 'Four Samadhis' (Chinese: 四種三昧;[7] pinyin: si zhong sanmei).[8] These Four Samadhi were expounded in Zhiyi's 'Mohe Zhiguan' (Chinese: 摩訶止観, Jpn.: Makashikan).[9] The Mohe Zhiguan is the magnum opus of Zhiyi's maturity and is held to be a "grand summary" of the Buddhist Tradition according to his experience and understanding at that time.[3] The text of the Mohe Zhiguan was refined from lectures Zhiyi gave in 594 in the capital city of Jinling and was the sum of his experience at Mount Tiantai c.585 and inquiry thus far.[10] Parsing the title, 'zhi' refers to "ch’an meditation and the concentrated and quiescent state attained thereby" (p. 4) and 'guan' refers to "contemplation and the wisdom attained thereby" (p. 4).[11] Swanson reports that Zhiyi held that there are two modes of zhi-guan: that of sitting in meditation 坐, and that of “responding to objects in accordance with conditions” 歷緣對境, which is further refined as abiding in the natural state of a calm and insightful mind under any and all activities and conditions.[11]
Swanson states that Zhiyi in the Mohe Zhiguan:
...is critical of an unbalanced emphasis on “meditation alone,” portraying it as a possible “extreme” view and practice, and offering instead the binome zhi-guan 止觀 (calming/cessation and insight/contemplation, śamatha-vipaśyanā) as a more comprehensive term for Buddhist practice.[12]
The "Samadhi of One Practice" (Skt. Ekavyūha Samādhi; Ch. 一行三昧) which is also known as the "samadhi of oneness" or the "calmness in which one realizes that all dharmas are the same" (Wing-tsit Chan), is one of the Four Samadhi that both refine, mark the passage to, and qualify the state of perfect enlightenment expounded in the Mohe Zhiguan.[9] The term "Samadhi of Oneness" was subsequently used by Daoxin.[13]
The Four Samadhis:
'Samadhi of Constant Sitting' (Chinese: 常坐三昧) or 'One Round Samadhi' (Chinese: 一行三昧);
'Pratyutpanna-samadhi' (Chinese: 般舟三昧) or 'Prolonged Samadhi' or 'Samadhi of Constant Walking' (Chinese: 常行三昧);
'Samadhi of Half Walking and Half Sitting' (Chinese: 半行半坐三昧)
'Samadhi at Free Will' (Chinese: 隨自意三昧) or 'Samadhi of Non-walking and Non-sitting' (Chinese: 非行非坐三昧)
Applying this to the traditional two levels of discourse inherited from the Madhyamaka tradition (the conventional, regarding everyday thoughts, and the authentic, which transcends this by analyzing the metaphysical assumptions made in the conventional thinking), Jizang developed his sizhong erdi ("four levels of the two kinds of discourse"), which takes that distinction and adds metadistinctions on three more levels:
The assumption of existence is conventional, and the idea of nonexistence is authentic.
The commitment to a distinction between existence and nonexistence is now considered conventional, and the denial of this duality is authentic.
The distinction between committing to a distinction between existence and nonexistence is now conventional, and the denial of the difference between duality and non-duality is authentic.
All of these distinctions are deemed conventional, and the authentic discourse regards that any point of view cannot be said to be ultimately true, and is useful only so far as it is corrective in the above sense.[6]
Thus, the attachment to any viewpoint is considered detrimental, and is a cause of life's suffering. To repudiate the misleading finality of any viewpoint, on any level of discourse, is thus corrective and helps overcome destructive attachment.
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Throughout the teaching, the Buddha repeats that successful memorization and elucidation of even a four-line extract of it is of incalculable merit, better than giving an entire world system filled with gifts and can bring about enlightenment. Section 26 also ends with a four-line gatha:
All conditioned phenomena
Are like a dream, an illusion, a bubble, a shadow,
Like dew or a flash of lightning;
Thus we shall perceive them.”[22]
Paul Harrison's translation states:[20]
"A shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, An illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, A dream, a lightning’s flash, a thunder cloud— This is the way one should see the conditioned.
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A number of ancient translations of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra were made from Sanskrit into the Chinese language beginning in 420 CE with a (now lost) translation by the Indian monk Dharmarakṣa.[12] Of these, only three are now extant. The first extant Chinese translation is Taishō Tripiṭaka 670 (楞伽阿跋多羅寶經). This is the earliest edition which was translated by Guṇabhadra in 443 CE, and divided into four fascicles.[13][14] This edition by Guṇabhadra is said to be the one handed down from the founder of Chan Buddhism, Bodhidharma, to the Second Patriarch, Dazu Huike, saying:
I have here the Laṅkāvatāra in four fascicles which I now pass to you. It contains the essential teaching concerning the mind-ground of the Tathagata, by means of which you lead all sentient beings to the truth of Buddhism.[12]
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Zhang Zai (simplified Chinese: 张载; traditional Chinese: 張載; pinyin: Zhāng Zài; Wade–Giles: Chang Tsai) (1020–1077) was a Chinese Neo-Confucian moral philosopher and cosmologist. He is most known for laying out four ontological goals for intellectuals: To build up the manifestations of Heaven and Earth's spirit, to build up good life for the populace, to develop past sages' endangered scholarship, and to open up eternal peace.
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Liang asserted that a newspaper "is the mirror of society," "the sustenance of the present," and "the lamp for the future." He categorized newspapers into four types: the newspaper of an individual, of a party, of a nation, and of the world. Ultimately, his goal was to produce a "newspaper of the world", because as he proclaimed, "a newspaper of the world serves the interests of all humanity."
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During the Qing Dynasty rebellion around 1888, Sun was in Hong Kong with a group of revolutionary thinkers who were nicknamed the Four Bandits at the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese.[23] Sun, who had grown increasingly frustrated by the conservative Qing government and its refusal to adopt knowledge from the more technologically advanced Western nations, quit his medical practice in order to devote his time to transforming China.
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The Four Bandits, Four Outlaws (四大寇) or the Four Desperados (清末四大寇) was a nickname given to a group of 4 young students in Hong Kong who were keen on discussing the current issues in China, and aspired to overthrow the corrupt Qing dynasty run by the Manchus. The four bandits were Yeung Hok-ling, Sun Yat-sen, Chan Siu-bak and Yau Lit.[1][2] "Yeung Yiu Kee" (楊耀記), Yeung's family shop located at 24 Gough Street in Hong Kong, used to be the meeting place of the bandits.[3] One of the Four Bandits, Sun Yat-sen later became the leader of China Revolutionary Alliance and the first Provisional President of the Republic of China. At the Dr Sun Yat-sen Museum statues were made of the exact picture taken.
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The Yellow Court Classic ("Huang Ting Jing", 黄庭经), a Chinese Taoist Internal Alchemy (Neidan, 內丹) text, was received from the unknown source (according to a lore, as a Heavenly Scripture from the Highest Purity Realm) by Lady Wei Huacun, one of the founders of Highest Purity Tradition (Shangquing, 上清), in the 288 CE. The first reference to the text appears in the archives of the famous alchemist and collector of Taoist texts, Ge Hong (葛洪) in the 4th century CE.
The literal meaning of the “’’Yellow Court’’’ refers to the central area of the Emperor’s Castle where the Emperor and Ministers gather to try to understand the will of the Heavens and properly regulate the businesses of the Kingdom. The Yellow color indicates Earth element that is central in the Five Element (Wu Xing, 五行) arrangement. The four sides of the Castle Architecture symbolize the other four elements (Metal, Water, Wood and Fire), while the Heaven symbolizes the Spirit. The overall picture presents an allegory to a harmony between human body, spleen (the Earth element of Yellow color, central of the Five Organs) or the energy center of the body (Dantian, 丹田) and the Nature.
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QMRLinguist Louis Hjelmslev developed a semiotic model which elaborated Saussure’s two part signifier and signified into the double dual of the substance of content, the form of content, the substance of expression, and the form of expression. Contents are “formed matters”, and expressions are “functional structures”. Both are further separated into a substance and a form. The original signifier can be considered the form of expression, while the original signified can be considered the form of content. The two types of forms are like a net of warp and woof (why else a net?), dividing an undifferentiated unformed matter (Earth, purport) into two types of substances.
Deleuze and Guattari cast this net from Hjelmslev’s use in language into universal application by way of examples in geology and biology: sedimentation/folding and molecular genetics. The two planes of content and expression are the First Articulation and Second Articulation, respectively, the first of which “chooses or deducts”, and the second of which establishes “functional, compact, stable structures”. In their geology example, the First Articulation is the process of sedimentation, and the Second, folding. Generally, the two substances deal with territorialization, deterrritorialization, and reterritorialization, and the two forms are concerned with coding and decoding (and recoding?).
Additionally, there is talk of the molar versus the molecular (as continuous/discrete or unity/multiplicity?) but the molar is not form, nor is the molecular substance, nor vice versa. The First Articulation moves from molecular substances to molar forms; the Second Articulation moves from molecular forms to molar substances. How confusing! What does it all mean? One could spend a lifetime lost in these fun-house reflections!
I propose that the four basic logical operators of Linear Logic are in correspondence to the double articulation of Hjelmslev’s Net. Content is Conjunction, Expression is Disjunction, Substance is Additive, and Form is Multiplicative. Content and Expression is Substance or Form; Conjunction and Disjunction is Additive or Multiplicative.
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QMRThere are a number of states of movement commonly associated with bipedalism.
Standing. Staying still on both legs. In most bipeds this is an active process, requiring constant adjustment of balance.
Walking. One foot in front of another, with at least one foot on the ground at any time.
Running. One foot in front of another, with periods where both feet are off the ground.
Jumping/hopping. Moving by a series of jumps with both feet moving together.
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A selection of Chinese Walled Cities of the square type as given by Ronald G KNAPP et al (2000). 1. The city of Loyang (or Luoyang) is situated in NW Henan Province on the Luo River. It was the capital of several ancient dynasties (Eastern Chou kingdom, 730 – 256 BC and Tang dynasty, 618 – 906 AD); 2. The walled city of T’Ai-Ku, fifty kilometers south of T’ai-yuan (capital of the Shanxi Province); 3. Chang-Te (An-yang) in the Henan Province, known from the excavations of the Yin Tombs (see fig. 390); 4.Chung-Mou in Henan Province; 5. Kaifeng (Pien), 32 km east of Chung-mou; 6. Ta-T’ung, northern Shaanxi Province. The outer walls were made in 421 AD, with a length of sixteen kilometers.
A combination of the square and a round layout can be seen in the adjacent cities of Feng-yang-fu and Feng-yang-hsien. They are situated some hundred and five kilometers southeast of the city of Meng-ch’eng (Anhui Province) (fig. 573).
The four troubadours Bernart d'Auriac, Pere Salvatge, Roger Bernard III of Foix, and Peter III of Aragon composed a cycle of four sirventes in the summer of 1285 concerning the Aragonese Crusade.
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The Mythological Cycle is a conventional division within Irish mythology, concerning a set of tales about the godlike peoples said to have arrived in five migratory invasions into Ireland and principally recounding the doings of the Tuatha Dé Danann.[1] It is one of the four major cycles of early Irish literary tradition, the others being the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle and the Cycles of the Kings.
Ceithri cathracha i r-robadar Tuatha De Danand ("[The four jewels of the Tuatha Dé Danann|The Four Jewels of the Tuatha Dé Danann
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The Tuatha Dé Danann brought four magical treasures with them to Ireland, one apiece from their Four Cities:
The Dagda's Cauldron
The Spear of Lugh
The Stone of Fal
The Sword of Light of Nuada
The Tuatha Dé Danann were descended from Nemed, leader of a previous wave of inhabitants of Ireland. They came from four cities to the north of Ireland–Falias, Gorias, Murias and Finias–where they acquired their magical skills and attributes. According to Lebor Gabála Érenn, they came to Ireland "in dark clouds" and "landed on the mountains of [the] Conmaicne Rein in Connachta; and they brought a darkness over the sun for three days and three nights". According to a later version of the story, they arrived in ships on the coast of the Conmaicne Mara's territory (modern Connemara). They immediately burnt the ships "so that they should not think of retreating to them; and the smoke and the mist that came from the vessels filled the neighboring land and air. Therefore it was conceived that they had arrived in clouds of mist".
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The Fenian Cycle (/ˈfiːniən/) or the Fiannaíocht (Irish: an Fhiannaíocht[1] ), also referred to as the Ossianic Cycle /ˌɒʃiˈænɪk/ after its narrator Oisín, is a body of prose and verse centring on the exploits of the mythical hero Fionn mac Cumhaill and his warriors the Fianna. It is one of the four major cycles of Irish mythology along with the Mythological Cycle, the Ulster Cycle, and the Historical Cycle. Put in chronological order, the Fenian cycle is the third cycle, between the Ulster and Historical cycles. The cycle also contains stories about other famous Fianna members, including Diarmuid, Caílte, Oisín's son Oscar, and Fionn's enemy, Goll mac Morna.
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The Rainbow (1915) was suppressed after an investigation into its alleged obscenity in 1915. Later, they were accused of spying and signalling to German submarines off the coast of Cornwall where they lived at Zennor. During this period he finished writing Women in Love in which he explored the destructive features of contemporary civilization through the evolving relationships of four major characters as they reflect upon the value of the arts, politics, economics, sexual experience, friendship and marriage. The novel is a bleak, bitter vision of humanity and proved impossible to publish in wartime conditions. Not published until 1920, it is now widely recognised as an English novel of great dramatic force and intellectual subtlety.
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The Four Sons of Aymon (French: [Les] Quatre fils Aymon, Dutch: De Vier Heemskinderen, German: Die Vier Haimonskinder), sometimes also referred to as Renaud de Montauban (after its main character) is a medieval tale spun around the four sons of Duke Aymon: the knight Renaud de Montauban (also spelled Renaut, Renault, Italian: Rinaldo di Montalbano, Dutch: Reinout van Montalbaen), his brothers Guichard, Allard and Richardet, their magical horse Bayard (Italian: Bayardo), their adventures and revolt against the emperor Charlemagne. The story had a European success and echoes of the story are still found today in certain folklore traditions.
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The four brothers—usually represented all together seated on their horse Bayard—have inspired many sculptures:
The oldest extant statue is found on a tomb in Portugal (dated to the first half of the 12th century).
A bronze statue (Ros Beyaert) depicting the four sons of Aymon (Reinout, Adelaert, Ritsaert and Writsaert) on their horse Beyaert (Bayard), was erected on the central approach avenue to the Exposition universelle et internationale (1913) held in Ghent (Belgium).[12] This statue was created by Aloïs de Beule and Domien Ingels.
One of the most famous representations was created by Olivier Strebelle for the Expo 58. Situated by the Meuse in the city of Namur, the horse appears to want to carry its riders across the river with a leap.
Another statue showing the four brothers standing beside their horse can be found at Bogny-sur-Meuse, created by Albert Poncin.
Dendermonde is home to several statues representing the brothers.
The statue Vier Heemskinderen (1976) by Gerard Adriaan Overeem was placed in the "Torenstraat" of Nijkerk
In Köln, since 1969, a bronze sculpture by Heinz Klein-Arendt depicts them.
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Jacques Laudy illustrated a comic book version of the tale for the weekly Franco-Belgian comics magazine Tintin from 1946 to 1947 (including several covers).
Music and performing arts[edit]
Franz Joseph Glæser, a Czech/Danish composer, wrote a work called Die vier Haimonskinder (1809).
Les quatre fils Aymon (1844) is an opera by Michael William Balfe, written for the Opéra-Comique (also popular in German-speaking countries for many years as Die Vier Haimonskinder).
During the German occupation of Belgium during World War II, the story of Les Quatre Fils Aymon was made into a play that was banned by the German authorities, because of the sympathy it displayed for resisting authority; the play was performed underground and became quite popular.[11]
La Légende des fils Aymon, a stage work by Frédéric Kiesel, was created in 1967 in Habay-la-Neuve.
Les Quatre Fils Aymon is a ballet by Maurice Béjart and Janine Charrat from 1961.
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The Waiste Land by TS Elliot is written in mostly four line stanzas
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Peredur son of Efrawg is one of the three Welsh Romances associated with the Mabinogion. It tells a story roughly analogous to Chrétien de Troyes' unfinished romance Perceval, the Story of the Grail, but it contains many striking differences from that work, most notably the absence of the French poem's central object, the grail.
Versions of the text survive in four manuscripts from the 14th century: (1) the mid-14th century White Book of Rhydderch or Aberystwyth, NLW, MS Peniarth 4; (2) MS Peniarth 7, which dates from the beginning of the century, or earlier, and lacks the beginning of the text; (3) MS Peniarth 14, a fragment from the 2nd quarter of the 14th century, and (4) the Red Book of Hergest, from the end of the same century.[1] The texts found in the White Book of Rhydderch and Red Book of Hergest represent the longest version. They are generally in close agreement and most of their differences are concentrated in the first part of the text, before the love-story of Angharad.[2] MS Peniarth 7, the earliest manuscript, concludes with Peredur's 14-year sojourn with the Empress of Constantinople.[3] This has been taken to indicate that the adventures in the Fortress of Marvels, which follow this episode in the longest version, represent a later addition to the text.[4]
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Four Adventures of Reinette and Mirabelle (French: Quatre aventures de Reinette et Mirabelle) is a 1987 French film directed by Éric Rohmer, starring Joëlle Miquel, Jessica Forde and Philippe Laudenbach.
Synopsis[edit]
The film consists of four episodes in the relationship of two young women: Reinette, a country girl, and Mirabelle, a Parisian. The first episode is entitled The Blue Hour and recounts their meeting. The second centers on a café and a difficult waiter. In the third, the girls discuss their differing views on society's margins: beggars, thieves and swindlers. In the fourth episode, Reinette and Mirabelle succeed in selling one of Reinette's paintings to an art dealer while Reinette pretends to be mute and Mirabelle, acting as if she does not know Reinette, does all the talking.
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The Little Iliad (Greek: Ἰλιὰς μικρά, Ilias mikra; Latin: Ilias parva) is a lost epic of ancient Greek literature. It was one of the Epic Cycle, that is, the "Trojan" cycle, which told the entire history of the Trojan War in epic verse. The story of the Little Iliad comes chronologically after that of the Aethiopis, and is followed by that of the Iliou persis ("Sack of Troy"). The Little Iliad was variously attributed by ancient writers to Lesches of Pyrrha, Cinaethon of Sparta, Diodorus of Erythrae, Thestorides of Phocaea, or Homer himself (see Cyclic poets). The poem comprised four books of verse in dactylic hexameter, the heroic meter.
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The Telemachy (from Greek Τηλεμάχεια) is a term traditionally applied to the first four books of Homer's epic poem the Odyssey. They are named so because – just as the Odyssey tells the story of Odysseus – they tell the story of Odysseus' son Telemachus as he journeys from home for the first time in search of news about his missing father.
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Telemachus (/təˈlɛməkəs/ tə-lem-ə-kəs; Greek: Τηλέμαχος, Tēlemakhos, literally "far-fighter") is a figure in Greek mythology, the son of Odysseus and Penelope, and a central character in Homer's Odyssey. The first four books of the Odyssey focus on Telemachus' journeys in search of news about his father, who has yet to return home from the Trojan War, and are traditionally given the title the Telemachy.[1]
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Telemachus (/təˈlɛməkəs/ tə-lem-ə-kəs; Greek: Τηλέμαχος, Tēlemakhos, literally "far-fighter") is a figure in Greek mythology, the son of Odysseus and Penelope, and a central character in Homer's Odyssey. The first four books of the Odyssey focus on Telemachus' journeys in search of news about his father, who has yet to return home from the Trojan War, and are traditionally given the title the Telemachy.[1]
Telemachus' name in Greek means "far from battle", perhaps reflecting his absence from the Trojan War. Homer also calls Telemachus by the patronymic epithet "Odysseus' son".
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In the Odyssey by Homer, under the instructions of Athena, Telemachus spends the first four books trying to gain knowledge of his father, Odysseus, who left for Troy when Telemachus was still an infant. At the outset of Telemachus' journey, Odysseus has been absent from his home at Ithaca for twenty years due to the Trojan War and the intervention of Poseidon. During his absence, Odysseus' house has been occupied by hordes of suitors seeking the hand of Penelope.[3] Telemachus first visits Nestor and is well received by the old man who regales him with stories of his father's glory. Telemachus then departs with Nestor's son Peisistratus,[4] who accompanies him to the halls of Menelaus and his wife Helen. Whilst there, Telemachus is again treated as an honored guest as Menelaus and Helen tell complementary, yet contradictory stories of his father's exploits at Troy.[5]
The Odyssey returns focus to Telemachus upon his father's return to Ithaca in Book XV. He visits Eumaeus, the swineherd, who happens to be hosting a disguised Odysseus. After Odysseus reveals himself to Telemachus due to Athena's advice, the two men plan the downfall of the suitors. Telemachus then returns to the palace to keep an eye on the suitors and to await his father as the beggar.[6]
When Penelope challenges the suitors to string Odysseus' bow and shoot an arrow through the handle-holes of twelve axeheads, Telemachus is the first to attempt the task. He would have completed the task, nearly stringing the bow on his fourth attempt; however, Odysseus subtly stops him before he can finish his attempt. Following the failure of the suitors at this task, Odysseus reveals himself, and he and Telemachus bring swift and bloody death to the suitors.
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David Buckingham has come up with four key concepts that "provide a theoretical framework which can be applied to the whole range of contemporary media and to 'older' media as well: Production, Language, Representation, and Audience."[1] These concepts are defined by David Buckingham as follows:
Production[edit]
Production involves the recognition that media texts are consciously made.[1] Some media texts are made by individuals working alone, just for themselves or their family and friends, but most are produced and distributed by groups of people often for commercial profit. This means recognizing the economic interests that are at stake in media production, and the ways in which profits are generated. More confident students in media education should be able to debate the implications of these developments in terms of national and cultural identities, and in terms of the range of social groups that are able to gain access to media.[1]
Studying media production means looking at:
Technologies: what technologies are used to produce and distribute media texts?
Professional practices: Who makes media texts?
The industry: Who owns the companies that buy and sell media and how do they make a profit?
Connections between media: How do companies sell the same products across different media?
Regulation: Who controls the production and distribution of media, and are there laws about this?
Circulation and distribution: How do texts reach their audiences?
Access and participation: Whose voices are heard in the media and whose are excluded?[1]
Language[edit]
Every medium has its own combination of languages that it uses to communicate meaning. For example, television uses verbal and written language as well as the languages of moving images and sound. Particular kinds of music or camera angles may be used to encourage certain emotions. When it comes to verbal language, making meaningful statements in media languages involves "paradigmatic choices" and "syntagmatic combinations".[1] By analyzing these languages, one can come to a better understanding of how meanings are created.[1]
Studying media languages means looking at:
Meanings: How does media use different forms of language to convey ideas or meanings?
Conventions: How do these uses of languages become familiar and generally accepted?
Codes: How are the grammatical 'rules' of media established and what happens when they are broken?
Genres: How do these conventions and codes operate in different types of media contexts?
Choices: What are the effects of choosing certain forms of language, such as a certain type of camera shot?
Combinations: How is meaning conveyed through the combination or sequencing of images, sounds, or words?
Technologies: How do technologies affect the meanings that can be created?[1]
Representation[edit]
The notion of 'representation' is one of the first established principles of media education. The media offers viewers a facilitated outlook of the world and a re-representation of reality. Media production involves selecting and combining incidents, making events into stories, and creating characters. Media representations allow viewers to see the world in some particular ways and not others. Audiences also compare media with their own experiences and make judgements about how realistic they are. Media representations can be seen as real in some ways but not in others: viewers may understand that what they are seeing is only imaginary and yet they still know it can explain reality.[1]
Studying media representations means looking at:
Realism: Is this text intended to be realistic? Why do some texts seem more realistic than others?
Telling the truth: How do media claim to tell the truth about the world?
Presence and absence: What is included and excluded from the media world?
Bias and objectivity: Do media texts support particular views about the world? Do they use moral or political values?
Stereotyping: How do media represent particular social groups? Are those representations accurate?
Interpretations: Why do audiences accept some media representations as true, or reject others as false?
Influences: Do media representations affect our views of particular social groups or issues?[1]
Audience[edit]
Studying audiences means looking at how demographic audiences are targeted and measured, and how media are circulated and distributed throughout. It means looking at different ways in which individuals use, interpret, and respond to media. The media increasingly have had to compete for people's attention and interest because research has shown that audiences are now much more sophisticated and diverse than has been suggested in the past decades. Debating views about audiences and attempting to understand and reflect on our own and others' use of media is therefore a crucial element of media education.[1]
Studying media audiences means looking at:
Targeting: How are media aimed at particular audiences?
Address: How do the media speak to audiences?
Circulation: How do media reach audiences?
Uses: How do audiences use media in their daily lives? What are their habits and patterns of use?
Making sense: How do audiences interpret media? What meanings do they make?
Pleasures: What pleasures do audiences gain from media?
Social differences: What is the role of gender. social class, age, and ethnic background in audience behavior?[1]
To elaborate on the concepts presented by David Buckingham, Henry Jenkins discusses the emergence of a participatory culture, in which our students are actively engaged.[7] With the emergence of this participatory culture, schools must focus on what Jenkins calls the "new media literacies", that is a set of cultural competencies and social skills that young people need in the new media landscape.[7] In the new media literacies we see a shift in focus from individual expression to community involvement, involving the development of social skills through collaboration and networking.[7] Jenkins lists the following skills, as essential for students in this new media landscape:
Play: The capacity to experiment with the surroundings as a form of problem solving.
Performance: The ability to adopt alternative identities for the purpose of improvisation and discovery.
Simulation: The ability to interpret and construct dynamic models of real world processes.
Appropriation: The ability to meaningfully sample and remix media content.
Multitasking: The ability to scan the environment and shift focus onto salient details.
Distributed Cognition: The ability to interact meaningfully with tools that expand mental capacities.
Collective Intelligence: The ability to pool knowledge and compare notes with others toward a common goal.
Judgement: The ability to evaluate the reliability and credibility of different information sources.
Transmedia Navigation: The ability to follow the flow of stories and information across multiple modalities.
Networking: The ability to search for, synthesize, and disseminate information.
Negotiation: The ability to travel across diverse communities, discerning and respecting multiple perspectives, and grasping and following alternative norms.[7]
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Classical Chinese poetics identifies four tones: the level tone, rising tone, departing tone, and entering tone.[41]
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The following table shows the four main tones of Standard Chinese, together with the neutral (or fifth) tone.
Tone number 1 2 3 4 5
Description high rising low (dipping) falling neutral
Pinyin diacritic ā á ǎ à a
Tone letter ˥ (55) ˧˥ (35) ˨˩, ˩, ˩˧, ˨˩˦
(21, 11, 13, 214) ˥˩ (51) -
IPA diacritic /á/ /ǎ/ [a᷄] /à/[27] [à̤, a̤᷆, a̤᷅, a̤᷉] /â/ -
Tone name yīn píng yáng píng shǎng qù qīng shēng
The four main tones of Standard Mandarin, pronounced with the syllable ma.
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The Chinese names of the main four tones are respectively 阴平 [陰平] yīn píng ("dark level"), 阳平 [陽平] yáng píng ("light level"), 上 shǎng[28][29] ("rising"), and 去 qù ("departing"). As descriptions, they apply rather to the predecessor Middle Chinese tones than to the modern tones; see below. The modern Standard Chinese tones are produced as follows:
First tone, or high-level tone, is a steady high sound, produced as if it were being sung instead of spoken. (In a few syllables the quality of the vowel is changed when it carries first tone; see the vowel table, above.)
Second tone, or rising tone, or more specifically high-rising, is a sound that rises from middle to high pitch (like in the English "What?!"). In a three-syllable expression, if the first syllable has first or second tone and the final syllable is not weak, then a second tone on the middle syllable may change to first tone.[30]
Third tone, low or dipping tone, descends from mid-low to low; between other tones it may simply be low. This tone is often demonstrated as having a rise in pitch after the low fall; however, when a third-tone syllable is not said in isolation, this rise is normally heard only if it appears at the end of a sentence or before a pause, and then usually only on stressed monosyllables.[31] The third tone without the rise is sometimes called half third tone. Third tone syllables that include the rise are significantly longer than other syllables. For further variation in syllables carrying this tone, see Third tone sandhi, below. Unlike the other tones, third tone is pronounced with breathiness or murmur.[32]
Fourth tone, falling tone, or high-falling, features a sharp fall from high to low (as is heard in curt commands in English, such as "Stop!"). When followed by another fourth-tone syllable, the fall may be only from high to mid-level.[33]
For the neutral tone or fifth tone, see the following section.
Most romanization systems, including pinyin, represent the tones as diacritics on the vowels (as does zhuyin), although some, like Wade–Giles, use superscript numbers at the end of each syllable. The tone marks and numbers are rarely used outside of language textbooks: in particular, they are usually absent in public signs, company logos, and so forth. Gwoyeu Romatzyh is a rare example of a system where tones are represented using normal letters of the alphabet (although without a one-to-one correspondence).
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The first square is always inspring. The second is rising. The second square is still good. The third square is dipping. The third square is destruction. The fourth square is falling. The fourth square is death. The fifth is neutral. the fifth is always ultra transcendent.
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Pitch-accented languages may have a more complex accentual system than stress-accented languages. In some cases, they have more than a binary distinction but are less complex than fully tonal languages such as Chinese or Yoruba, which assign a separate tone to each syllable. For example, in Japanese short nouns (1-4 moras) may have a drop in pitch after any one mora but more frequently on none at all so in disyllabic words followed by a particle, there are three-way minimal contrasts such as kaꜜki wa "oyster" vs. kakiꜜ wa "fence" vs. kaki wa "persimmon". Ancient Greek words had high pitch on one of the last four vocalic morae in a word, and since a vowel may have one or two morae, a syllable can be accented in one of four ways (high pitch, rising pitch, falling pitch, none). Also, the mapping between phonemic and phonetic tone may be more involved than the simple one-to-one mapping between stress and dynamic intensity in stress-accented languages.
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Neoštokavian idiom used for the basis of standard Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian distinguishes four types of pitch accents: short falling ⟨◌̏⟩, short rising ⟨◌̀⟩, long falling ⟨◌̑⟩ and long rising ⟨◌́⟩. The accent is said to be relatively free as it can be manifested in any syllable but the last one. The long accents are realized by pitch change within the long vowel; the short ones are realized by the pitch difference from the subsequent syllable.[13] Accent alternations are very frequent in inflectional paradigms, both by quality and placement in the word (the so-called "mobile paradigms", which were present in the PIE itself but in Proto-Balto-Slavic have become much more widespread). Different inflected forms of the same lexeme can exhibit all four accents: lònac 'pot' (nominative sg.), lónca (genitive sg.), lȏnci (nominative pl.), lȍnācā (genitive pl.).
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Firstly, while the primary indication of accent is pitch (tone), there is only one or a few tonic syllables or morae in a word, or at least in simple words, the position of which determines the tonal pattern of the whole word.[nb 4] Pitch accent may also be restricted in distribution, being found for example only on one of the last two syllables. This is unlike the situation in typical tone languages, where the tone of each syllable is independent of the other syllables in the word. For example, comparing two-syllable words like [aba] in a pitch-accented language and in a tonal language, both of which make only a binary distinction, the tonal language has four possible patterns:
Tone:
low-low [àbà],
high-high [ábá],
high-low [ábà],
low-high [àbá].
The pitch-accent language, on the other hand, has only three possibilities:
Pitch accent:
accented on the first syllable, [ába],
accented on the second syllable, [abá], or
no accent [aba].
The combination *[ábá] does not occur.
With longer words, the distinction becomes more apparent: eight distinct tonal trisyllables [ábábá, ábábà, ábàbá, àbábá, ábàbà, àbábà, àbàbá, àbàbà], vs. four distinct pitch-accented trisyllables [ábaba, abába, ababá, ababa].
In poetry, a tetrameter is a line of four metrical feet. The particular foot can vary, as follows:
Anapestic tetrameter:
"And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea" (Lord Byron, "The Destruction of Sennacherib")
"Twas the night before Christmas when all through the house" ("A Visit from St. Nicholas")
Iambic tetrameter:
"Because I could not stop for Death" (Emily Dickinson, eponymous lyric)
Trochaic tetrameter:
"Peter, Peter, pumpkin-eater" (English nursery rhyme)
Dactylic tetrameter:
Picture your self in a boat on a river with [...] (The Beatles, "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds")
Spondaic tetrameter:
Long sounds move slow
Pyrrhic tetrameter (with spondees ["white breast" and "dim sea"]):
And the white breast of the dim sea
Amphibracic tetrameter:
And, speaking of birds, there's the Russian Palooski, / Whose headski is redski and belly is blueski. (Dr. Seuss)
The Arabic letters generally (as six of the primary letters can have only two variants) have four forms, according to their place in the word. The same goes with the Mandaic ones, except for three of the 22 letters, which have only one form.
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The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position (IMFI). While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions. Generally, letters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters (و ز ر ذ د ا) can only be linked to their preceding letter. For example, أرارات (Ararat) has only isolated forms because each letter cannot be connected to its following one. In addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures (special shapes), notably lām-alif.[3]
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Arabic letters have dots, the most four
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The first ten letters of the alphabet, a–j, use the upper four dot positions: ⠁⠃⠉⠙⠑⠋⠛⠓⠊⠚ (black dots in the table below). These stand for the ten digits 1–9 and 0 in a system parallel to Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. (Though the dots are assigned in no obvious order, the cells with the fewest dots are assigned to the first three letters (and lowest digits), abc = 123 (⠁⠃⠉), and to the three vowels in this part of the alphabet, aei (⠁⠑⠊), whereas the even digits, 4, 6, 8, 0 (⠙⠋⠓⠚), are corners/right angles.)
These dots reflect the quadrant four
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QWERTY is the most common modern-day keyboard layout for Latin script. The name comes from reading the first six keys appearing on the top left letter row of the keyboard (Q, W, E, R, T, and Y) from left to right. The QWERTY design is based on a layout created for the Sholes and Glidden typewriter and sold to Remington in 1873. It November 1868 he changed the arrangement of the latter half of the alphabet, O to Z, right-to-left.[9] In April 1870 he arrived at a four-row, upper case keyboard approaching the modern QWERTY standard, moving six vowel letters, A, E, I, O, U, and Y, to the upper row as followsOn Linux systems, the Swedish keyboard may also give access to additional characters as follows:
first row: AltGr ¶¡@£$€¥{[]}\± and AltGr+⇧ Shift ¾¹²³¼¢⅝÷«»°¿¬
second row: AltGr @ł€®þ←↓→œþ"~ and AltGr+⇧ Shift ΩŁ¢®Þ¥↑ıŒÞ°ˇ
third row: AltGr ªßðđŋħjĸłøæ´ and AltGr+⇧ Shift º§ÐªŊĦJ&ŁØÆ×
fourth row: AltGr |«»©""nµ¸·̣ and AltGr+⇧ Shift ¦<>©‘’Nº˛˙˙
Several of these characters function as dead keys.
QWERTY, the keyboard is based off of four rows
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Euphony is used for effects which are pleasant, rhythmical and harmonious.[1][2][3] An example of euphony is the poem Some Sweet Day.
Some day Love shall claim his own
Some day Right ascend his throne,
Some day hidden Truth be known;
Some day—some sweet day.
— Lewis J. Bates, the poem Some Sweet Day
The famous poem has four lines
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Classical Chinese poetic metric may be divided into fixed and variable length line types, although the actual scansion of the metre is complicated by various factors, including linguistic changes and variations encountered in dealing with a tradition extending over a geographically extensive regional area for a continuous time period of over some two-and-a-half millennia. Beginning with the earlier recorded forms: the Classic of Poetry tends toward couplets of four-character lines, grouped in rhymed quatrains; and, the Chuci follows this to some extent, but moves toward variations in line length.
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Heavenly Questions" shares the prosodic features typical of Shijing: four character lines, a predominant tendency toward rhyming quatrains, and occasional alternation by using weak (unstressed) line final syllables in alternate lines.
The "Great Summons" and the "Summons for the Soul" poetic form (the other kind of "7-plus") varies from this pattern by uniformly using a standard nonce word refrain throughout a given piece, and that alternating stressed and unstressed syllable finals to the lines has become the standard verse form. The nonce word used as a single-syllable refrain in various ancient Chinese classical poems varies: (according to modern pronunciation), "Summons for the Soul" uses xie and the "Great Summons" uses zhi (and the "Nine Pieces" (Jiu Ge) uses xi). Any one of these unstressed nonce words seem to find a similar role in the prosody. This two line combo:
[first line:] tum tum tum tum; [second line:] tum tum tum ti
tends to produce the effect of one, single seven character line with a caesura between the first four syllables and the concluding three stressed syllables, with the addition of a weak nonsense refrain syllable final
tum tum tum tum [caesura] tum tum tum ti.[11]
Han-style lyrics[edit]
Within the individual songs or poems of the "Nine Pieces", lines generally consist of various numbers of syllables, separated by the nonce word. In this case, the nonce word of choice is 兮 (pinyin: xī, Old Chinese: *gˤe).[12] This, as opposed to the four-character verse of the Shi Jing, adds a different rhythmic latitude of expression.
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The Four Journeys (Chinese: 四游记; pinyin: Sì Yóujì) is a collection of four shenmo novels consisting of: Journey to the North, Journey to the South, Journey to the East, and Journey to the West.
The Journey to the North (composed during the Ming dynasty) is on the apotheosis of True-Warrior (Chen-wu, Zhen-wu) as Mysterious-Heaven Supreme-Emperor (Hsuan-t'ien Shang-ti, Xuan-tian Shang-di).
The Journey to the South was composed by Yu Xiangdou.
The Journey to the East was composed by Wu Yuan-tai (fl. 1522-1526).
The Journey to the West is composed by Yang Zhihe, and not to confuse it with Wu Cheng'en's epic novel Journey to the West.
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Cangjie (Tsang-chieh; Chinese: 倉頡; pinyin: Cāngjié; Wade–Giles: Ts'ang1-chieh2) is a legendary figure in ancient China (c. 2650 BC), claimed to be an official historian of the Yellow Emperor and the inventor of Chinese characters.[1] Legend has it that he had four eyes and four pupils, and that when he invented the characters, the deities and ghosts cried and the sky rained millet. He is considered a legendary rather than historical figure, or at least, not considered to be sole inventor of Chinese characters. The Cangjie input method, a Chinese character input method, is named after him. A rock on Mars, visited by the Mars rover Spirit, was named after him by the rover team.[2]
He had four eyes
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The Four Fiends (四凶, Sì xiōng):
Hundun: chaos
Taotie: gluttony
Táowù (梼杌): ignorance; provided confusion and apathy and made mortals free of the curiosity and reason needed to reach enlightenment
Qióngqí (窮奇): deviousness
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The number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.[4] The four major types[5] are: accentual verse, accentual-syllabic verse, syllabic verse and quantitative verse.[6] The alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English).[7] It is to be noted, however, that the use of foreign metres in English is all but exceptional
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In the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل tef'ile) and of poetic metre (وزن vezin) were indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the Persian language.
Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, mora-timed metre. The moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types:
Open, or light, syllables (açık hece) consist of either a short vowel alone, or a consonant followed by a short vowel
Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak")
Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapalı hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant
Examples: Â-dem ("Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse")
Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant
Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water")
In writing out a poem's poetic metre, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "–". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot—the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length—are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:
fa‘ (–) fe ul (. –) fa‘ lün (– –) fe i lün (. . –)
fâ i lün (– . –) fe û lün (. – –) mef’ û lü (– – .) fe i lâ tün (. . – –)
fâ i lâ tün (– . – –) fâ i lâ tü (– . – .) me fâ i lün (. – . –) me fâ’ î lün (. – – –)
me fâ î lü (. – – .) müf te i lün (– . . –) müs tef i lün (– – . –) mü te fâ i lün (. . – . –)
These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic metre for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used metres are the following:
me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün
. – – – / . – – – / . – – – / . – – –
Ezelden şāh-ı ‘aşḳuñ bende-i fermānıyüz cānā
Maḥabbet mülkinüñ sulţān-ı ‘ālī-şānıyüz cānā Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love
Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain[13]
—Bâkî (1526–1600)
me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün
. – . – / . . – – / . – . – / . . –
Ḥaţā’ o nerkis-i şehlādadır sözümde degil
Egerçi her süḥanim bī-bedel beġendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verse
The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words
—Şeyh Gâlib (1757–1799)
fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün
– . – – / – . – – / – . – – / – . –
Bir şeker ḥand ile bezm-i şevķa cām ettiñ beni
Nīm ṣun peymāneyi sāḳī tamām ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile
Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough[14]
—Nedîm (1681?–1730)
fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün
. . – – / . . – – / . . – – / . . –
Men ne ḥācet ki ḳılam derd-i dilüm yāra ‘ayān
Ḳamu derd-i dilümi yār bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my love
I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart
—Fuzûlî (1483?–1556)
mef’ û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün
– – . / . – – . / . – – . / – – .
Şevḳuz ki dem-i bülbül-i şeydāda nihānuz
Ḥūnuz ki dil-i ġonçe-i ḥamrāda nihānuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingale
We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose[15]
—Neşâtî (?–1674)
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Below are listed the names given to the poetic feet by classical metrics. The feet are classified first by the number of syllables in the foot (disyllables have two, trisyllables three, and tetrasyllables four) and secondarily by the pattern of vowel lengths (in classical languages) or syllable stresses (in English poetry) which they comprise.
The following lists describe the feet in terms of vowel length (as in classical languages). Translated into syllable stresses (as in English poetry), 'long' becomes 'stressed' ('accented'), and 'short' becomes 'unstressed' ('unaccented'). For example, an iamb, which is short-long in classical meter, becomes unstressed-stressed, as in the English word "betray".[2]
Disyllables[edit]
Macron and breve notation: ¯ = stressed/long syllable, ˘ = unstressed/short syllable
˘ ˘ pyrrhus, dibrach
˘ ¯ iamb (or iambus or jambus)
¯ ˘ trochee, choree (or choreus)
¯ ¯ spondee
Trisyllables[edit]
˘ ˘ ˘ tribrach
¯ ˘ ˘ dactyl
˘ ¯ ˘ amphibrach
˘ ˘ ¯ anapest, antidactylus
˘ ¯ ¯ bacchius
¯ ¯ ˘ antibacchius
¯ ˘ ¯ cretic, amphimacer
¯ ¯ ¯ molossus
Tetrasyllables[edit]
˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ tetrabrach, proceleusmatic
¯ ˘ ˘ ˘ primus paeon
˘ ¯ ˘ ˘ secundus paeon
˘ ˘ ¯ ˘ tertius paeon
˘ ˘ ˘ ¯ quartus paeon
¯ ¯ ˘ ˘ major ionic, double trochee
˘ ˘ ¯ ¯ minor ionic, double iamb
¯ ˘ ¯ ˘ ditrochee
˘ ¯ ˘ ¯ diiamb
¯ ˘ ˘ ¯ choriamb
˘ ¯ ¯ ˘ antispast
˘ ¯ ¯ ¯ first epitrite
¯ ˘ ¯ ¯ second epitrite
¯ ¯ ˘ ¯ third epitrite
¯ ¯ ¯ ˘ fourth epitrite
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ dispondee
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a choriamb, a four syllable metric foot with a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables and closing with a stressed syllable. The choriamb is derived from some ancient Greek and Latin poetry
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Sonnet
Shakespeare
Among the most common forms of poetry through the ages is the sonnet, which by the 13th century was a poem of fourteen lines following a set rhyme scheme and logical structure. By the 14th century, the form further crystallized under the pen of Petrarch, whose sonnets were later translated in the 16th century by Sir Thomas Wyatt, who is credited with introducing the sonnet form into English literature.[99] A sonnet's first four lines typically introduce the topic, the second elaborates and the third posits a problem - the couplet usually, but not always, includes a twist, or an afterthought. A sonnet usually follows an a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d-e-f-e-f-gg rhyme pattern. The sonnet's conventions have changed over its history, and so there are several different sonnet forms. Traditionally, in sonnets English poets use iambic pentameter, the Spenserian and Shakespearean sonnets being especially notable.[100] In the Romance languages, the hendecasyllable and Alexandrine are the most widely used meters, though the Petrarchan sonnet has been used in Italy since the 14th century.[101]
Sonnets are particularly associated with love poetry, and often use a poetic diction heavily based on vivid imagery, but the twists and turns associated with the move from octave to sestet and to final couplet make them a useful and dynamic form for many subjects.[102] Shakespeare's sonnets are among the most famous in English poetry, with 20 being included in the Oxford Book of English Verse.[103]
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In Greek and Latin poetry, a choriamb /ˈkɔriˌæmb/ is a metron (prosodic foot) consisting of four syllables in the pattern long-short-short-long (— ‿ ‿ —), that is, a trochee alternating with an iamb. Choriambs are one of the two basic metra[1] that do not occur in spoken verse, as distinguished from true lyric or sung verse.[2] The choriamb is sometimes regarded as the "nucleus" of Aeolic verse, because the pattern long-short-short-long pattern occurs, but to label this a "choriamb" is potentially misleading.[3]
In the prosody of English and other modern European languages, "choriamb" is sometimes used to describe four-syllable sequence of the pattern stressed-unstressed-unstressed-stressed (again, a trochee followed by an iamb): for example, "over the hill", "under the bridge", and "what a mistake!".
English prosody[edit]
In English, the choriamb is often found in the first four syllables of iambic pentameter verses, as here in Keats' To Autumn:
Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?
Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find
Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,
Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;
Or on a half-reap'd furrow sound asleep,
Drows'd with the fume of poppies, while thy hook
Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers:
And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep
Steady thy laden head across a brook;
Or by a cider-press, with patient look,
Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours.
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Nahuatl poetry is preserved in principally two sources: the Cantares Mexicanos and the Romances de los señores de Nueva España, both collections of Aztec songs written down in the 16th and 17th centuries. Some songs may have been preserved through oral tradition from pre-conquest times until the time of their writing, for example the songs attributed to the poet-king of Texcoco, Nezahualcoyotl. Karttunen & Lockhart (1980) identify more than four distinct styles of songs, e.g. the icnocuicatl ("sad song"), the xopancuicatl ("song of spring"), melahuaccuicatl ("plain song") and yaocuicatl ("song of war"), each with distinct stylistic traits. Aztec poetry makes rich use of metaphoric imagery and themes and are lamentation of the brevity of human existence, the celebration of valiant warriors who die in battle, and the appreciation of the beauty of life.
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Chastúshka, Russian: часту́шка, pronounced [tɕɐsˈtuʂkə], derives from "часто" - "frequently", or from "части́ть" - old word, that means "to do something with high frequency" and probably refers to high beat frequency (tempo) of chastushki.
Chastushka is a traditional type of short Russian or Ukrainian folk humorous song with high beat frequency, that consists of one four-lined couplet, full of humor, satire or irony. Usually many chastushki are sung one after another. Chastushka makes use of a simple rhyming scheme to convey humorous or ironic content. The singing and recitation of such rhymes were an important part of peasant popular culture both before and after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.
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A chastushka (plural: chastushki) is a simple rhyming poem which would be characterized derisively in English as doggerel. The name originates from the Russian word "часто" ("chasto") - "frequently", or from части́ть ("chastit"), meaning "to do something with high frequency" and probably refers to high beat frequency of chastushkas.
The basic form is a simple four-line verse making use of an ABAB, ABCB, or AABB rhyme scheme.
Usually humorous, satirical, or ironic in nature, chastushki are often put to music as well, usually with balalaika or accordion accompaniment. The rigid, short structure (and, to a lesser degree, the type of humor used) parallels the poetic genre of limericks in British culture.
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According to Kuilman
The tradition of the four monarchies was of prime interest in the sixteenth and seventeenth century of the European cultural history. It started with the publication of Ovidius’ ‘Metamorphoses’ in a French edition of Jean de Tournes in 1557 (BOLTEN, 1984). The woodcuts of this edition (including the four world ages) are attributed to Bernard Salomon and reach the Low Countries in 1563 through copies of Vergil Solis. Within a century, there were many reprints. Between 1585 and 1590 the theme was taken up by Hendrick Goltzius (1558 – 1617).
This development was strengthened by ‘classical’ material from Italy. The Italian painter and engraver Antonio Tempesta (1555 – 1630) published in 1606 a large series of hundred and fifty etchings based on the ‘Metamorphoses’ (fig. 69). A comparison between the illustrations (of the ‘Metamorphoses’ and the four times of the world) by Salomon, Tempesta and Goltzius was made by HENKEL (1930).
The Aetas aurea, or the Golden Age, is a symbol of a period of prosperity. This etching is by Antonio Tempesta (1555 – 1630). The series of the ‘aetas’ was published in 1606, but Tempesta’s designs were already imitated by Hendrick Goltzius and Chrispijn de Passe (c. 1564 – 1637), who published their own cycles in respectively 1590/1591 and 1602. In: HORODISCH, Abraham (Ed.)(1984, p. 23).
The history of the myth of the four monarchies is an interesting one, but not always as clear as one would wish. The possible source in Asia Minor is already mentioned by KASSIES (1989). The theme was, according to MEYER (1910/1924), Hesiod’s own invention and any similarity with the Greek (Boeotian) and oriental division were a coincidence. The Christian version is much younger.
The Biblical story of Nebuchadnezar’s dream was the source of the Jewish/Christian branch of the four monarchies. The prophet Daniel explained the dream as follows: the head is made of gold, breast and arms are of silver, belly and thies are of bronze and the legs are of iron. The feeds are partly of iron and partly of clay. The diminishing quality of the metals pointed to the inferior quality of governments following the one of Nebuchadnezar. A large rock rolling from a mountain,
which destroys the statue, is the end of the dream (fig. 70).
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According to Kuilman
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, around the beginning of the Christian era, had an unconditional faith in the duration of the Roman Empire. He recognized – in his ‘Romanae antiquitates’ (the history of Rome until the Punic Wars in twenty books) – the four previous world powers (Assyria, Medes, Pers and Macedonia) and puts the Roman Empire as the ‘eternal’, fifth world-power.
A fragment of Aemilius Sura (‘de annis populi Romani‘), mentioning the four world empires, was included in the ‘Historiae Romanae’ of Vellius Paterculus. Appianus wrote, around 140 BC, a Roman history in twenty-four books, also with the Roman Empire as the fifth and last era.
This optimistic outlook on the position of the Roman Empire could not hold forever and had to be modified. Pompeius Trogus proposed a more realistic version at the beginning of the Christian era (SCHUMACHER, 2000). Only the ‘prologi’ of his twenty-four books remain, because M. Junius Justinus adapted them at the end of the third century AD. The Roman Empire is seen as the fourth monarchy, leaving room for a possible (Christian) fifth era. SWAIN (1940) noticed that Trogus (and Justinus) where – up to the Renaissance – more important as historians than Livy and Tacitus. TRIEBER (1892) underlined the popularity of Justinus as a historian, who was only shifted aside by the humanistic tendencies, when the orthodox version of Roman as a fifth and eternal era could take hold again.
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The fifth period is eternal. The fifth square is related to God and is ultra transcendnt.
The ‘canonical’ four-way division of seasons is strongly established in the early Hellenic times of the third century AD. There are very few examples from the classical period.
In the second to first century BC the Greek sun-year was adopted by the Jews. Initially, they only used two times of the year. In the new arrangement four angels were assigned to the seasons:
Square 1: Melekjal,
square 2:Helemmelek,
Square 3:Melejal en
Square 4: Narel.
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Victorinus of Pettau (died in the third century AD) used in his ‘Tractatus de fabrica mundi‘, a numerological four-fold method to divide the time, with no relation to the actual seasons. The ‘quattuor tempora‘ of Victorinus fit into a fourfold way of thinking, supported by the four living Things, the four Gospels, the rivers of Paradise and the four Generations (Adam – Noah; Noah – Abraham; Abraham – Moses and Moses to Christ).
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Johannicius refers, in his ‘Isagoge’, to adolescentia, iuventus, senectus en senium as the four seasons of life. Cassianus (c. 360 – 435) connected, in his ‘Collationes’, the four senses with types of knowledge (ESMEIJER, 1973/1978):
————– anagoge – prophetia
————– allegoria – revelatio
————– historia – doctrina
————– tropologia – scientia
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Transcriptions of the encyclopedic ‘Liber de natura rerum’ show seven cosmological diagrams. Six in a circular and one in a square setting. These diagrams, for mnemonic use (to memorize), are subsequently redrawn in manuscripts of the ninth to the thirteenth century. A good example of a time-division is found in the ‘Sacramentarium Fuldense’ (Göttingen) in the so-called Annus-miniature. Annus is placed as a god amidst four wheel (the remains of the sun-wagon) and surrounded by four elements and the month.
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These types of tetradic diagrams were used between the ninth and the thirteenth century as guidelines for the quadruple way of thinking. In the centre is the observer (homo), the world (mundus) or the year (annus) in a square or circle. Further circles underline the cyclic nature of different features like elements (ignis, aer, aqua and terra) or qualities (calidus, humida, frigida, sicca). However, also the direction of the wind, temperatures, times of the year and quarters and life periods support the tetradic world view. 1. From John Sacrobosco’s ‘Computus ecclesiasticus’, Ms 69, fol. 38v, New York Public Library; 2. From a compilation of Isidore of Seville. Ms. lat 12999, fol. 7r, Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris; 3. Annus-Mundus. Ms 3516, mappe-monde, fol. 179r, Bibliotheque de l’Arsenal, Paris; 4. From the ‘Dragmaticon’ by William of Conches, MS lat. 6415, f. 6r. Bibliotheque nationale, Paris.
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The ‘Sententiae’ were composed as a memorial of tetradic thinking. The structure is reflected in its outlay: the first book is concerned with God and his nature, the second book deals with the Creation and the Fall of man, the third book discussed the Incarnation of Christ and the Saviour and finally the fourth book explains the Sacraments and the Last Things.
The tetradic division of the ‘Sententiae’ of Petrus Lombardus: God – Creation – Incarnation – Sacraments, reflected the four ‘senses‘ of (religious) life. This book – and its associated tetradic approach – was the most influential document of the Scholastic period. It lost its prominence during the thirteenth century and never lived up to a ‘revival’ or revaluation.
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A lion with four heads was given as an illustration in the manuscript of the ‘Lux in Tenebris ‘(fig. 174). The symbolism was echoed in an alchemical brochure at the end of the eighteenth century, called ‘Die Lebensgeschichte des Löwen R R R R’ (The life-history of the Lion R R R R). The (Green) Lion stood at the beginning of the Great Work. The addition of the letters ‘R R R R’ pointed to the four processes, which were involved in the search for the ‘Philosopher’s Stone’ and the ‘Elixir of Life’: separation (separatio), purification (purefactio), unification (conjunctio) and multiplication (multiplicatio).
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The term quadrature of the circle is sometimes used to mean the same thing as squaring the circle, but it may also refer to approximate or numerical methods for finding the area of a circle. Recall squaring is making a quadrant out of something. This was an ancient problem that preoccupied a lot of mathematicians interests and was seen as very profound.
In his old age, the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes convinced himself that he had succeeded in squaring the circle. But he was wrong.
By 1742, when Alexander Pope published the fourth book of his Dunciad, attempts at circle-squaring had come to be seen as "wild and fruitless":
"Mad Mathesis alone was unconfined,
Too mad for mere material chains to bind,
Now to pure space lifts her ecstatic stare,
Now, running round the circle, finds it square."
Similarly, the Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera Princess Ida features a song which satirically lists the impossible goals of the women's university run by the title character, such as finding perpetual motion. One of these goals is "And the circle – they will square it/Some fine day."[15]
The sestina, a poetic form first used in the 12th century by Arnaut Daniel, has been said to square the circle in its use of a square number of lines (six stanzas of six lines each) with a circular scheme of six repeated words. Spanos (1978) writes that this form invokes a symbolic meaning in which the circle stands for heaven and the square stands for the earth.[16] A similar metaphor was used in "Squaring The Circle", a 1908 short story by O. Henry, about a long-running family feud. In the title of this story, the circle represents the natural world, while the square represents the city, the world of man.
In James Joyce's novel Ulysses, Leopold Bloom dreams of becoming wealthy by squaring the circle, unaware that the quadrature of the circle had been proved impossible 22 years earlier and that the British government had never offered a reward for its solution.
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Anne Bradstreet (1612 – 1672) a ‘Gentlewoman in New-England’ wrote her ‘Quaternion‘ between 1630 and 1642: four poems, each composed of four parts and dealing with ‘The Four Elements’ (Fire, Earth, Water, Air), ‘Of The Four Humours’ (Choler, Blood, Melancholy, Phlegm), ‘Of the Four Ages’ (Childhood, Youth, Middle Age, Old Age) ‘The Four Seasons’ (Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter) and ‘The Four Monarchies’ (Assyrian, Persian, Grecian, Roman).
————————- ‘Of all your qualities I do partake,
————————– And what you single are, the whole I make.
————————– Your hot, moist, cold, dry natures are but four,
————————– I moderately am all, what need I more’
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Hildegard composed her work in a holy inspiration, using the ‘Seven Steps to Heaven‘ (of Eriugena) in an active way: the three division was used in the contemplation to symbolize God’s view and the four-division was seen as the human approach to the universe. Consequently, she distinguished four stages in the division of history:
—————————– 1. Status before the creation of the world;
—————————– 2. Time before the incarnation;
—————————– 3. Status of the incarnation;
—————————– 4. Turning point of the end of time and history of salvation.
The ‘trinitarisch-tetragonische Wirksamheit des Schöpfers‘ (BRONDER, 1972) is the all-embracing entity in the representation of the cosmos of Hildegard of Bingen.
As Hildegard elaborates the medical and scientific relationship between the human microcosm and the macrocosm of the universe, she often focuses on interrelated patterns of four: “the four elements (fire, air, water, and earth), the four seasons, the four humors, the four zones of the earth, and the four major winds.”
She herself travelled widely on four preaching tours. She is considered a saint in the Catholic Church
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In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge.
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The Mabinogion (/ˌmæbəˈnoʊɡiən/; Welsh pronunciation: [mabɪˈnɔɡjɔn]) is the earliest prose literature of Britain. The stories were compiled in the 12th–13th century from earlier oral traditions by medieval Welsh authors. The two main source manuscripts were created c. 1350–1410, as well as some earlier fragments. But beyond their origins, first and foremost these are fine quality storytelling, offering high drama, philosophy, romance, tragedy, fantasy, sensitivity, and humour; refined through long development by skilled performers.
The Four Branches of the Mabinogi (Pedair Cainc y Mabinogi) are the most clearly mythological stories contained in the Mabinogion collection. Pryderi appears in all four, though not always as the central character.
Pwyll Pendefig Dyfed (Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed) tells of Pryderi's parents and his birth, loss and recovery.
Branwen ferch Llŷr (Branwen, daughter of Llŷr) is mostly about Branwen's marriage to the King of Ireland. Pryderi appears but does not play a major part.
Manawydan fab Llŷr (Manawydan, son of Llŷr) has Pryderi return home with Manawydan, brother of Branwen, and describes the misfortunes that follow them there.
Math fab Mathonwy (Math, son of Mathonwy) is mostly about Math and Gwydion, who come into conflict with Pryderi.
Native
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The Afrinagans are four "blessing" texts recited on a particular occasion: the first in honor of the dead, the second on the five epagomenal days that end the year, the third is recited at the six seasonal feasts, and the fourth at the beginning and end of summer.
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In Daoist creation myth, "The Way gave birth to unity; unity gave birth to duality; duality gave birth to trinity; trinity gave birth to the myriad creatures." (Daodejing). This is a four part creation with the fourth part being different from the previous three. That is the quadrant model pattern.
According to the Cheonjiwang Bonpuri (Korean) creation myth Cheonjiwang, a chief God, informed his twin sons that he found it difficult to rule the four realms- the heavens, the earth, the mortal world, and the netherworld all at the same time, and told the twins to try a contest between each other in order to aid him.
Great Star was forced to rule the netherworld, and Small Star went to rule the mortal world.
Wise Wife was given the title of Bajiwang, the earth goddess, and thus, the four realms of the heavens, the mortal world, the netherworld, and the earth each came to have a ruler.
The whole creation myth is about how these four realms were divided among these four Gods.
In the story Cheonjiwang has his four generals, General Lightning (Korean: 번개장군), General Thunder (Korean: 벼락장군), General Fire (Korean: 화덕진군 and Master of the Winds and the Rains (Korean: 풍우도사), to accompany him to Sumyeong Jangja's realm (the mortal realm). The four generals themselves led an army of 10,000 soldiers.
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The achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans.[18] While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The resulting mythological "history of the world" may be divided into three or four broader periods:
The myths of origin or age of gods (Theogonies, "births of gods"): myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race.
The age when gods and mortals mingled freely: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals.
The age of heroes (heroic age), where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of the Trojan War and after (which is regarded by some researchers as a separate fourth period)
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Cinema chapter
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