Quadrant Model of Reality Book 4 Science

A Quadrant is a square that is divided into four squares. The quadrant model is one square divided into four squares, and each of those four squares is divided into four squares, yielding 16 squares. The quadrant model, centered around these 16 squares, is the fundamental basis of reality. The quadrant model pattern is the organizing principle behind existence. In my previous books I discussed the nature of the quadrant model pattern.

The first quadrant/square is more mental and weird/inspiring. It is related to the idealist personality.

The second quadrant/square is more normal and related to homeostasis and structure and organization. It is related to the guardian personality.

The third quadrant/square is associated with doing/ action and is bad and destructive. It is associated with the artisan.

The fourth quadrant/ square is connected with transcendence and is different than the other three. It does not seem to belong. It is associated with rational.

The fourth quadrant/ squares properties are indicated by the fourth square. The fourth square points to the fifth. The fifth is ultra transcendent and related to God.

This book, like the previous quadrant model books, will be built around the four fields of inquiry science, religion, art, and philosophy.

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

Chemistry Chapter

The back end of line (BEOL) is the second portion of IC fabrication where the individual devices (transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.) get interconnected with wiring on the wafer, the metalization layer. Common metals are Copper interconnect and Aluminum interconnect.[1] BEOL generally begins when the first layer of metal is deposited on the wafer. BEOL includes contacts, insulating layers (dielectrics), metal levels, and bonding sites for chip-to-package connections. After the last FEOL step, there is a wafer with isolated transistors (without any wires). In BEOL part of fabrication stage contacts (pads), interconnect wires, vias and dielectric structures are formed. For modern IC process, more than 10 metal layers can be added in the BEOL. The process used to form DRAM capacitors creates a rough and hilly surface, which makes it difficult to add metal interconnect layers and still maintain good yield. In 1998, state-of-the-art DRAM processes had 4 metal layers, while state-of-the-art logic processes had 7 metal layers.

QMRBefore 1998, practically all chips used aluminum for the metal interconnection layers. [13] The four metals with the highest electrical conductivity are silver with the highest conductivity, then copper, then gold, then aluminum. As of 2011, many commercial processes support 2 or 3 metal layers; the most layers supported on a commercial process is 11 layers, and 12 layers are expected to be supported soon.[14] After BEOL there is a "back-end process" (also called post-fab), which is done not in the cleanroom, often by a different company. It includes wafer test, wafer backgrinding, die separation, die tests, IC packaging and final test.

Moral story[edit] The problem warns of the dangers of treating large but finite resources as infinite, i.e., of ignoring distant but absolute and inevitable constraints. As Carl Sagan wrote when referring to the fable, "Exponentials can't go on forever, because they will gobble up everything."[7] Similarly, The Limits to Growth uses the story to present the unintended consequences of exponential growth: "Exponential growth never can go on very long in a finite space with finite resources.

Second half of the chessboard[edit]

A chessboard with each square labeled with the number of wheat grains according to the problem. A red line divides the chessboard in half.

An illustration of Ray Kurzweil's second half of the chessboard principle. The letters are abbreviations for the SI metric prefixes.

In technology strategy, the second half of the chessboard is a phrase, coined by Ray Kurzweil,[3] in reference to the point where an exponentially growing factor begins to have a significant economic impact on an organization's overall business strategy.

While the number of grains on the first half of the chessboard is large, the amount on the second half is vastly (232 > 4 billion times) larger.

The number of grains of rice on the first half of the chessboard is 1 + 2 + 4 + 8... + 2,147,483,648, for a total of 4,294,967,295 (232 − 1) grains of rice, or about 100,000 kg of rice (assuming 25 mg as the mass of one grain of rice).[4] India's annual rice output is about 1,200,000 times that amount.[5]

The number of grains of rice on the second half of the chessboard is 232 + 233 + 234 ... + 263, for a total of 264 − 232 grains of rice (the square of the number

of grains on the first half of the board plus itself). Indeed, as each square contains one grain more than the total of all the squares before it, the first square of the second half alone contains more grains than the entire first half. On the 64th square of the chessboard alone there would be 263 = 9,223,372,036,854,775,808 grains of rice, or more than two billion times as much as on the first half of the chessboard. On the entire chessboard there would be 264 − 1 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 grains of rice, weighing 461,168,602,000 metric tons, which would be a heap of rice larger than Mount Everest. This is around 1,000 times the global production of rice in 2010 (464,000,000 metric tons).[6]

Macdonnell also investigates the earlier development of the theme.[2] [According to al-Masudi's early history of India], shatranj, or chess was invented under an Indian king, who expressed his preference for this game over backgammon. [...] The Indians, he adds, also calculated an arithmetical progression with the squares of the chessboard. [...] The early fondness of the Indians for enormous calculations is well known to students of their mathematics, and is exemplified in the writings of the great astronomer Āryabaṭha (born 476 A.D.). [...] An additional argument for the Indian origin of this calculation is supplied by the Arabic name for the square of the chessboard, (بيت, "beit"), 'house'. [...] For this has doubtless a historical connection with its Indian designation koṣṭhāgāra, 'store-house', 'granary' [...]. Pedagogical applications[edit] This exercise can be used to demonstrate how quickly exponential sequences grow, as well as to introduce exponents, zero power, capital-sigma notation and geometric series. Derivatives of the problem can be used to explain more advanced mathematical topics, such as hexagonal close packing of equal spheres. (How big a chessboard would be required to be able to contain the rice in the last square, assuming perfect spheres of short-grained rice?)

The simple, brute-force solution is to just manually double and add each step of the series: T_{64}=1+2+4+\cdots +9,223,372,036,854,775,808=18,446,744,073,709,551,615 where T_{64} is the total number of grains. The series may be expressed using exponents: T_{64}=2^{0}+2^{1}+2^{2}+\cdots +2^{63} and, represented with capital-sigma notation as: \sum _{i=0}^{63}2^{i}.\, It can also be solved much more easily using: T_{64}=2^{64}-1.\, A proof of which is: s=2^{0}+2^{1}+2^{2}+\cdots +2^{63}. Multiply each side by 2: 2s=2^{1}+2^{2}+2^{3}+\cdots +2^{63}+2^{64}. Subtract original series from each side: 2s-s=-2^{0}+2^{64} \therefore s=2^{64}-1.\, Origin and story[edit] The wheat and chess problem appears in different stories about the invention of chess. One of them includes the geometric progression problem. Its earliest written record is contained in the Shahnameh, an epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE. Another version has the inventor of chess (in some tellings Sessa, an ancient Indian Minister) request his ruler give him wheat according to the wheat and chessboard problem. The ruler laughs it off as a meager prize for a brilliant invention, only to have court treasurers report the unexpectedly huge number of wheat grains would outstrip the ruler's resources. Versions differ as to whether the inventor becomes a high-ranking advisor or is executed.[1]

QMRThe wheat and chessboard problem (sometimes expressed in terms of rice instead of wheat) is a mathematical problem in the form of a word problem: If a chessboard were to have wheat placed upon each square such that one grain were placed on the first square, two on the second, four on the third, and so on (doubling the number of grains on each subsequent square), how many grains of wheat would be on the chessboard at the finish? The problem may be solved using simple addition. With 64 squares on a chessboard, if the number of grains doubles on successive squares, then the sum of grains on all 64 squares is: 1 + 2 + 4 + 8... and so forth for the 64 squares. The total number of grains equals 18,446,744,073,709,551,615, much higher than what most intuitively expect. The exercise of working through this problem may be used to explain and demonstrate exponents and the quick growth of exponential and geometric sequences. It can also be used to illustrate sigma notation. When expressed as exponents, the geometric series is: 20 + 21 + 22 + 23... and so forth up to 263. The base of each exponentiation, "2", expresses the doubling at each square, while the exponents represent the position of each square (0 for the first square, 1 for the second, etc.).

QMRIf continents are defined strictly as discrete landmasses, embracing all the contiguous land of a body, then Asia, Europe and Africa form a single continent which may be referred to as Afro-Eurasia. This produces a four-continent model consisting of Afro-Eurasia, America, Antarctica and Australia.

QMRIn 1507 Martin Waldseemüller published a world map, Universalis Cosmographia, which was the first to show North and South America as separate from Asia and surrounded by water. A small inset map above the main map explicitly showed for the first time the Americas being east of Asia and separated from Asia by an ocean, as opposed to just placing the Americas on the left end of the map and Asia on the right end. In the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, Waldseemüller noted that the earth is divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa and the fourth part, which he named "America" after Amerigo Vespucci's first name.[57] On the map, the word "America" was placed on part of South America.

An explanatory text, the Cosmographiae Introductio, widely believed to have been written by Waldseemüller's colleague Matthias Ringmann, accompanied the map. It was said in Chapter IX of that text that the earth was now known to be divided into four parts, of which Europe, Asia and Africa, being contiguous with each other, were continents, while the fourth part, America, was “an island, inasmuch as it is found to be surrounded on all sides by the seas”.[7]

The name for the northern land mass, Parias, is derived from a passage in the Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, in which, after several stops, the expedition arrives at a region that was “situated in the torrid zone directly under the parallel which describes the Tropic of Cancer. And this province is called by them [the inhabitants] Parias”.[10] Parias was described by Waldseemüller’s follower, Johannes Schöner as: “The island of Parias, which is not a part or portion of the foregoing [America] but a large, special part of the fourth part of the world”, indicating uncertainty as to its situation.

The map shows the cities of Catigara (Kattigara) and Mallaqua (Malacca) on the western coast of the great peninsula that projects from the southeastern part of Asia, or INDIA MERIDIONALIS (Southern India) as Waldseemüller called it. This peninsula forms the eastern side of the SINUS MAGNUS ("Great Gulf"), the Gulf of Thailand.[12] Amerigo Vespucci, writing of his 1499 voyage, said he had hoped to sail westward from Spain across the Western Ocean (the Atlantic) around the Cape of Cattigara mentioned by Ptolemy into the Sinus Magnus.[13] Ptolemy understood Cattigara, or Kattigara, to be the most eastern port reached by shipping trading from the Graeco-Roman world to the lands of the Far East. Vespucci failed to find the Cape of Cattigara on his 1499 voyage: he sailed along the coast of Venezuela but not far enough to resolve the question of whether there was a sea passage beyond leading to Ptolemy’s Sinus Magnus. The object of his voyage of 1503–1504 was to reach the fabulous spice emporium of “Melaccha in India” (that is, Malacca, or Melaka, on the Malay Peninsula).[14] He had learned of Malacca from one Guaspare (or Gaspard), a pilot with Pedro Álvares Cabral’s fleet on its voyage to India in 1500–1501, whom Vespucci had encountered in the Atlantic on his return from India in May 1501.[15] Christopher Columbus, in his fourth and last voyage of 1502–1503, planned to follow the coast of Champa southward around the Cape of Cattigara and sail through the strait separating Cattigara from the New World, into the Sinus Magnus to Malacca. This was the route he understood Marco Polo to have gone from China to India in 1292 (although Malacca had not yet been founded in Polo’s time).[16] Columbus anticipated that he would meet up with the expedition sent at the same time from Portugal to Malacca around the Cape of Good Hope under Vasco da Gama, and carried letters of credence from the Spanish monarchs to present to da Gama.[17] The map therefore shows the two cities that were the initial destinations of Amerigo Vespucci and Christopher Columbus in their voyages that led to the unexpected discovery of a New Official WorldStarHipHop

QMRCosmographiae Introductio (Saint-Dié, 1507) was a book published in 1507 to accompany Martin Waldseemüller's printed globe and wall-map (Universalis Cosmographia), which were the first appearance of the name 'America'. Waldseemüller’s maps and book, along with his 1513 edition of Ptolemy’s Geography, were very influential and widely copied at the time.

That part of the page of the 1507 (September) edition of the Cosmographiae Introductio in which the name of America is proposed for the New World. From Narrative and critical history of America, Volume 2 by Justin Winsor.

It is widely held to have been written by Matthias Ringmann although some historians attribute it to Waldseemüller himself. The book includes the reason for using the name America in the wall map and the globe, and contains a Latin translation of the four journeys of Amerigo Vespucci as an appendix.

The full title of the book is: "Cosmographiae introductio cum quibusdam geometriae ac astronomiae principiis ad eam rem necessariis. Insuper quatuor Americi Vespucii navigationes. Universalis Cosmographiae descriptio tam in solido quam plano, eis etiam insertis, quae Ptholomaeo ignota a nuperis reperta sunt."

(translation: Introduction to Cosmography With Certain Necessary Principles of Geometry and Astronomy To which are added The Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci A Representation of the Entire World, both in the Solid and Projected on the Plane, Including also lands which were Unknown to Ptolemy, and have been Recently Discovered)[1]

Universalis Cosmographia (map of 1507)

The map of the world in 1507, entitled "Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii aliorumque lustrationes", was published in an edition of 1000 copies, of which it seems only a single copy survives. The surviving copy was found in the library of Prince von Waldburg-Wolfegg-Waldsee in the Castle of Wolfegg in Württemberg. It was bought by the Library of Congress in 2001. This preservation seems to be due the several sheets being bound into a single cover by the cartographer, Johannes Schöner.

The map consists of twelve sections printed from woodcuts combined with metal types, each measuring 18 x 24.5 inches (46 x 62 cm). Each section is one of four, that form one of three zones. The map uses a modified Ptolemaic coniform projection with curved meridians to depict the entire surface of the Earth.

Biology Chapter

Psychology Chapter

Driving needs[edit] Each of the four corner temperaments has a driving need that energizes its behavior. For the Melancholic, the motivation is fear of rejection and/or the unknown. They have a low self-esteem and, figuring that others do not like them, they reject others first.[12] The Supine also has low self-esteem, but is driven to try to gain acceptance by liking and serving others.[13] The Sanguine is driven by the need for attention, and tries to sell themselves through their charm, and accepts others before those others can reject them. Their self-esteem crashes if they are nevertheless rejected. Yet, they will regain the confidence to keep trying to impress others. The Choleric is motivated by their goals, in which other people are tools to be used.[14] The Phlegmatic's lack of a motivation becomes their driving need: to protect their low energy reserve.[15]

From four to five[edit]

The low scores in both "wanted" and "expressed" would correspond to the Melancholy. A high score in "expressed" with a low score in "wanted" corresponds to Choleric. A high score on both scales corresponds to the Sanguine.

So the temperaments were divided between introverts, extroverts, and in the other dimension, "relationship-oriented", and "task-oriented". In the older model, the fourth temperament, Phlegmatic, had generally been regarded as "introverted" like the Melancholy, yet more "agreeable", like the Sanguine. For example, the "slow response/short-lived sustain" of the original conception, where it shares one factor with the Sanguine, and the other with the Melancholy. In the other instruments using people/task-orientation, the type that holds the corresponding place in respect to the other types (such as Social Styles' "Amiable" or Adler's "Leaning") is also generally correlated with the Phlegmatic in comparisons.

However, while the Phlegmatic is not as extroverted as the Sanguine and Choleric, nor as serious as the Melancholy and Choleric; he is neither as introverted as the Melancholy, nor as relationship-oriented as the Sanguine. This created a problem whereby a "middle-of-the-road" temperament was needed to complete the list of temperaments. A new temperament was created as a neutral, balanced temperament. However, the new temperament's lack of expression and personality was similar to the Phlegmatic, so the traits the Phlegmatic and the fifth temperament shared were removed from the Phlegmatic, and the remaining traits were renamed to Supine while the fifth temperament became known as the Phlegmatic.

Comparison of fifth temperament to the phlegmatic[edit]

The Phlegmatic also is peaceful at heart, and is one reason the Phlegmatic had held the place in the older four temperament model the Supine holds in the five temperament model. The difference is that the Supine is more "needy" for acceptance (or control) from people, yet less able to initiate and express this need to them than the Phlegmatic. Supines are often frustrated because they expect people to know they want interaction, while the Phlegmatic expresses a moderate need, and wants only the same moderate amount in return.

Four temperament theories such as LaHaye's often depict the Phlegmatic as being very fearful (according to LaHaye, "he is a worrier by nature", which is what "keeps him from venturing out on his own to make full use of his potential)."[11]

The FIRO-B connection[edit]

FIRO-B was another such two-factor system, originally created by Dr. Schutz in 1958, using the same scales corresponding to extroversion/introversion and people/task focus. The difference now was that there were three such matrices. These three areas of interaction are Inclusion, Control, and Affection. Note that these areas include the two familiar scales: how you want to relate to others (called "expressed behavior"), and how you want them to relate to you (called "wanted behavior"). Scores in these scales range from 0 to 9. In 1977, "locator charts" were produced for each area by Leo Ryan, providing a map of the various scores, following the Managerial Grid model; with unofficial names assigned to different score ranges.

Schutz was emphatic that all FIRO scores in themselves "Are not terminal — they can and do change", and that they "Do not encourage typology" [10] (and thus contradicted the notion of inborn temperament). However, the four ancient temperaments were eventually mapped to the FIRO-B scales, including the three separate temperament grids for individuals' scores in each area.

A Melancholy tends to be an introverted loner, and in the area of "control" such a person would exhibit a low need to control others, and also have a low tolerance of control by others (i.e. "dependency"). In the areas of inclusion and affection, such people would display a low need to include or be close to others, and a low need to be included by others. A Choleric, however, is an extroverted "leader"-type who, in the area of control, has a high need to control others, but a low tolerance of others controlling him. He also has a high need to include or be close to others, but a low level of "responsiveness" (used as another term for "wanted" behavior) to them. He tends to be a "user", and only relates to people according to his own terms, which are usually goal-oriented. A Sanguine is an extrovert who has a high need to include and be close to others, but unlike the Choleric, the Sanguine genuinely likes being around people just for the sake of socialization. The Sanguine also "swings" between both control and dependency.

Development of related "two factor" models and the regaining popularity of the ancient temperaments[edit]

Simple emoticons of the five temperaments: Sanguine (top right), Choleric (bottom right), Melancholy (bottom left), and Phlegmatic (centre), with the new temperament Supine (top left) and Phlegmatic blends in between.

From the beginning, with Galen's ancient temperaments, it was observed that pairs of temperaments shared certain traits in common.

sanguine quick, impulsive, and relatively short-lived reactions. (hot/wet)

phlegmatic a longer response-delay, but short-lived response. (cold/wet)

choleric short response time-delay, but response sustained for a relatively long time. (hot/dry)

melancholic (Also called "Melancholy") long response time-delay, response sustained at length, if not, seemingly, permanently. (cold/dry)[6]

Therefore, it was evident that the sanguine and choleric shared a common trait: quickness of response, while the melancholy and phlegmatic shared the opposite, a longer response. The melancholy and choleric, however, shared a sustained response, and the sanguine and phlegmatic shared a short-lived response. That meant that the Choleric and melancholy both would tend to hang on to emotions like anger, and thus appear more serious and critical than the fun-loving sanguine, and the peaceful phlegmatic. However, the choleric would be characterized by quick expressions of anger, while the melancholy would build up anger slowly, silently, before exploding. Also, the melancholy and sanguine would be sort of "opposites", as the choleric and phlegmatic, since they have opposite traits.

As the twentieth century progressed, numerous other instruments were devised measuring not only temperament, but also various individual aspects of personality and behavior, and several began using factors that would correspond to the delay and sustain behaviors; usually, forms of Extroversion and a developing category of people versus task focus (eventually embodied as "Agreeableness").

Examples include DiSC assessment system and Social styles. In both of these, the four behaviors or styles resembled the key characteristics of the ancient four temperaments: the Choleric's extroversion and seriousness; the Melancholy's introversion and seriousness; the Sanguine's extroversion and sociability, and the Phlegmatic's peacefulness. As personality typing increased, Christian writer and speaker Tim LaHaye helped repopularize the ancient temperaments beginning in his books.[7][8][9] Another addition to the two factor models was the creation of a 10 by 10 square grid developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton in their Managerial Grid Model introduced in 1964. This matrix graded from 0 to 9, the factors of "Concern for People" and "Concern for Production", allowing a moderate range of scores, which yielded five "leadership styles". The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) used a version of this with "Assertiveness" and "Cooperativeness" as the two factors, and an intermediate score in both scales likewise resulting in a fifth mode directly in the center of the grid.

History and the ancient four temperaments[edit]

Five Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory of the Greek Historian Hippocrates (460-370 BC), who believed certain human behaviors were caused by body fluids (called "humors"): blood (sanguis), [yellow] bile (cholera or Gk. χολη, kholé) black bile (μελας, melas, "black", + χολη, kholé, "bile"); and phlegm. Next, Galen (131-200 AD) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation De Temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna (980-1037) then extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams."[2]

This is also related to the classical elements of air, water, earth, and fire; as sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, and choleric, respectively. They made up a matrix of hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the Four Elements.[3][unreliable source?] There were also intermediate scales for balance between each pole, yielding a total of nine temperaments. Four were the original humors, and five were balanced in one or both scales.[4][5][unreliable source?]

Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) disregarded the idea of fluids as defining human behavior, and Maimonides (1135–1204), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Alfred Adler (1879–1937), and Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) all theorized on the four temperaments and greatly shaped our modern theories of temperament. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based.

QMRFive temperaments is a theory in psychology, that expands upon the Four Temperaments proposed in ancient medical theory. The development of a theory of five temperaments begins with the Two-factor models of personality and the work of the late William Schutz, and his FIRO-B program. It is a measure of interpersonal relations orientations that calculates a person's behavior patterns based on the scoring of a questionnaire. Although FIRO-B does not speak in terms of "temperament", this system of analysis graded questionnaires on two scales in three dimensions of interpersonal relations. When paired with temperament theory, a measurement of five temperaments resulted.[1]

QMRThe Four Temperaments is a ballet made by New York City Ballet co-founder and ballet master George Balanchine to music he commissioned from Paul Hindemith (the latter's eponymous 1940 music for string orchestra and piano) for the opening program of Ballet Society, immediate forerunner of City Ballet.

The work is divided into five parts, a theme and four variations, which reflect the temperaments. Balanchine downplayed the references to medieval "humors" that were believed to determine a person's temperament, saying the four personality types—melancholic, sanguinic, phlegmatic, and choleric—were merely points of departure for the creation of abstract music and dance.[1]

The première took place on Wednesday, 20 November 1946, at the Central High School of Needle Trades, New York City, with mise en scène by Kurt Seligmann and lighting by Jean Rosenthal. Leon Barzin conducted and the pianist was Nicholas Kopeikine. The City Ballet première was held in 1951 in practice clothes and without scenery; in 1964 it received new lighting at the New York State Theater, Lincoln Center, by David Hays. NYCB principal dancer Albert Evans chose to include The Four Temperaments in his farewell performance, Sunday, June 20, 2010.

The ballet can be read to be a creation story.[2]

Cultural references[edit] In 1946 George Balanchine choreographed a ballet he titled The Four Temperaments, set to music he commissioned from Paul Hindemith. The music, and thus the ballet, is in five parts: a theme and four variations titled Melancholic, Sanguine, Phlegmatic, and Choleric. Émile Zola consciously employed the four temperaments in Thérèse Raquin.[21] The Danish composer Carl Nielsen's Symphony #2 (1901-02), Op.16 entitled "The Four Temperaments" is structured upon the Four Temperaments.

Decline in popularity[edit]

When the concept of the temperaments was on the wane, many critics dropped the phlegmatic, or defined it purely negatively, such as the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, as the absence of temperament. In the Five Temperaments theory, the classical Phlegmatic temperament is in fact deemed to be a neutral temperament, whereas the "relationship-oriented introvert" position traditionally held by the Phlegmatic is declared to be a new "fifth temperament." Gary Smalley has renamed these classifications into a more modern and relatable format based on commonly known animals. These he lists as the "otters", Geminis, (sanguines), "lions", Leos, (cholerics), "golden retrievers", Cancers, (phlegmatics), and "beavers", Pisces, (melancholics).[17]

Contemporary writings[edit]

In Waldorf education and anthroposophy, the temperaments are used to help understand personality. They are seen as avenues into teaching; as each child is considered to possess a unique blend of the four, they can be utilized to individualize the methods used with individual children and establishing a class balance, as well as to help with discipline.

Christian writer Tim LaHaye has attempted to repopularize the ancient temperaments through his books.[18][19][20] Writer Florence Littauer describes the four personality types in her book Personality Plus. See also Two-factor models of personality.

Relation of various four temperament theories

Classical Element Adler[12]

Melancholic Earth Avoiding

Phlegmatic Water Getting

Sanguine Air Socially useful

Choleric Fire Ruling

The four temperament types[edit]

Each of the four types of humors corresponded in ancient times to a different personality type. These were associated with a domination of various biological functions. Lievegoed suggested that the temperaments come to clearest manifestation in childhood, between approximately 6 and 14 years of age, after which they become subordinate (though still influential) factors in personality.[13]

Sanguine[edit]

The sanguine temperament is traditionally associated with air. People with this temperament tend to be lively, sociable, carefree, talkative, and pleasure-seeking. They may be warm-hearted and optimistic. They can make new friends easily, be imaginative and artistic, and often have many ideas.[14][15] They can be flighty and changeable; thus sanguine personalities may struggle with following tasks all the way through and be chronically late or forgetful.[16]

Pedagogically, they can be best reached through awakening their love for a subject and admiration of people.[16]

Choleric[edit]

The choleric temperament is traditionally associated with fire. People with this temperament tend to be egocentric and extroverted. They may be excitable, impulsive, and restless, with reserves of aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try to instill that in others. [14][15]

They tend to be task-oriented people and are focused on getting a job done efficiently; their motto is usually "do it now." They can be ambitious, strong-willed and like to be in charge. They can show leadership, are good at planning, and are often practical and solution-oriented.[14] They appreciate receiving respect and esteem for their work.[16]:20

Pedagogically, they can be best reached through mutual respect and appropriate challenges that recognize their capacities.[16]

Melancholic[edit]

Main article: Melancholia

The melancholic temperament is traditionally associated with the element of earth. People with this temperament may appear serious, introverted, cautious or even suspicious. They can become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world and are susceptible to depression and moodiness. They may be focused and conscientious. They often prefer to do things themselves, both to meet their own standards and because they are not inherently sociable. [15][14]

Pedagogically, they can be best met by awakening their sympathy for others and the suffering of the world.[16]

Phlegmatic[edit] Phlegmatic by Lespagnandelle, part of the Grande Commande, Palace of Versailles The phlegmatic temperament is traditionally associated with water. People with this temperament may be inward and private, thoughtful, reasonable, calm, patient, caring, and tolerant. They tend to have a rich inner life, seek a quiet, peaceful atmosphere, and be content with themselves. They tend to be steadfast, consistent in their habits, and thus steady and faithful friends.[14][15] Pedagogically, their interest is often awakened by experiencing others' interest in a subject.[16] People of this temperament may appear somewhat ponderous or clumsy. Their speech tends to be slow or appear hesitant.[14]

QMRNicholas Culpeper (1616–1654), described the humours as acting as governing principles in bodily health, with astrological correspondences,[8] and explained their influence upon physiognomy and personality.[9] Culpeper proposed that, while some people had a single temperament, others had an admixture of two, a primary and secondary temperament.[10] Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), Alfred Adler (1879–1937), Erich Adickes (1866–1925), Eduard Spranger (1914), Ernst Kretschmer (1920), and Erich Fromm (1947) all theorized on the four temperaments (with different names) and greatly shaped our modern theories of temperament. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based. The factors he proposed in his book Dimensions of Personality were Neuroticism (N), the tendency to experience negative emotions, and Extraversion (E), the tendency to enjoy positive events, especially social ones. By pairing the two dimensions, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the four ancient temperaments.

Other researchers developed similar systems, many of which did not use the ancient temperament names, and several paired extroversion with a different factor, which would determine relationship/task-orientation. Examples are DiSC assessment, social styles, and a theory that adds a fifth temperament. One of the most popular today is the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, whose four temperaments were based largely on the Greek gods Apollo, Dionysus, Epimetheus and Prometheus, and were mapped to the 16 types of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). They were renamed as Artisan (SP), Guardian (SJ), Idealist (NF), and Rational (NT). Rather than using extroversion and introversion (E/I) and task/people focus, like other theories, KTS mapped the temperaments to "Sensing" and "Intuition" (S/N, renamed "concrete" and "abstract") with a new pair category, "cooperative" and "pragmatic" . When "Role-Informative" and "Role-Directive" (corresponding to orientation to people or to task), and finally E/I are factored in, the 16 types are attained. Finally, the Interaction Styles of Linda V. Berens combines Directing and Informing with E/I to form another group of "styles" which greatly resemble the ancient temperaments, and these are mapped together with the Keirsey Temperaments onto the 16 types.

Modern medical science has rejected the theories of the four temperaments, though their use persists as a metaphor within certain psychological fields.[11]

QMRFour approaches to the use of plants as medicine include:[74] 1. The magical/shamanic—Almost all societies, with the exception of cultures influenced by Western-style industrialization, recognize this kind of use. The practitioner is regarded as endowed with gifts or powers that allow him/her to use herbs in a way that is hidden from the average person, and the herbs are said to affect the spirit or soul of the person. 2. The energetic—This approach includes the major systems of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, and Unani. Herbs are regarded as having actions in terms of their energies and affecting the energies of the body. The practitioner may have extensive training, and ideally be sensitive to energy, but need not have supernatural powers. 3. The functional dynamic—This approach was used by early physiomedical practitioners, whose doctrine forms the basis of contemporary practice in the UK. Herbs have a functional action, which is not necessarily linked to a physical compound, although often to a physiological function, but there is no explicit recourse to concepts involving energy. 4. The chemical—Modern practitioners - called Phytotherapists - attempt to explain herb actions in terms of their chemical constituents. It is generally assumed that the specific combination of secondary metabolites in the plant are responsible for the activity claimed or demonstrated, a concept called synergy.

History and development[edit]

Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory. It may have origins in ancient Egypt[1] or Mesopotamia,[2] but it was the Greek physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) who developed it into a medical theory. He believed certain human moods, emotions and behaviors were caused by an excess or lack of body fluids (called "humors"): blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Next, Galen (AD 129 – c. 200) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation De temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. He classified them as hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the four elements.[3] There could also be "balance" between the qualities, yielding a total of nine temperaments. The word "temperament" itself comes from Latin "temperare", "to mix". In the ideal personality, the complementary characteristics or warm-cool and dry-moist were exquisitely balanced. In four less ideal types, one of the four qualities was dominant over all the others. In the remaining four types, one pair of qualities dominated the complementary pair; for example, warm and moist dominated cool and dry. These latter four were the temperamental categories Galen named "sanguine", "choleric", "melancholic" and "phlegmatic" after the bodily humors, respectively. Each was the result of an excess of one of the humors that produced, in turn, the imbalance in paired qualities.[4][5][6]

Choleric, sanguine, melancholic, and phlegmatic temperaments: 17c., part of the Grande Commande In his Canon of Medicine (a standard medical text at many medieval universities), Persian polymath Avicenna (980–1037 AD) extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams."[7]

QMRFour temperaments is a proto-psychological theory that suggests that there are four fundamental personality types, sanguine (optimistic and social), choleric (short-tempered or irritable), melancholic (analytical and quiet), and phlegmatic (relaxed and peaceful). Most formulations include the possibility of mixtures of the types.

The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) incorporated the four temperaments into his medical theories as part of the ancient medical concept of humorism, that four bodily fluids affect human personality traits and behaviors. Later discoveries in biochemistry have led modern medicine science to reject the theory of the four temperaments, although some personality type systems of varying scientific acceptance continue to use four or more categories of a similar nature.

QMRThe Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), is a self-report personality test developed over several decades of empirical research by Raymond B. Cattell, Maurice Tatsuoka and Herbert Eber. The 16PF provides a measure of normal personality and can also be used by psychologists, and other mental health professionals, as a clinical instrument to help diagnose psychiatric disorders, as well as help with prognosis and therapy planning. The 16PF instrument provides clinicians with a normal-range measurement of anxiety, adjustment, emotional stability and behavioral problems.[1][2] It can also be used within other areas of psychology, such as career and occupational selection.[3] 16 is the squares of the quadrant model

Brain Types by Lenore Thomson Front of Left Brain Front of Right Brain Extraverted Thinking & Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition & Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensation & Introverted Intuition Introverted Feeling & Introverted Thinking Back of Left Brain Back of Right

Lenore Thomson[edit]

Lenore Thomson offers yet another model of the cognitive functions. In her book, Personality Type: An Owners Manual, Thomson advances a hypothesis of a modular relationship of the cognitive functions paralleling left-right brain lateralization. In this approach the Judging functions are in the front-left and back-right brain and the Perception functions in the back-left and front-right brain. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference.

Brain Types by Lenore Thomson

Front of Left Brain Front of Right Brain

Extraverted Thinking

&

Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition

&

Extraverted Sensing

Introverted Sensation

&

Introverted Intuition Introverted Feeling

&

Introverted Thinking

Back of Left Brain Back of Right Brain

Type

ISITEJ

ISIFEJ

INIFEJ

INITEJ

Dominant Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

Secondary Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

Left-brain Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

alternatives Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

Right-brain Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

double agents Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

Tertiary Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Inferior Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

Type

ISETIP

ISEFIP

INEFIP

INETIP

Dominant Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

Secondary Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

Right-brain Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

alternatives Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

Left-brain Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

double agents Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

Tertiary Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

Inferior Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

Type

ESETIP

ESEFIP

ENEFIP

ENETIP

Dominant Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

Secondary Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

Right-brain Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

alternatives Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Left-brain Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

double agents Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

Tertiary Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

Inferior Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

Type

ESITEJ

ESIFEJ

ENIFEJ

ENITEJ

Dominant Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Secondary Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Left-brain Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling alternatives Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Right-brain Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition double agents Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Tertiary Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Inferior Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Linda Berens[edit] The layout of Linda Berens's type table is unique and her terminology differs from that of Beebe; however, the ordering of cognitive processes in her and Beebe's models are the same. Engineer Coordinator Type ENETIP INETIP ENITEJ INITEJ 1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking 3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling 4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing 5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition 6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking 7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling 8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing Mediator Guide Type ENEFIP INEFIP ENIFEJ INIFEJ 1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling 3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking 4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing 5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition 6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling 7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking 8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing Expediator Monitor Type ESETIP ISETIP ESITEJ ISITEJ 1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking 3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling 4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition 5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing 6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking 7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling 8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition Improvisor Conservator Type ESEFIP ISEFIP ESIFEJ ISIFEJ 1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling 3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking 4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition 5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing 6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling 7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking 8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition

John Beebe[edit]

Though John Beebe has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. Just as in Myers's table, personality types whose primary four functions are completely opposite are separated by one block along diagonals. The same does not apply to the four "shadow" functions, however.

Type

ISITEJ

ISIFEJ

INIFEJ

INITEJ

1st - Hero/Heroine Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

2nd - Good Parent Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

3rd - Puer/Puella Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

4th - Anima/Animus Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

5th - Opposing Personality Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

6th - Senex/Witch Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

7th - Trickster Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

8th - Daemon Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

Type

ISETIP

ISEFIP

INEFIP

INETIP

1st - Hero/Heroine Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

2nd - Good Parent Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

3rd - Puer/Puella Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

4th - Anima/Animus Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

5th - Opposing Personality Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

6th - Senex/Witch Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

7th - Trickster Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

8th - Daemon Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Type

ESETIP

ESEFIP

ENEFIP

ENETIP

1st - Hero/Heroine Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

2nd - Good Parent Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

3rd - Puer/Puella Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

4th - Anima/Animus Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

5th - Opposing Personality Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

6th - Senex/Witch Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

7th - Trickster Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

8th - Daemon Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

Type

ESITEJ

ESIFEJ

ENIFEJ

ENITEJ

1st - Hero/Heroine Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking 2nd - Good Parent Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition 3rd - Puer/Puella Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing 4th - Anima/Animus Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling 5th - Opposing Personality Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking 6th - Senex/Witch Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition 7th - Trickster Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing 8th - Daemon Extraverted Feelings Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling the Bern

Carl Jung[edit]

Carl Jung developed the theory of cognitive processes in his book Psychological Types in which he defined only four psychological functions which can take introverted or extraverted attitudes, as well as a judging (rational) or perceiving (irrational) attitude determined by the primary function (judging if thinking or feeling, and perceiving if sensation or intuition).[20] He used the terms dominant, auxiliary, and inferior. Each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" in which the function is conscious. The more the function is conscious the more it is introverted for introverts and extraverted for extraverts.[21] The less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious,[clarification needed] and manifest in "happening" to the person and not under conscious control.[clarification needed][22][23][24] Therefore, there is a significant difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the orientation of the functions.

Also, there is a difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the designation of "inferior" function. While the MBTI clearly designates only the fourth function as the inferior, Jung uses a more flexible definition. "As a consequence of this one-sided development, one or more functions are necessarily retarded. These functions may properly be called inferior ..." (Jung, [1921] 1971:Def. Inferior Function, par. 763).

Isabel Myers[edit] A diagram of the cognitive functions of each Myers-Briggs type. A type's background color represents its Dominant function, and its text color represents its Auxiliary function. Isabel Myers created the original type table. In her table, diametrically opposite personality types (that is, those with no traits in common among the dichotomies) are separated by one block along diagonals. Type ISITEJ ISIFEJ INIFEJ INITEJ Dominant or first Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Auxiliary or second Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Tertiary or third Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Inferior or fourth Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Type ISETIP ISEFIP INEFIP INETIP Dominant or first Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Auxiliary or second Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Tertiary or third Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Inferior or fourth Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Type ESETIP ESEFIP ENEFIP ENETIP Dominant or first Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Auxiliary or second Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Tertiary or third Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Inferior or fourth Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Type ESITEJ ESIFEJ ENIFEJ ENITEJ Dominant or first Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Auxiliary or second Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Tertiary or third Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Inferior or fourth Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling the Bern

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator[edit]

Myers' Dichotomies

Extraversion Introversion

Sensing iNtuition

Thinking Feeling

Judging Perceiving

Bold letters are used as shorthand labels

Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometric testing whose ideas remain controversial within psychology, formalised these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ESFP" type is someone whose preferences are extraversion, sensing, feeling and perceiving).

Controversy over attitudes[edit]

Myers interpreted Jung as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. In support of Myers' (and/or Briggs') interpretation, in one sentence Jung seems to state that the "three inferior" functions of an (extreme) extravert are introverted. The "most differentiated function is always employed in an extraverted way, whereas the inferior functions are introverted" (Jung, [1921] 1971:par. 575).

Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect.[citation needed] Jungians interpret Jung as explicitly stating that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance.[citation needed] More recently, typologists such as John Beebe and Linda Berens have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functions—equivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudes—with the four in the opposite attitude to that measured known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious.

There is controversy even within the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), co-founded by Myers, regarding the attitude of the tertiary relative to the dominant. "The MBTI Qualifying Program", a binder given out during official training, puts the tertiary in the opposite attitude to the dominant on page 13; however, The Manual, which gives official instructions on how to use the test, has the tertiary in the same attitude on page 31. Charles Martin, former vice president of research at CAPT, writes the following on page 22 of the binder, "In what attitude is the tertiary? Isabel Myers read Jung to say that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior are all in the same attitude and opposite the dominant. Others (Harold Grant) read: tertiary is in the same attitude as the dominant."[citation needed]

To summarize Jung views, as discussed in Psychological Types and maintained until his death,[20] Jung posited that each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" where every conscious act is directed by the tendency to follow introversion for introverts and extraversion for extraverts. Jung's definition of the general attitude was not limiting the individual from experiencing the opposing attitude, but offers the "decisive determination".[21] The primary, or most developed, differentiated, and conscious function, is entirely positioned in the service of the conscious attitude of introversion or extraversion, but even if all other functions can be conscious and made to follow the general attitude, they are of less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious.[22][23] Later in the book, Jung describes the auxiliary function as being capable of some significant development or differentiation, if it remains less differentiated of that of the primary.[24] His views on the primary and auxiliary functions both being of enough differentiation to be considered conscious and set aside with the primary as opposed to the most inferior two functions can be noted as early as Psychological Types.[25]

Furthermore, the evidence given by Myers [26] for the orientation of the auxiliary function relies on one sentence from Jung:

"For all the types appearing in practice, the principle holds good that besides the conscious main function there is also a relatively unconscious, auxiliary function which is in every respect different from the nature of the main function."[20]

And in using this phrase to set an opposing attitude for the auxiliary function, Myers disregarded that in Jungian language, functions are separate from their orientation, as orientation is a property of consciousness as a whole, and also disregarded the examples Jung gave immediately afterwards in the text that do not speak of attitude:

"From these combinations well-known pictures arise, the practical intellect for instance paired with sensation, the speculative intellect breaking through with intuition, the artistic intuition which selects. and presents its images by means of feeling judgement, the philosophical intuition which, in league with a vigorous intellect, translates its vision into the sphere of comprehensible thought, and so forth."[27]

And also disregards the context and language Jung used in speaking of the four functions:

"I differentiate these functions from one another, because they are neither mutually relatable nor mutually reducible. The principle of thinking, for instance, is absolutely different from the principle of feeling, and so forth."[20]

Introverted intuition (Ni)[edit] Introverted intuition is the intuition that acts in an introverted manner. Introverted intuition is a function that is often described as hard to explain,[17] due to its highly inward and intangiable nature. The introverted intuition type has the ability to 'thread' multiple sources of phenomena into a certain view or vision.[18] This is contrary to its opposite, extraverted sensation, which sees things as they comes and in a very concrete manner.[17] The lack of this extraverted sensation can often make the Ni type a very dogged character, ignoring what is apparent and focusing on their synthesised worldview.[19

Sensation[edit]

Jung presented sensation as "that psychological function which transmits a physical stimulus to perception. [...] not only to the outer stimuli, but also to the inner, i.e. to changes in the internal organs. Primarily, therefore, sensation is sense-perception, i.e. perception transmitted via the sense organs and 'bodily senses' (kinaesthetic, vaso-motor sensation, etc.)." Also, since the process of conscious perception is a psychological phenomenon representing a physical phenomenon, and not the physical phenomenon itself, he adds: "On the one hand, it is an element of presentation, since it transmits to the presenting function the perceived image of the outer object; on the other hand, it is an element of feeling, because through the perception of bodily changes it lends the character of affect to feeling."[1]

Extraverted sensation (Se)[edit]

Extraverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in a realistic and concretist way. Like extraverted thinking, Se concerns itself with the facts; however, this is not for sake of logical fulfillment or completion, but for sake of receiving the highest physiological pleasure as possible. Extraverted sensation has little time for hidden meanings—most phenomena are self-explanatory to the Se psyche.[12]

Since an Se type's source of reward gravitates around perceiving and feeling external phenomena, a user of Se often has a good sense of aesthetic—whether this be the taste of food, or a new trend in clothing.[11]

Due to this mindset, Jung writes of the Se type's morality, "For true enjoyment, [the extraverted sensation type] has its own special morality, its own moderation and lawfulness, its own unselfishness and devotedness. It by no means follows that he is just sensual or gross, for he may differentiate his sensation to the finest pitch of æsthetic purity without being the least unfaithful, even in his most abstract sensations, to his principle of objective sensation."[12] Introverted sensation (Si)[edit] Introverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in such a way as extraverted sensation does above, but in a subjective manner. As Jung notes that all introverted functions focus on the past, Si compares phenomena with past experiences[13] and is very detailed in what it detects,[11] thus creating a level of conscientiousness and procedure in their work.[14]

Psychological functions[edit]

The four psychological functions may be subjugated to the control of consciousness, which can take two attitudes:

Extraversion: "a strong, if not exclusive, determination by the object."[1] Consciously, in an extravert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the extraverted 'general attitude of consciousness': "Now, when the orientation to the object and to objective facts is so predominant that the most frequent and essential decisions and actions are determined, not by subjective values but by objective relations, one speaks of an extraverted attitude. When this is habitual, one speaks of an extraverted type. If a man so thinks, feels, and acts, in a word so lives, as to correspond directly with objective conditions and their claims, whether in a good sense or ill, he is extraverted." [2]

Introversion: "a turning inwards of the libido, whereby a negative relation of subject to object is expressed. Interest does not move towards the object, but recedes towards the subject."[1] Consciously, in an introvert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the introverted 'general attitude of consciousness'. "Everyone whose attitude is introverted thinks, feels, and acts in a way that clearly demonstrates that the subject is the chief factor of motivation while the object at most receives only a secondary value." [1]

The difference between extraversion and introversion comes from the source of the decisive factor in forming motivation and developing ideas, whether it is objective (i.e. the external environment) or subjective (the collective unconscious, or "processes inherent in the psyche"[1]). When discussing function types, Jung ascribed movements of the libido in both directions for each function in each function type, but with one direction being that final judge.

The four basic psychological functions, thought (or intellect), feeling, sensation, and intuition are "basic functions" that can be briefly defined as follows.

Thinking[edit]

According to Jung, thinking is "that psychological function which, in accordance with its own laws, brings given presentations into conceptual connection." Jung also made distinction between active and passive thinking: "The term 'thinking' should, in my view, be confined to the linking up of representations by means of a concept, where, in other words, an act of judgment prevails, whether such act be the product of one's intention or not The faculty of directed thinking, I term intellect: the faculty of passive, or undirected, thinking, I term intellectual intuition." The former, active thought, is what Jung considered a 'judging function'.[3]

Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted thinking and introverted thinking to mean other than the function of thought as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively, but specific set of skills:

Extraverted thinking (Te)[edit]

Extraverted thinking is the thinking function that is objective (being extraverted) and typically employs inductive reasoning.[4] Extraverted thinking often places information such as facts in high order; Te is a process that is concerned with organisation and hierarchy of phenomena.

Although Te prefers data that is concrete and empirical in nature, the information only needs to be external and other phenomena that cannot be reduced to some form of objective nature will be ignored by the Te function. Te also employs a level of goal-setting and results within its function properties.[5]

Introverted thinking (Ti)[edit]

Introverted thinking is the thinking function that is subjective (being introverted) and typically employs deductive reasoning.[4] Ti is concerned with the general idea of phenomena and will attempt to explain a logical problem with subjective information. It contains a set of 'logical principles' that wishes to 'abstract' a system or structure to its bare principles. Hence, Ti is highly analytical; it also enforces a level of independence and individuality within its cognitive framework.[6]

Feeling[edit]

Jung defined feeling as "primarily a process that takes place between the ego and a given content, a process, moreover, that imparts to the content a definite value in the sense of acceptance or rejection [...] Hence feeling is also a kind of judging, differing, however, from an intellectual judgment, in that it does not aim at establishing an intellectual connection but is solely concerned with the setting up of a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection." [7] Also Jung made distinctions between feeling as a judging function, and emotions (affect): "Feeling is distinguished from affect by the fact that it gives rise to no perceptible physical innervations."[8]

Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted feeling and introverted feeling to mean other than the function of feeling as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively, but specific set of skills:

Extraverted feeling (Fe)[edit]

Extraverted feeling (Fe) is the feeling function that is primarily concerned with connection and commonality to others. Since it is extraverted and objective, it encapsulates the system of 'value' outward in the form of common courtesy and etiquette.[9]

Overall, Fe is concerned with phenomena to be harmonious with its external environment. Jung writes of extraverted feelers as those where feeling "loses its personal character -- it becomes feeling per se; it almost seems as though the personality were wholly dissolved in the feeling of the moment. Now, since in actual life situations constantly and successively alternate, in which the feeling-tones released are not only different but are actually mutually contrasting, the personality inevitably becomes dissipated in just so many different feelings."[10]

Introverted feeling (Fi)[edit]

Introverted feeling (Fi) is the feeling function that is primarily concerned with authenticity, personal values and individuality. This is because it is focused inwardly and because of this, a dominant or auxiliary user of Fi can be quite reluctant to share their values, or be indifferent towards causes that are of no interest to the Fi user.[10]

Fi is often seen as very hard to elucidate since so little of it is openly displayed. Jung writes of feeling in introverted feelers "[As feeling] continually seeking an image which has no existence in reality, but which it has seen in a kind of vision. It glides unheedingly over all objects that do not fit in with its aim. It strives after inner intensity, for which the objects serve at most as a stimulus. The depth of this feeling can only be guessed—it can never be clearly grasped. It makes people silent and difficult of access; it shrinks back like a violet from the brute nature of the object in order to fill the depths of the subject. It comes out with negative judgments or assumes an air of profound indifference as a means of defence."

The model in which the four cognitive functions combine to form different psychological types was conceived by Jung in his pioneering work Psychological Types (1921, ISBN 0-691-09770-4). Jung also posited that the functions formed a hierarchy within a person's psychological dynamics — the most developed function is referred to as the "dominant", with the remaining three filling the roles as "auxiliary" and "inferior" functions.

Jung never meant for eight cognitive functions but four basic functions, thinking, feeling, intuition, and sensation. (Jung, C.G. [1921] (1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.)

A summary of Jung's ideas regarding functions and types is described in the following table.

General Attitude Type Extraverted Types

Rational/Irrational Attitude type Judging Types Perceiving Types

Function Type Extraverted Thinking Types Extraverted Feeling Types Extraverted Sensation Types Extraverted Intuitive Types

Auxiliary Function Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling

Primary:

Most differentiated in the extraverted consciousness Thinking Thinking Feeling Feeling Sensation Sensation Intuition Intuition

Auxiliary:

Less differentiated and assisting the primary Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling

Inferior:

Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of introverted unconscious Intuition Sensation Intuition Sensation Feeling Thinking Feeling Thinking

Inferior:

Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of introverted unconscious Feeling Feeling Thinking Thinking Intuition Intuition Sensation Sensation General Attitude Type Introverted Types Rational/Irrational Attitude type Judging Types Perceiving Types Function Type Introverted Thinking Types Introverted Feeling Types Introverted Sensation Types Introverted Intuitive Types Auxiliary Function Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling Primary: Most differentiated in the introverted consciousness Thinking Thinking Feeling Feeling Sensation Sensation Intuition Intuition Auxiliary: Less differentiated and assisting the primary Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling Inferior: Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of extraverted unconscious Intuition Sensation Intuition Sensation Feeling Thinking Feeling Thinking Inferior: Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of extraverted unconscious Feeling Feeling Thinking Thinking Intuition Intuition Sensation Sensation

QMRIn Carl Jung's theories of psychological type the cognitive functions (sometimes known as mental functions) are defined as different ways of perceiving and judging. They are defined as "thinking", "feeling", "sensation" and "intuition".

QMRIn Hinduism, the Mother of all creation is called "Gayatri". Gayatri is the name of one of the most important Vedic hymns consisting of twenty-four syllables. One of the sacred texts says, "The Gayatri is Brahma, Gayatri is Vishnu, Gayatri is Shiva, the Gayatri is Vedas" and Gayatri later came to be personified as a goddess. She is shown as having five heads and is usually seated within a lotus. The four heads of Gayatri represent the four Vedas and the fifth one represents the almighty deity. In her ten hands, she holds all the symbols of Lord Vishnu. She is another consort of Lord Brahma.

QMRLevels of anima development[edit]

Jung believed anima development has four distinct levels, which he named Eve, Helen, Mary and Sophia. In broad terms, the entire process of anima development in a man is about the male subject opening up to emotionality, and in that way a broader spirituality, by creating a new conscious paradigm that includes intuitive processes, creativity and imagination, and psychic sensitivity towards himself and others where it might not have existed previously.[citation needed]

Eve[edit]

The first is Eve, named after the Genesis account of Adam and Eve. It deals with the emergence of a man's object of desire.

Helen[edit]

The second is Helen, an allusion to Helen of Troy in Greek mythology. In this phase, women are viewed as capable of worldly success and of being self-reliant, intelligent and insightful, even if not altogether virtuous. This second phase is meant to show a strong schism in external talents (cultivated business and conventional skills) with lacking internal qualities (inability for virtue, lacking faith or imagination).

Mary[edit]

The third phase is Mary, named after the Christian theological understanding of the Virgin Mary (Jesus' mother). At this level, women can now seem to possess virtue by the perceiving man (even if in an esoteric and dogmatic way), in as much as certain activities deemed consciously unvirtuous cannot be applied to her.

Sophia[edit]

The fourth and final phase of anima development is Sophia, named after the Greek word for wisdom. Complete integration has now occurred, which allows women to be seen and related to as particular individuals who possess both positive and negative qualities. The most important aspect of this final level is that, as the personification "Wisdom" suggests, the anima is now developed enough that no single object can fully and permanently contain the images to which it is related.

Levels of animus development[edit]

Jung focused more on the man's anima and wrote less about the woman's animus. Jung believed that every woman has an analogous animus within her psyche, this being a set of unconscious masculine attributes and potentials. He viewed the animus as being more complex than the anima, postulating that women have a host of animus images whereas the male anima consists only of one dominant image.

Jung stated that there are four parallel levels of animus development in a woman.[3]

Man of mere physical power[edit]

The animus "first appears as a personification of mere physical power - for instance as an athletic champion or muscle man, such as 'the fictional jungle hero Tarzan'".[4]

Man of action or romance[edit]

In the next phase, the animus "possesses initiative and the capacity for planned action...the romantic man - the 19th century British poet Shelley; or the man of action - America's Ernest Hemingway, war hero, hunter, etc."[5]

Man as a professor, clergyman, orator[edit] In the third phase "the animus becomes the word, often appearing as a professor or clergyman...the bearer of the word - Lloyd George, the great political orator".[5] Man as a helpful guide to understanding herself[edit] "Finally, in his fourth manifestation, the animus is the incarnation of meaning. On this highest level he becomes (like the anima) a mediator of...spiritual profundity".[6] Jung noted that "in mythology, this aspect of the animus appears as Hermes, messenger of the gods; in dreams he is a helpful guide." Like Sophia, this is the highest level of mediation between the unconscious and conscious mind.[citation needed]

QMRPsychological Types is Volume 6 in the Princeton / Bollingen edition of the The Collected Works of C. G. Jung.[1] It was also published in the U.K. by Routledge.[2] The original German language edition, Psychologische Typen, was first published by Rascher Verlag, Zurich in 1921.[3] Extensive detailed abstracts of each chapter are available online.[4]

In the book Jung categorized people into primary types of psychological function. He proposed four main functions of consciousness:

Two perceiving functions: Sensation and Intuition

Two judging functions: Thinking and Feeling

The functions are modified by two main attitude types: extraversion and introversion. Jung theorized that the dominant function characterizes consciousness, while its opposite is repressed and characterizes unconscious behavior.

The eight psychological types are as follows:

Extraverted sensation Introverted sensation Extraverted intuition Introverted intuition Extraverted thinking Introverted thinking Extraverted feeling Introverted feeling In Psychological Types, Jung describes in detail the effects of tensions between the complexes associated with the dominant and inferior differentiating functions in highly and even extremely one-sided types. Myers and Briggs came later and added the perceptive and judging function which ultimately yielded the 16 types

The Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 (c. 1800–1600 BC) gives an approximation of √2 in four sexagesimal figures, 1 24 51 10, which is accurate to about six decimal digits,[1] and is the closest possible three-place sexagesimal representation of √2:

1 + \frac{24}{60} + \frac{51}{60^2} + \frac{10}{60^3} = \frac{30547}{21600} = 1.41421\overline{296}.

Another early close approximation is given in ancient Indian mathematical texts, the Sulbasutras (c. 800–200 BC) as follows: Increase the length [of the side] by its third and this third by its own fourth less the thirty-fourth part of that fourth.[2] That is,

1 + \frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{3 \cdot 4} - \frac{1}{3 \cdot4 \cdot 34} = \frac{577}{408} = 1.41421\overline{56862745098039}.

This ancient Indian approximation is the seventh in a sequence of increasingly accurate approximations based on the sequence of Pell numbers, that can be derived from the continued fraction expansion of √2. Despite having a smaller denominator, it is only slightly less accurate than the Babylonian approximation.

Pythagoreans discovered that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with its side, or in modern language, that the square root of two is irrational. Little is known with certainty about the time or circumstances of this discovery, but the name of Hippasus of Metapontum is often mentioned. For a while, the Pythagoreans treated as an official secret the discovery that the square root of two is irrational, and, according to legend, Hippasus was murdered for divulging it.[3][4][5] The square root of two is occasionally called "Pythagoras' number" or "Pythagoras' Constant", for example by Conway & Guy (1996).[6] The Babylonian tablet was a quadrant

QMRThe square root of 2, written in mathematics as √2 or 2^{1/2}, is the positive algebraic number that, when multiplied by itself, gives the number 2. Technically, it is called the principal square root of 2, to distinguish it from the negative number with the same property. Geometrically the square root of 2 is the length of a diagonal across a square with sides of one unit of length; this follows from the Pythagorean theorem. It was probably the first number known to be irrational. Its numerical value, truncated to 65 decimal places, is: 1.41421356237309504880168872420969807856967187537694807317667973799... (sequence A002193 in OEIS). The square root of 2. The approximation 99/70 (≈ 1.41429) for the square root of two is frequently used. Despite having a denominator of only 70, it differs from the correct value by less than 1/10,000 (approx. 7.2 × 10−5). The approximation 665857/470832 is valid to within 1.13 x 10−12: its square is 2.0000000000045.... Plato tried to find this by drawing a quadrant

QMRA Kummer extension is a field extension L/K, where for some given integer n > 1 we have K contains n distinct nth roots of unity (i.e., roots of Xn−1) L/K has abelian Galois group of exponent n. For example, when n = 2, the first condition is always true if K has characteristic ≠ 2. The Kummer extensions in this case include quadratic extensions L = K(√a) where a in K is a non-square element. By the usual solution of quadratic equations, any extension of degree 2 of K has this form. The Kummer extensions in this case also include biquadratic extensions and more general multiquadratic extensions. When K has characteristic 2, there are no such Kummer extensions.

QMRHarry Beilin described Jean Piaget's theoretical research program[19] as consisting of four phases: the sociological model of development, the biological model of intellectual development, the elaboration of the logical model of intellectual development, the study of figurative thought.

QMRMénage à trois[edit] A love triangle should not be confused with a ménage à trois, a three-way relationship in which all members are romantically involved with each other instead of being in conflict over one person. Ménage à trois is French and directly translates to "household for three" meaning it is usually composed of a "married couple and a lover...who live together while sharing sexual relations". This differs from a love triangle because each participant is equally motivated purely by sexual desires. The ménage à trois may be considered a subset of 'The Sandwich...a straight three-handed operation...which may be operated with any assortment of sexes: three men, three women, two men and a woman ("Ménage à trois"), or two women and a man ("The Tourist Sandwich")'.[23] There is also the possibility of 'a ménage à trois powered by the passion of hatred'.[24] Love rectangle[edit] Love rectangle (also quadrangle or quad or "love square") is a somewhat facetious term to describe a romantic relationship that involves four people, analogous to the typically three-sided love triangle. Many people use this term for a romantic relationship between two people that is complicated by the romantic attentions of two other people or one person who is complicated by the romantic attentions of three other people, but it is more frequently reserved for relationships where there are more connections. Minimally, both male characters usually have some current or past association with both female characters. These relationships need not be sexual; they can be friendships or familial relations. Both males and/or both females can also be friends, family members (frequently siblings) or sworn enemies. Love rectangles tend to be more complicated than love triangles, often using their tangled relationships as a source of comedic humor. They may however only be a spin-off from the main love triangle, where 'as a sub-plot, A may try to rekindle B's love by introducing yet a fourth party (D)'.[25] Similarly extraneous is the husband in the Marquis de Sade's "Room for Two", where the witty, pretty heroine sets out to find 'two assistants for her husband', unbeknown to each other; and who, on being discovered by the one assistant with the other, calls out "Don't disturb us, my friend, and take your place in what's left to you; you can easily see there's room for two'.[26] An example of a love rectangle in classic literature is in William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, between the characters Lysander, Demetrius, Helena, and Hermia. Demetrius is granted Hermia's hand in marriage by her father, but Hermia loves Lysander, and the two flee, intending to elope. Demetrius pursues the couple, and Helena pursues Demetrius, whom she has always loved. The fairy Puck, in trying to use magic to resolve the situation, temporarily transfers both men's affections to Helena. Further tampering restores Lysander's love for Hermia. Demetrius, now in love with Helena, withdraws his claim on Hermia, and both couples are wed. Another love rectangle happens in Mozart's Così Fan Tutte, where female characters Dorabella and Fiordiligi (siblings) are Ferrando and Gugliemo's girlfriends respectively, and by the end of the opera they "accidentally" swap their boyfriends. The love rectangle concept is popular in television programs such as Lost (Jack/Kate/Sawyer/Juliet), True Blood (Bill/Sookie/Eric/Alcide), That '70s Show (Kelso/Jackie/Hyde/Laurie), One Tree Hill (Lucas/Peyton/Nathan/Brooke), The Vampire Diaries (Stefan/Elena/Damon/Katherine) and on the ABC soap opera Love Lives (Megan/Joey/Andrea/Collin). This is also a common theme in many manga and anime, a sub-genera known as harem in which multiple characters are in love with the protagonist. For additional terms, the word "love" can be prefixed to other polygons with the appropriate number of vertices, to reflect romantic relationships involving more people, e.g. "love pentagon" or a "love hexagon."

QMRMénage à trois[edit] A love triangle should not be confused with a ménage à trois, a three-way relationship in which all members are romantically involved with each other instead of being in conflict over one person. Ménage à trois is French and directly translates to "household for three" meaning it is usually composed of a "married couple and a lover...who live together while sharing sexual relations". This differs from a love triangle because each participant is equally motivated purely by sexual desires. The ménage à trois may be considered a subset of 'The Sandwich...a straight three-handed operation...which may be operated with any assortment of sexes: three men, three women, two men and a woman ("Ménage à trois"), or two women and a man ("The Tourist Sandwich")'.[23] There is also the possibility of 'a ménage à trois powered by the passion of hatred'.[24] Love rectangle[edit] Love rectangle (also quadrangle or quad or "love square") is a somewhat facetious term to describe a romantic relationship that involves four people, analogous to the typically three-sided love triangle. Many people use this term for a romantic relationship between two people that is complicated by the romantic attentions of two other people or one person who is complicated by the romantic attentions of three other people, but it is more frequently reserved for relationships where there are more connections. Minimally, both male characters usually have some current or past association with both female characters. These relationships need not be sexual; they can be friendships or familial relations. Both males and/or both females can also be friends, family members (frequently siblings) or sworn enemies. Love rectangles tend to be more complicated than love triangles, often using their tangled relationships as a source of comedic humor. They may however only be a spin-off from the main love triangle, where 'as a sub-plot, A may try to rekindle B's love by introducing yet a fourth party (D)'.[25] Similarly extraneous is the husband in the Marquis de Sade's "Room for Two", where the witty, pretty heroine sets out to find 'two assistants for her husband', unbeknown to each other; and who, on being discovered by the one assistant with the other, calls out "Don't disturb us, my friend, and take your place in what's left to you; you can easily see there's room for two'.[26] An example of a love rectangle in classic literature is in William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, between the characters Lysander, Demetrius, Helena, and Hermia. Demetrius is granted Hermia's hand in marriage by her father, but Hermia loves Lysander, and the two flee, intending to elope. Demetrius pursues the couple, and Helena pursues Demetrius, whom she has always loved. The fairy Puck, in trying to use magic to resolve the situation, temporarily transfers both men's affections to Helena. Further tampering restores Lysander's love for Hermia. Demetrius, now in love with Helena, withdraws his claim on Hermia, and both couples are wed. Another love rectangle happens in Mozart's Così Fan Tutte, where female characters Dorabella and Fiordiligi (siblings) are Ferrando and Gugliemo's girlfriends respectively, and by the end of the opera they "accidentally" swap their boyfriends. The love rectangle concept is popular in television programs such as Lost (Jack/Kate/Sawyer/Juliet), True Blood (Bill/Sookie/Eric/Alcide), That '70s Show (Kelso/Jackie/Hyde/Laurie), One Tree Hill (Lucas/Peyton/Nathan/Brooke), The Vampire Diaries (Stefan/Elena/Damon/Katherine) and on the ABC soap opera Love Lives (Megan/Joey/Andrea/Collin). This is also a common theme in many manga and anime, a sub-genera known as harem in which multiple characters are in love with the protagonist. For additional terms, the word "love" can be prefixed to other polygons with the appropriate number of vertices, to reflect romantic relationships involving more people, e.g. "love pentagon" or a "love hexagon."

QMRMénage à trois[edit] A love triangle should not be confused with a ménage à trois, a three-way relationship in which all members are romantically involved with each other instead of being in conflict over one person. Ménage à trois is French and directly translates to "household for three" meaning it is usually composed of a "married couple and a lover...who live together while sharing sexual relations". This differs from a love triangle because each participant is equally motivated purely by sexual desires. The ménage à trois may be considered a subset of 'The Sandwich...a straight three-handed operation...which may be operated with any assortment of sexes: three men, three women, two men and a woman ("Ménage à trois"), or two women and a man ("The Tourist Sandwich")'.[23] There is also the possibility of 'a ménage à trois powered by the passion of hatred'.[24] Love rectangle[edit] Love rectangle (also quadrangle or quad or "love square") is a somewhat facetious term to describe a romantic relationship that involves four people, analogous to the typically three-sided love triangle. Many people use this term for a romantic relationship between two people that is complicated by the romantic attentions of two other people or one person who is complicated by the romantic attentions of three other people, but it is more frequently reserved for relationships where there are more connections. Minimally, both male characters usually have some current or past association with both female characters. These relationships need not be sexual; they can be friendships or familial relations. Both males and/or both females can also be friends, family members (frequently siblings) or sworn enemies. Love rectangles tend to be more complicated than love triangles, often using their tangled relationships as a source of comedic humor. They may however only be a spin-off from the main love triangle, where 'as a sub-plot, A may try to rekindle B's love by introducing yet a fourth party (D)'.[25] Similarly extraneous is the husband in the Marquis de Sade's "Room for Two", where the witty, pretty heroine sets out to find 'two assistants for her husband', unbeknown to each other; and who, on being discovered by the one assistant with the other, calls out "Don't disturb us, my friend, and take your place in what's left to you; you can easily see there's room for two'.[26] An example of a love rectangle in classic literature is in William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, between the characters Lysander, Demetrius, Helena, and Hermia. Demetrius is granted Hermia's hand in marriage by her father, but Hermia loves Lysander, and the two flee, intending to elope. Demetrius pursues the couple, and Helena pursues Demetrius, whom she has always loved. The fairy Puck, in trying to use magic to resolve the situation, temporarily transfers both men's affections to Helena. Further tampering restores Lysander's love for Hermia. Demetrius, now in love with Helena, withdraws his claim on Hermia, and both couples are wed. Another love rectangle happens in Mozart's Così Fan Tutte, where female characters Dorabella and Fiordiligi (siblings) are Ferrando and Gugliemo's girlfriends respectively, and by the end of the opera they "accidentally" swap their boyfriends. The love rectangle concept is popular in television programs such as Lost (Jack/Kate/Sawyer/Juliet), True Blood (Bill/Sookie/Eric/Alcide), That '70s Show (Kelso/Jackie/Hyde/Laurie), One Tree Hill (Lucas/Peyton/Nathan/Brooke), The Vampire Diaries (Stefan/Elena/Damon/Katherine) and on the ABC soap opera Love Lives (Megan/Joey/Andrea/Collin). This is also a common theme in many manga and anime, a sub-genera known as harem in which multiple characters are in love with the protagonist. For additional terms, the word "love" can be prefixed to other polygons with the appropriate number of vertices, to reflect romantic relationships involving more people, e.g. "love pentagon" or a "love hexagon."

QMRAntonia Anna "Toni" Wolff (18 September 1888 — 21 March 1953) was a Swiss Jungian analyst and a close associate of Carl Jung. During her analytic career Toni Wolff published relatively little under her own name, but she helped Jung identify, define, and name some of his best-known concepts including anima, animus, and persona.[1] Her best-known paper was an essay on four "types" or aspects of the feminine psyche: the Amazon, the Mother, the Hetaira (or Courtesan), and the Medial (or mediumistic) Woman.[2]

QMRThere are four separate surviving manuscripts of "The Secret Book of John". Three of these were found in the Nag Hammadi codices in 1945, while the fourth was found independently 50 years earlier from another site in Egypt. All four versions date to the 4th century. Three of these appear to be independently produced Coptic translations of an original Greek text. Two of the four are similar enough that they probably represent copies of a single source. Although the different versions of the texts have minor variants (The Berlin Codex has many minor differences with the Nag Hammadi II and IV), all texts generally agree that the main revealing entity was Jesus Christ.

QMRRobert L. Moore, Jungian analyst and professor of psychology and religion, cites Jesus Christ as expressing four archetypal patterns found in the male psyche: the Warrior (in wrestling with his inner demons in the desert and at Gethsemane);[12] the Lover (in radicalizing the commandment to love our neighbors);[13] the Magician (in changing water to wine, feeding the thousands, and healing the sick);[14] and the King (in generating the Kingdom of God, and in identifying himself with the way to the Father).

QMRIn "A Psychological Approach to the Doctrine of the Trinity",[6] again by tenet #1 Jung interprets the Father as the self, the source of energy within the psyche; the Son as an emergent structure of consciousness that replaces the self-alienated ego; and the Holy Spirit as a mediating structure between the ego and the self. However, Jung believed that the psyche moves toward completion in fours(made up of pairs of opposites), and that therefore (using tenet #3 above) the Christian formulation of the Trinity would give way to a quaternity by including missing aspects (e.g. the feminine and evil). (This analysis prompted Jung to send a congratulatory note to Pope Pius XII in 1950 upon the adoption of the doctrine of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, to wit completing the quaternity.)

QMRWhen making observations, scientists look through telescopes, study images on electronic screens, record meter readings, and so on. Generally, on a basic level, they can agree on what they see, e.g., the thermometer shows 37.9 degrees C. But, if these scientists have different ideas about the theories that have been developed to explain these basic observations, they may disagree about what they are observing. For example, before Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, observers would have likely interpreted the image at left as five different objects in space. In light of that theory, however, astronomers will tell you that is actually only two objects, one in the center and four different images of the same object around the sides. Alternatively, if other scientists suspect that something is wrong with the telescope and only one object is actually being observed, they are operating under yet another theory. Observations that cannot be separated from theoretical interpretation are said to be theory-laden.[16] All observation involves both perception and cognition. That is, one does not make an observation passively, but rather is actively engaged in distinguishing the phenomenon being observed from surrounding sensory data. Therefore, observations are affected by one's underlying understanding of the way in which the world functions, and that understanding may influence what is perceived, noticed, or deemed worthy of consideration. In this sense, it can be argued that all observation is theory-laden.[16]

QMRThe earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. When one defuses into rivalry with the parental imago, then one feels the 'dictatorial thou shalt' to manifest the power the imago represents. Four general levels are found in Freud's work: the auto-erotic, the narcissistic, the anal, and the phallic.[3] These different levels of development and the relations to parental imagos correspond to specific id forms of aggression and affection. For example, aggressive desires to decapitate, to dismember, to cannibalize, to swallow whole, to suck dry, to make disappear, to blow away, etc. animate myths, are enjoyed in fantasy and horror movies, and are observable in the fantasies and repressions of patients across cultures.

QMRJungian Type Index From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Jungian Type Index (JTI) is an alternative to the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). Introduced by Optimas in 2001,[1] the JTI was developed over a 10-year period in Norway by psychologists Thor Ødegård and Hallvard E: Ringstad. The JTI was designed to help capture individuals' preferred usage of the psychological functions identified by Carl Jung in his book Psychological Types, such as thinking vs feeling and sensing vs intuition. The JTI's questions and methodology for identifying the preferred functions differs from the MBTI. For example it eliminates word pairs, which can be troublesome to translate from English into other languages.[citation needed] In many languages, the sentence context frames the meaning of a word, while in English the words themselves may denote more meaning. Overview[edit] Similar to the MBTI, the JTI identifies 4 categories from which the 16 types are formed: Extraversion/Introversion, Intuiting/Sensing, Thinking/Feeling, Perceiving/Judging. A personality type is reached through an examination or introspection about these categories. For example, an Intuiting, Thinking, Judging Extrovert would be classified as an ENTJ. However, further complexity lies below this surface-level classification. Each personality types has its associated Jungian cognitive functions, which aim to further explain the ways in which each type perceives and interacts with reality. Each type has all 4 of the cognitive functions (Thinking, Feeling, Intuiting, and Sensing) arranged in a different order and with different levels of introversion/extroversion. Of the two middle letters of any type, one will be the primary function with which they interact with the world, and one will be the auxiliary. For example, an ENTJ's primary function is (extraverted) Thinking, and their secondary function is (introverted) Intuiting.[2] Commercialization[edit] Though it is relatively unknown in the United States, but it has won some market shares in Scandinavia although the original MBTI tool is still the most commonly used. In Norway and Sweden,[3] the JTI is also gaining users, in conjunction with other tools that complement the JTI for career development and coaching.[citation needed] It also has distributors in the Netherlands, China, and Germany.[4]

In addition to Model A, two other models are in wide use by socionists. Model B, created by Aleksandr Bukalov, is designed to reconcile the socionics standpoint with the so-called "Model J" (Jung's outlook) and uses sixteen functional components instead of eight. The model uses the same eight functions as Model A, but further differentiates them by attributing positive and negative polarities to each.[132] Model B also refines Model A's strong/weak concept by attributing vectors of dimensionality to each function.[127] This allows it to describe with precision why some functions are relied on more than others. The four dimensions are Globality (also thought of as "time") Situation Cultural normatives Experience Experience is the lowest dimension; globality is the highest. The importance of the dimension system lies in its clarification of the differences between strong and weak functions. Although any type may learn information specific to any function with adequate study, only the strong functions have the vectors of situation which are required to create new knowledge. The types are thus reliant on each other in their search for understanding.[citation needed]

Temperaments[edit] Viktor Gulenko's hypothesis of the existence of four temperaments in socionics is as follows.[131] Extraverted Rational Temperament (Ej). Extraverted rational types, namely the ESE, EIE, LIE, and LSE, are characterized by energetic and proactive behavior. (close to choleric temperament) Introverted Rational Temperament (Ij). Introverted rational types, namely the LII, LSI, ESI, and EII, are characterized by slow and methodical behavior. (close to phlegmatic temperament) Extraverted Irrational Temperament (Ep). Extraverted irrational types, namely the ILE, SLE, SEE, and IEE, are characterized by impulsive and unpredictable behavior. (close to sanguine temperament) Introverted Irrational Temperament (Ip). Introverted irrational types, namely the SEI, IEI, ILI, and SLI, are characterized by lack of motivation, inertia, and unstable moods and energy levels. (close to melancholic temperament) Beside Gulenko's, there are several other theories of correlation between temperaments and socionic types, although almost all socionic authors support Eysenck's view that temperaments do correlate with the E/I factor.[citation needed]

Groups of types[edit] Quadras[edit] A quadra is a group of four types in which only identity, dual, activity, and mirror relations occur. Quadras are distinguished by offering the greatest degree of psychological comfort among all groups containing four types. The feeling of comfort and harmony produced by the quadra is due to the fact that all types in the quadra seek to give expression to the shared set of information elements in their ego and super-id blocks and to de-emphasize the information elements in their super-ego and id blocks.[citation needed] Similar to the harmony of types within the same quadra, opposing forces also exist. If one were to put the four quadras in a circle, alpha-beta-gamma-delta, the two quadras facing each other would be opposing quadras and consist entirely of quasi-identical, conflictor, super-ego, and extinguishment relations. A person surrounded by people of the opposing type will often feel uneasy and out of place, due to the fact that all the people around them either lead with or seek for their weakest function. That type of interaction is often the basis for inherent misunderstandings between seemingly similar people (as in the case of the quasi-identical) or two people who seem to offend each other at every turn (often found in conflicting relations).[citation needed] The Quadras 1 Alpha 2 Beta 3 Gamma 4 Delta ILE (ENTp) SEI (ISFp/ISFJ) ESE (ESFj) LII (INTj/INTP) EIE (ENFj) LSI (ISTj/ISTP) SLE (ESTp) IEI (INFp/INFJ) SEE (ESFp) ILI (INTp/INTJ) LIE (ENTj) ESI (ISFj/ISFP) LSE (ESTj) EII (INFj/INFP) IEE (ENFp) SLI (ISTp/ISTJ) Clubs[edit] Clubs are groups that reflect spheres of activity.[citation needed] There are 4 clubs, each with 4 types: Pragmatists (ST): ESTp, ESTj, ISTp, ISTj; or SLE, LSE, SLI, LSI Researchers (NT): ENTp, ENTj, INTp, INTj; or ILE, LIE, ILI, LII Socials (SF): ESFp, ESFj, ISFp, ISFj; or SEE, ESE, SEI, ESI Humanitarians (NF): ENFp, ENFj, INFp, INFj; or IEE, EIE, IEI, EII

Key: Du - Duality; Ac - Activation; Sd - Semi-duality; Mg - Mirage; Mr - Mirror; Id - Identity; Cp - Cooperation; Cg - Congenerity; QI - Quasi-Identity; Ex - Extinguishment; Se - Super-ego; Cf - Conflict; Rq+ - Requester; Rq- - Request recipient; Sv+ - Supervisor; Sv- - Supervisee Duality[edit] Duality is a fundamental concept in Socionics. Dual relations are characterized by mutual benefit and support, and are generally viewed as optimal for friendship, intimacy, and marriage (though sociotype is not the only factor influencing this). The eight dual pairs are as follows: LSE Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg — Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg EII LIE Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg — Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg ESI ESE Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg — Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg LII EIE Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg — Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg LSI SLE Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg — Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg IEI SEE Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg — Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg ILI ILE Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg — Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg SEI IEE Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg — Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg SLI In dual relations, the leading function of one partner is the suggestive function of the other, and the creative function of one partner is the mobilizing function of the other. Thus, the ego functions (the strongest and most socialized) of each correspond to the super-id functions of the other (the area where the person needs and expects assistance). Likewise, the super-ego block of one corresponds to the id of the other. In this relation, just 1 of 4 Jungian dichotomies is shared—rationality/irrationality. Duality interaction is generally rewarding and satisfying for both parties, providing inspiration and support. Duality is a central theme of the philosophy of socionics study: Augusta often stated her position that a person who is estranged from contact with a dual partner must cope by unnaturally distorting their personality, a phenomenon called "type masking". Relationships with conflictor types are cited as particularly troublesome: it is not uncommon for a person in a close relationship with their conflictor to develop an acute neurotic condition.[citation needed] The duality system is demonstrated in the following diagram, which details function relationships between two duals, an ILE and an SEI: Socionics scheme duality ILE-SEI.gif

Blocks of the psyche[edit]

According to Augustinavičiūtė, the functions are paired in four blocks: the ego block, the super-ego block, the id block, and the super-id block. The ego block contains the leading (1) and creative (2) functions, the super-ego block contains the role (3) and vulnerable (4) functions, the super-id block contains the suggestive (5) and mobilizing (6) functions, while the id block contains the observant (7) and demonstrative (8) functions.

The functions within the ego and super-ego blocks are said to be conscious (or "mental") functions, while those within the id and super-id blocks are said to be unconscious (or "vital"). The functions residing within the ego and id blocks are strong functions which are used naturally and well, while the functions of the super-ego and super-id blocks are weak functions and are used with difficulty. (In addition, using super-ego functions is stressful.)

1 2

4 3

6 5

7 8

ego

super-ego

super-id

id

strong

weak

weak

strong

The 16 types in Model A[edit]

ILE

Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg

Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg

Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg

Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg

SEI

Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg

Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg

Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg

Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg

ESE

Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg

Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg

Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg

Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg

LII

Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg

Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg

Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg

Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg

EIE

Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg

Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg

Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg

Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg

LSI

Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg

Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg

Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg

Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg

SLE

Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg

Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg

Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg

Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg

IEI

Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg

Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg

Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg

Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg

SEE

Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg

Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg

Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg

Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg

ILI

Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg

Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg

Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg

Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg

LIE

Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg

Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg

Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg

Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg

ESI

Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg

Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg

Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg

Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg

LSE

Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg

Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg

Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg

Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg

EII

Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg

Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg

Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg

Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg

IEE

Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg

Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg

Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg

Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg

SLI

Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg

Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg

Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg

Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg

Intertype relations[edit]

Socionics postulates that the way information is communicated between different types results in different interaction styles, called intertype relations. Each intertype relation has its bad and good qualities, though duality is generally considered to be the most psychologically comfortable as a long-term relationship. In total there are 16 relationship roles for each type (14 when not counting the split roles in the supervision and benefit relationship). All relations beside Request and Supervision are symmetric. Request and Supervision relations are asymmetric and have 2 roles: Request - Requester and Request recipient, Supervision - Supervisor and Supervisee. Each cell in the table shows who the type in the left column is to the type in the top row.

Mathematics[edit]

Socionics, being Base-16, can be used with bitwise operations after Base-2 reduction

Relation Base 16 Base 10 Base 2 Type

Ident. 0 0 0000 ENTp

Quas. 1 1 0001 ENTj

Cong. 2 2 0010 ENFp

Requ. 3 3 0011 ENFj

Coop. 4 4 0100 ESTp

Requ. 5 5 0101 ESTj

Sego. 6 6 0110 ESFp

Actv. 7 7 0111 ESFj

Extn. 8 8 1000 INTp

Mirr. 9 9 1001 INTj

Mira. A 10 1010 INFp

Supr. B 11 1011 INFj

Semi. C 12 1100 ISTp

Supr. D 13 1101 ISTj

Dual. E 14 1110 ISFp

Conf. F 15 1111 ISFj

Since socionics is mathematically Base-16 and also a psychology of personality in the same way as the typology of Carl Jung and Myers–Briggs, it shares a similar degree of mathematical consistency, while enduring the same serious shortcomings in the experimental justification of these theories.

Taking this, socionics also differs from other typologies in that it also includes a complementary Base-16 relationship set, with the intent of penning to paper the key social dynamic traits between grouped combinations of socionic types. Therefore, socionics could be considered to be within the realm of the science of social dynamics, intended to describe social behavior according to mathematical applications of Base-16, group theory, set logic, and reduction of the Gulenko-Jungian notation for socionics types to hexadecimal and Base-2 bitwise operation. While this mathematical approach is strictly theoretical and has been criticized for lack of empirical testing,[128] systems theory has been the tool of socionics theorist, such as Gregory Reinin to derive theorical dichotomies within socionics theory. In 1985 Aušra Augustinavičiūtė acknowledged the mathematical theories of Reinin and wrote a book titled The Theory of Reinin's Traits to describe the mathematical processes of socionics theory. Mathematical methods have been a standard part of socionics theory since this time.

Studies of Elena Udalova show that at least three of Reinin's Traits are distinguishable and can be used for detection of a sociotype. Those include: statics/dynamics (having appropriate functions in their mental track), questims/declatims (tending to raise questions or declare opinions), and aristocrats/democrats (understanding inequality or equality of people). Not all names of Reinin's Traits reflect their actual meaning very well, but they were defined historically and now seem to be fixed. The methodology of deriving socionic relationships from two socionic types is similar to the enumeration of 16 possible boolean algebraic functions from two binary output and input variable types, with truth tables and during construction of logic gates in electronics.[129]

4-letter

type acronym

(MBTI) 4-letter

type acronym

(socionics) Four functions

(Jung[125]) Four functions

(MBTI) Two functions

(socionics) Formal name Type alias Social role

ESTJ ESTj Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg Te Si Ne Fi Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg Logical Sensory Extravert (LSE) Stierlitz Administrator / Director

ENTJ ENTj Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg Te Ni Se Fi Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg Logical Intuitive Extravert (LIE) Jack London Enterpriser / Pioneer

ESFJ ESFj Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg Fe Si Ne Ti Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg Ethical Sensory Extravert (ESE) Hugo Bonvivant / Enthusiast

ENFJ ENFj Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg Fe Ni Se Ti Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg Ethical Intuitive Extravert (EIE) Hamlet Mentor / Actor

ESTP ESTp Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg Se Ti Fe Ni Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg Sensory Logical Extravert (SLE) Zhukov Legionnaire / Conqueror

ESFP ESFp Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg Se Fi Te Ni Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg Sensory Ethical Extravert (SEE) Napoleon / Caesar Politician / Ambassador

ENTP ENTp Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg Ne Ti Fe Si Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg Intuitive Logical Extravert (ILE) Don Quixote Seeker / Inventor

ENFP ENFp Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg Ne Fi Te Si Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg Intuitive Ethical Extravert (IEE) Huxley Psychologist / Reporter

ISTJ ISTp Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg Si Te Fi Ne Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg Sensory Logical Introvert (SLI) Gabin Craftsman / Mechanic

INTJ INTp Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg Ni Te Fi Se Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg Intuitive Logical Introvert (ILI) Balzac Critic / Mastermind

ISFJ ISFp Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg Si Fe Ti Ne Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg Sensory Ethical Introvert (SEI) Dumas Mediator / Peacemaker

INFJ INFp Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg Ni Fe Ti Se Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg Intuitive Ethical Introvert (IEI) Yesenin Lyricist / Romantic ISTP ISTj Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg Ti Se Ni Fe Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg Logical Sensory Introvert (LSI) Maxim Gorky Inspector / Pragmatist ISFP ISFj Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg Fi Se Ni Te Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg Ethical Sensory Introvert (ESI) Dreiser Guardian / Conservator INTP INTj Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg Ti Ne Si Fe Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg Logical Intuitive Introvert (LII) Robespierre Analyst / Scientist INFP INFj Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg Fi Ne Si Te Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg Ethical Intuitive Introvert (EII) Dostoyevsky Humanist / Empath

The 16 types[edit]

Socionics divides people into 16 different types, called sociotypes. They are most commonly referred to by their two strongest functions, which in socionics are called the leading function (Jung's dominant) and the creative function (Jung's auxiliary). The creative function is opposite to the leading function in extraversion and rationality. For example, if the dominant function is introverted logic (a rational and introverted function), the secondary function must be irrational and extraverted, which means it must be either extraverted sensing or extraverted intuition.

Aušra Augustinavičiūtė usually used names like sensory-logical introvert (SLI) to refer to the types. In SLI the leading function is introverted sensing and the creative function is extraverted logic. She also introduced the practice of referring to types by the name of a famous person of the type (although types of these persons are not universally agreed upon, especially about "Napoleon"). For example, she called the SLI Gabin and the SEI Dumas. Also sometimes names such as Craftsman or Mediator are used to express the social role of the type—a convention introduced by socionist Viktor Gulenko in 1995.[120] Given the formal similarities present between Socionics and the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) abbreviations frequently used in English, some prefer to distinguish socionic type names from Myers–Briggs' names by writing the last letter (J or P) in lower case (for example, ENTp, ESFj)—a practice introduced by Sergei Ganin.[121] This is because the relationship between socionics and Myers–Briggs and Keirseyan types is controversial.

Some socionists state that "main spheres of application of socionics are almost the same as for the Myers–Briggs Type Theory", and that observed differences in correlation "represent characteristic stereotypes of the socionics and the Keirsey typology.[122] Others state that MBTI and socionics "correlate in roughly 30% of cases," and that "there are many subtle differences".[123][clarification needed] J and P in Socionics and Myers–Briggs are completely different:[124] in Myers–Briggs, J and P stands for the first extraverted function (J—extraverted thinking or feeling, P—extraverted sensing or intuition); in Socionics, J and P stands for the first function (J—rational (thinking and feeling), P—irrational (sensing and intuition)). This formal conversion is carried out in accordance with the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator. In dividing the socion according to the four Jungian dichotomies, from this is formed 16 socionic types. The following tables provide a list of types with the names most commonly used in socionics:

Element Abstracted definition English Acronym Symbol Description

Extraverted logic (thinking) external dynamics of objects Te Socionics symbol Te.svg Te is efficiency of an action, technical processes, the accomplishment of work, the efficient and prudent use of resources, factual accuracy, and the acquisition of relevant and useful information. Te understands the difference between effective and ineffective behavior when performing a procedure or accomplishing a task, and aspires to increase the frequency of productive outcomes within a system.

Extraverted ethics (feeling) internal dynamics of objects Fe Socionics symbol Fe.svg Fe is responsible for the perception of an emotional state in an individual and the bodily and linguistic expression of emotions. Fe is able to influence others' emotional condition and to communicate its own, "infecting" others. Fe is used especially in generating and recognizing excitement and enthusiasm.

Extraverted sensing external statics of objects Se Socionics symbol Se.svg Se is responsible for the perception, control, defense, and acquisition of space, territory, and control. It observes outward appearances, estimates whether forces are in alignment or conflict, and uses strength of will and power-based methods to achieve purposes. Se understands territory and physical aggression. It is also the function of contact and apprehension of qualia.

Extraverted intuition internal statics of objects Ne Socionics symbol Ne.svg Ne is responsible for understanding the essence (permanent but not obvious traits) of a thing, estimating the potential and latent capabilities for people and things, and visualizing the likely outcome of events. It is responsible for the sense of interest or boredom. Ne will speculate as to why an event occurs, but sees the specific event as static and unalterable.

Introverted logic (thinking) external statics of fields Ti Socionics symbol Ti.svg Ti is responsible for understanding logic and structure, categorizations, ordering and priorities, logical analysis and distinctions, logical explanations. Ti interprets information according to how it fits into a validating system. Ti is particularly aware of logical consistency and how concepts relate to each other in meaning and structure, independently of particular purposes.

Introverted ethics (feeling) internal statics of fields Fi Socionics symbol Fi.svg Fi is responsible for understanding the quality, nature, and proper maintenance of personal relations; makes moral judgments; and aspires to humanism and kindness. Fi has a strong understanding of the social hierarchy and how people feel about each other, their attitudes of like or dislike, enthrallment or disgust, repulsion or attraction, enmity or friendship. Introverted sensing external dynamics of fields Si Socionics symbol Si.svg Si is responsible for perception of physical sensations; questions of comfort, coziness, and pleasure; and a sense of harmony and acclimation with one's environment (especially physical). Si understand how well a person or thing's behavior agrees with its nature as well as the differences between comfortable behaviors and positions and uncomfortable ones. Introverted intuition internal dynamics of fields Ni Socionics symbol Ni.svg Ni is responsible for the estimation of the passage of time, the understanding of a course of processes in time, and forecasting. Ni understand how things may change and evolve over time and throughout history. Ni is acutely aware of events that are occurring outside of the immediate perception of the moment, and sees events as part of a continuous flow. Ni perceives the possible ramifications of future events and notices ties to the past. Ni observes behavioral patterns and can assess a person's character.

Information elements[edit]

Socionics Information Elements and Dichotomies.png

In socionics, Jung's functions are always introverted or extroverted, and are referred to as functions of information metabolism.[115] These functions are said to process information aspects. To understand what an information aspect is, it is necessary to understand information metabolism as Augustinavičiūtė understood it.

Augustinavičiūtė states that the perception of the world through the human mind uses eight elements of information metabolism (mental functions), each of which reflects one particular aspect of objective reality.[116] In her works she describes aspects of the world based on physical quantities such as potential and kinetic energy, space, time, and their properties.

Often other socionists have equated the information elements with their definition according to fundamental physical concepts as well (Matter-Time-Energy-Space) (N. Medvedev,[117] V. Ermak[118]). Matter compared to Thinking, Energy to Feeling, Space to Sensing, Time to Intuition. Given the division of aspects of the absolute between Extroverted ("black") and Introverted ("white"), being four times two, their number is eight.

The 8 socionics symbols (Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg) were introduced by Augustinavičiūtė while working with Jung's typology[119][clarification needed] and remain the dominant method of denoting the functions and the corresponding information aspects that they process. Other notation systems also enjoy some use, such as Victor Gulenko's 8 Latin letters (P, E, F, I, L, R, S, and T, correspondingly). Among western enthusiasts, Myers-Briggs notation (Te, Fe, Se, Ne, Ti, Fi, Si, and Ni, correspondingly) is popular.

Carl Jung describes four psychological functions that are capable of becoming conscious, but to differing degrees in specific individuals:[113]

Sensation – all perceptions by means of the sense organs

Intuition – perception by way of the unconscious, or perception of unconscious events

Thinking (in socionics, logic) – interpretation of information based on whether it is correct or incorrect

Feeling (in socionics, ethics) – interpretation of information based on its ethical aspects

In addition to these four types, Jung defines a polarity between introverted and extraverted personalities. This distinction is based on how people invest energy rather into the inner, subjective, psychical world (usually called Seele, soul, by Jung) or instead the outer, objective, physical world (including one's body).

By Jung's rules 16 psychological types exist. But in his book "Psychological Types" he described in detail only 8 types, distinguished by the 8 possible dominant functions.

Contrary to Socionics and MBTI, Jung did not conclude that the types had two introverted functions and two extroverted functions. Instead outlining that extroverted personality types had a Dominant extroverted function, an Auxiliary introverted function, and two Inferior introverted functions that are necessarily retarded.[114]

Family socionics[edit] Socionics allocates 16 types of the relations — from most attractive and comfortable up to disputed. The understanding of a nature of these relations helps to solve a number of problems of the interpersonal relations, including aspects of psychological and sexual compatibility. The researches of married couples by Aleksandr Bukalov, Olga Karpenko and Galina Chykyrysova, have shown that the family relations submit to the laws, which are opened by socionics. The study of socionic type allocation in casually selected married couples confirmed the main rules of the theory of intertype relations in socionics.[87][88] So, the dual relations (full addition) make 45% and the intraquadral relations make 64% of investigated couples. 16 is the squares of the quadrant model

QMRSocionics, in psychology and sociology, is a theory of information processing and personality type, distinguished by its information model of the psyche (called "Model A") and a model of interpersonal relations. It incorporates Carl Jung's work on Psychological Types with Antoni Kępiński's theory of information metabolism. Socionics is a modification of Jung's personality type theory that uses eight psychic functions, in contrast to Jung's model, which used only four. These functions process information at varying levels of competency and interact with the corresponding function in other individuals, giving rise to predictable reactions and impressions—a theory of intertype relations.[1][2]

QMRLord Of The Four Quarters, by John Weir Perry

QMRMoore is probably most widely known as the senior author, with Douglas Gillette, of a series of five books on the in-depth structure of the male psyche, drawing on the account of the archetypal level of the human psyche developed by C.G. Jung.

King, Warrior, Magician, Lover: Rediscovering the Archetypes of the Mature Masculine is an introductory overview of four key sources of energy at the archetypal level of the human psyche.

The King Within: Accessing the King in the Male Psyche centers on the most important and most difficult source of energy for men to access.

The Warrior Within: Accessing the Knight in the Male Psyche centers on the source of energy that boys and men usually learn how to access relatively early in life, but it takes time and effort to learn how to access the optimally mature form of this source of energy in the human psyche.

The Magician Within: Accessing the Shaman in the Male Psyche centers on another form of energy that boys and men usually learn how to access at a relatively early age, but, once again, it takes time and effort to learn how to access the optimally mature form of this source of energy in the human psyche.

The Lover Within: Accessing the Lover in the Male Psyche centers on a very tricky source of energy in the human psyche.

According to Moore and Gillette, for each optimal orientation for each of these four key sources of energy, there are two corresponding "shadow" forms of the source of the energy—two ways for each of them to be misdirected for only one healthy or optimal way for each of them to be oriented. Just as the authors have given four key sources of energy in the human psyche very colorful names that seem to personify each source, so too the authors give each of the bipolar "shadow" forms very colorful names that seem to personify them. Even though Moore stresses the positive potential of the archetypes of maturity, as he styles the healthy forms of the archetypes (as distinct from the "shadow" forms), he also stresses that archetypes are not friendly. By this he means that they can be dangerous because they can take over a person. So they are best approached with caution. Moore has also noted that various forms of masculine behavior are immature, and so he thinks it is important for men today to develop guidelines for directing their own personal development and decision making. Three

QMR Moore wroteKing, Warrior, Magician, Lover: Rediscovering the Archetypes of the Mature Masculine is an introductory overview of four key sources of energy at the archetypal level of the human psyche.

QMRThe shadow is an unconscious complex defined as the repressed, suppressed or disowned qualities of the conscious self. According to Jung, the human being deals with the reality of the shadow in four ways: denial, projection, integration and/or transmutation

QMRGender socialization Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are one’s friends, school, work and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways" (1999:76). As parents are present in a child's life from the beginning, their influence in a child's early socialization is very important, especially in regards to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations

QMRThe Self in Jungian psychology is one of the Jungian archetypes, signifying the unification of consciousness and unconsciousness in a person, and representing the psyche as a whole.[1] The Self, according to Carl Jung, is realized as the product of individuation, which in his view is the process of integrating one's personality. For Jung, the Self is symbolized by the circle (especially when divided in four quadrants), the square, or the mandala.

QMRMichael Freeden identifies four broad types of individualist anarchism. He says the first is the type associated with William Godwin that advocates self-government with a "progressive rationalism that included benevolence to others." The second type is the amoral self-serving rationality of Egoism, as most associated with Max Stirner. The third type is "found in Herbert Spencer's early predictions, and in that of some of his disciples such as Donisthorpe, foreseeing the redundancy of the state in the source of social evolution." The fourth type retains a moderated form of Egoism and accounts for social cooperation through the advocacy of market. Freeden, Michael. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829414-X. pp. 313-314. Jump up ^

Answer to Job (German: Antwort auf Hiob) is a 1952 book by Carl Gustav Jung that addresses the moral, mythological and psychological implications of the Book of Job. It was first published in English in 1954. Jung considers the Book of Job a landmark development in the "divine drama", for the first time contemplating criticism of God (Gotteskritik). Jung described the book as "pure poison", referring to the controversial nature of the book (Storr, 1973). He did, however, feel an urge to write the book. The basic thesis of the book is that as well as having a good side, God also has a fourth side - the evil face of God. This view is inevitably controversial, but Jung claimed it is backed up by references to the Hebrew Bible. Jung saw this evil side of God as the missing fourth element of the Trinity, which he believed should be supplanted by a Quaternity. However, he also discusses in the book whether the true missing fourth element is the feminine side of God. Indeed, he saw the dogmatic definition of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary by Pope Pius XII in 1950 as being the most significant religious event since the Reformation.

Singapore[edit]

See also: Education in Singapore

Schools[edit]

The school year coincides with the calendar year, and the first term begins on January 2 (unless it is a weekend). The school year comprises four terms of 10 weeks each.

Term 1: January to March (Term 1 holidays: one week)

Term 2: March to May (Term 2 holidays: four weeks)

Term 3: July to September (Term 3 holidays: one week)

Term 4: September to November (Term 4 holidays: seven weeks)

Terms 1 and 2 are known as Semester 1, and terms 3 and 4 as Semester 2. The first year of Junior College begins in February[citation needed] to accommodate the release of the O level results.

International schools in Singapore operate on a different system, often similar to the system in their home countries.

Philippines[edit] See also: Education in the Philippines Basic Education[edit] The Philippine school year runs for approximately ten months, and a school year must be at least 200 days as prescribed by law including examination periods. The school year begins in the first week of June and ends in the third or fourth week of March. Private schools may have a slightly shorter academic calendar either starting in the second (or third week) of June or ending earlier in March. In most primary and secondary schools, an academic year is usually divided in quarters for purposes of examination and reporting of marks though a few private schools adopt a trimestral system. Each quarter normally lasts for approximately seven (usually the 3rd quarter) to ten weeks (usually the 1st, 2nd and 4th quarters) but the actual length of each quarter and the months they cover vary among private schools. The fourth quarter for pupils in grade 6 and fourth year high school is usually two to three weeks shorter than undergraduates to allow for preparation of final grades to determine who are eligible for graduation as well as to prepare for the graduation ceremonies themselves. Each quarter culminates in most schools with a quarterly examination period of three to five days. Quarter Usual Months covered (including exam periods) Breaks after the exam 1st June - mid-August none 2nd mid-August - late-October Semestral break: approximately one week 3rd November - 3rd week of December Christmas break: approximately two weeks 4th January - mid-late March Summer break: approximately eight to nine weeks and it separates one school year from another. In most schools, summer break usually lasts for two months, starting from the first week of April up to the last week of May. Most schools end the school year before Holy Week. Semestral break is normally set to coincide with All Saints and All Souls Day. The Christmas Break usually begins in the third week of December, and classes resume the Monday or week after New Year's Day (unless that Monday is January 2). Commencement ceremonies are often held in late March or early April. Exceptions to this general schedule are international schools operating in the country, which normally follow their home country's respective school system.[citation needed]

New Zealand[edit] See also: Education in New Zealand The New Zealand school year runs from the beginning of February to mid-December, and since 1996, has been divided into four terms. By law, all state and state-integrated schools are required to be open for instruction for 380 half-days in a year (390 half-days for schools with only Year 8 students or below), meaning that the start and end of the school year is not nationally fixed to a particular date, as schools take different teacher-only days and provincial anniversary days off during the year. Schools can be exempted from opening the required number of half-days in some cases, such as in Christchurch in 2011 when many schools closed for up to a month after the 2011 Christchurch earthquake. The breaks between terms have fixed start and end dates, and the break length is fixed at two weeks. In general, terms run as follows if Easter falls in early-to-mid-April: Term 1: Begins no earlier than Auckland Anniversary Day (Monday closest to 29 January) and no later than 7 February; ends Maundy Thursday (day before Good Friday) Term 2: Begins second Monday following Easter Monday; ends beginning of July Term 3: Begins mid-July; ends mid-to-late September Term 4: Begins early-to-mid October; ends no later than 20 December If Easter falls in March or late in April, Term 1 usually ends in mid-April and Term 2 begins at the beginning of May. If Easter is in March, a 5-day half-term break then exists, with school ending on Maundy Thursday and resuming on the Wednesday. The start of term two may be delayed if Anzac Day (25 April) falls on the Monday or Tuesday directly following the Easter break. Private schools are not required to adhere to the Ministry's term structure, but by law they may not be open for instruction on Saturday or Sunday, the ten national public holidays, the school location's relevant anniversary day, and the Tuesday immediately following Easter Monday. Senior secondary students (Years 11, 12, and 13) in many state schools have examination leave from mid-November, on the Thursday or Friday before the first NCEA external examinations begin. Officially, however, the term still does not end until mid-December.

Estonia[edit] See also: Education in Estonia In Estonia, elementary and high schools begin on 1 September and end in the beginning of June. The school year is divided into quarters that last about two to three months. Summer is usually counted as a term break, although the beginning of June is still part of the fourth quarter. Universities start on the first Monday of September and usually end in the middle of May or in the beginning of June; though in reality, exam periods may continue until the end of June (e.g. University of Tartu).[9]

Denmark[edit]

See also: Education in Denmark

In schools in Denmark, the school year runs from August to June. In universities, the academic year runs from around September 1 to June 30, and is often divided into an autumn semester (with January set aside for exams) and a spring semester (with June set aside for exams). Since 2004, some Danish universities and faculties divide the academic year into four quarters, each of which may consist of eight weeks and an exam week, and being separated from the next quarter by a one-week break.

Cambodia[edit] In Cambodia the school year kindergarten sectors in public schools consists of 10 months with a two-month vacation, while in primary, and secondary sectors, it is divided into two semesters and each semester is divided into 2 quarters. The first of November is the start of the academic term. After the 1st semester, a small vacation when the school is halted and at the end of the Second Semester, a 2-month vacation until the start of the new year. In universities, it is divided into 4 years.

Australia[edit] See also: Education in Australia In most of Australia, the primary and secondary school year lasts approximately 200 days, from late January or early February to early or mid-December, and is split into four terms: Term 1 starts in late January or early February and ends in late March or early April (often in close proximity to Easter). Term 2 starts in mid-to-late April and ends in late June or early July. Term 3 starts in mid-July and ends mid-to-late September. Term 4 starts in early-to-mid October and ends early to mid-December. Terms 4&1 (rolled over) and 2&3 are respectively usually deemed 'summer' and 'winter' respectively for purposes of sports participation and uniform standards. Australian states and territories vary their approach to Easter when determining the dates for the holiday at the end of Term 1.[3] The exact dates vary from year to year, as well as between states, and for public and private school. In Tasmania until and including 2012, the school year was split into three terms, the first one being the longest and including an extended Easter holiday. However, in 2013 Tasmania introduced a four-term year, to conform to the rest of the country.[4] The terms are separated by a holiday lasting two weeks with the Christmas/Summer holidays between the end of a school year and the start of another lasting six weeks.[5] Most Australian universities have two semesters a year, but Bond University, Deakin University and the University of Canberra have three trimesters. Unusually, Macquarie University officially uses the word "session" in place of "semester". Many universities offer an optional short summer semester. One recent innovation in Australian higher education has been the establishment of the fully distance–online Open Universities Australia (formerly Open Learning Australia) that offers continuous study opportunities of individual units of study (what are called courses in North America) that can lead to full degree qualifications. Open Universities Australia operates four 13-week study periods each year. Since students study only part-time and off campus these study periods mesh reasonably easily with existing university offerings based on semesters. In some cases, a "semester" is referred to as a "Study Period", for example by Centrelink.[6]

Terminology[edit] A "semester" (from the Latin meaning "six-monthly") has come to mean either of two academic terms, generally excluding the summer or January terms, if any, and so can be 12 to 20 weeks long. The word "semester" is sometimes used as a synonym for a "term", as in a "summer semester".[citation needed] A "trimester" (from the Latin meaning "three-monthly") divides the academic year into three periods, separated by breaks. In some jurisdictions,[which?] "trimester" is used in its original meaning to indicate a quarter system (since three months is exactly a quarter of a year), or a variation of it.[citation needed] A "quarter" system treats the summer term on an equal footing with the other terms. It divides the academic year into four quarters, each of which is usually 12 weeks long. Three of the four quarters (Fall, Winter, and Spring, operating from September until June or from August until May) are thus equivalent to two 18-week semesters. Thus, when American academic universities convert academic credits between the semester/trimester and quarter systems, 36 quarter hours convert to 24 semester hours (2/3 conversion factor) while 36 semester hours convert to 54 quarter hours (3/2 conversion factor).[citation needed] The rare word quadmester or quadrimester is occasionally used for either a three-term system or a four-term system.

QMRAn academic term (or simply "term") is a portion of an academic year, the time during which an educational institution holds classes. The schedules adopted vary widely. A trimester system divides the academic year into three terms which can be as short as eight weeks or as long as 16 weeks each. A quarter system divides the academic year into four terms, up to 12 weeks each, and generally counts the summer as one of the terms. The word quadmester or quadrimester is occasionally used to mean either four months or (more commonly in modern American usage) a quarter of a year.[1] [2] In most countries, the academic year begins in late summer or early autumn and ends during the following spring or summer. In Northern Hemisphere countries, this means that the academic year lasts from August, September, or October to May, June, or July. In Southern Hemisphere countries, the academic year aligns with the calendar year, lasting from February or March to November or December. The summer may or may not be part of the term system.