CHAPTER 21: The Pattern of Four in Chemistry- The Four Quantum Numbers
In chemistry there are four atomic orbitals. Square one: s orbitals are spherical orbitals; square two: p orbitals (similar to balloons or spheres--forming the duality); square three: d orbitals; square four: f orbitals. Each orbital builds on its predecessor. The fourth is very different from the previous three. This is the quadrant model pattern.
There are four quantum numbers for describing an electron completely. They are
*Square one: SHELL the principal quantum number. This is the shell within which the electron spins
*Square two: SUBSHELL, azimuthal quantum number. This describes the subshell, and gives the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum. It influences the shape of the atomic orbital, and influences chemical bonds and bond angles. The second square is homeostasis and is about relationships and structure and order
*Square three: ENERGY SHIFT (orientation of the subshell shape) magnetic quantum number. It describes the orbital within the subshell, and yields the projection of the orbital angular momentum along a specified axis; the third square is the doing square
*Square four: SPIN OF THE ELECTRON, the spin projection quantum number. This quantum number is different from the rest. the fourth is always different from the previous three. It describes the spin (intrinsic angular momentum) of the electron within that orbital, and gives the projection of the spin angular momentum S along the specified axis:
Shell and subshell are the duality, energy shift is the doing third square, and spin is the fourth square which is different than the previous three.
Orbital numbers
Shell
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Energy Shift
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Subshell
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Spin
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Chapter 22: Chemistry- The Thermodynamic Potentials
There are four thermodynamic potentials essential to an understanding of chemistry. Every first year college chemistry student learns these. They are
*Square one: internal energy, found when there is constant Volume and constant entropy
*Square two: Helmholtz free energy, found when there is constant volume and constant temperature
*Square three: Enthalpy, found when there is constant pressure and constant temperature
*Square four: Gibbs Free Energy, found when there is constant temperature and constant pressure. Notice how square two and square four are both free energies. The second and fourth squares are the word and true word according to the heuristic of the quadrant model
*Square five: Grand potential. This fifth potential that is not really needed; the fifth always seems unnecessary.
Thermodynamic Potentials
Internal energy
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Enthalpy
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Helmholtz free energy
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Gibbs free energy
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Chapter 23: Chemistry- The Eons of History
Geological History of the Earth fits the quadrant model pattern. There are three precambrian Eons and one Eon that came after the precambrian period. These eons are.
Square 1. The Hadean eon. This eon is when the solar system was created and late heavy bombardment occurred.
Square 2. The Archean eon. The earth had a different tectonic style and the crust cooled. The Earth’s magnetic field was also established.
Square 3. Proterozoic eon. Rocks are less metapmorphized. There is rapid continental accretion. The third square is always doing. There ar supercontinent cycles and also there was the snowball Earth which was kind of like a death and resurrection of Earth.
Square 4. Phanerozoic eon. The current eon in which there was Pangea
Hydrogen burning is the fusion of four hydrogen nuclei (protons) into a single helium nucleus (two protons and neutrons.) The process is a series of reactions. The type of reactions depend on the mass of a star and its core temperature and density. In our Sun, the process is a proton-proton chain. In more massive stars, the C-N-O cycle (Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen) serves to fuse hydrogen into helium." This process is central to star fusion. The four hydrogen nuclei represent the quadrant (what they fuse into is itself a quadrant- the net outcome is the quadrant). This nuclear fusion of two hydrogen atoms into a helium four (a quadrant) is what produces sunlight, that which allows humans to live. It is not coincidence the quadrant is represented. Hydrogen fusion is also used in the hydrogen bomb and nuclear bomb.
THC, or tetrahydrocannabinol, is the chemical responsible for most of marijuana's psychological effects. The tetra reminds one of the four of the quadrant model
Chapter 23.5: Electronic components
The memresistor was theorized to exist, and recently was realized, completing the four basic electronic components, along with the resistor, capacitor, and inductor. These components are created from four factors charge, current, voltage and flux.
Square 1: Resistor
Square 2: Capacitor
Square 3: Indictor
Square 4: Memresistor. The fourth is always transcendent and does not seem to belong. This was just recently discovered
According to the original 1971 definition, the memristor was the fourth fundamental circuit element, forming a non-linear relationship between electric charge and magnetic flux linkage.
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The chart for Ohm's equations for electricity are represented by a four fold as follows
Square 1: Current
Square 2: Resistance
Square 3: Voltage
Square 4: Power
The Carnot Cycle, when acting as a heat engine, has four steps:
Square 1: Isothermal Expansion
Square 2: Adiabatic or Isentropic Expansion
Square 3: Isothermal Compression
Square 4: Adiabatic or Isentropic Compression
The cycle is ordinarily plotted on two axes in two different ways: Pressure and Volume, in which case the cycle is a curvy quadrilateral and descending to the right, or Temperature and Entropy, in which case the cycle is a nice rectangle that emphasizes the isothermal and adiabatic (isentropic) aspects of the steps.
The cars that you drive have four wheels reflecting the quadrant image. Trucks have 16 wheels. They are called 16 wheelers. They reflect the four quadrants if the quadrsnt model as a whole with the 16 squares
what are CHIRAL METAMATERIALS?
Chiral metamaterials is a well-established research topic in the group, who were the first to have demonstrated optical activity in planar chiral metamaterials. The metamaterials generally consist of arrays of planar metallic or dielectric gammadions on a substrate, where, if linearly polarized light is incident on the array, it becomes elliptically polarized upon interaction with the gammadions with the same handedness as the gammadion itself.
A chiral structure such as a gammadion is defined as a shape with a certain handedness (left or right), which cannot be brought into congruence with the opposite handedness unless they are removed from the plane. This has the effect that if light is shone from one direction onto the array, the resulting polarization is left or right elliptically polarized, and if light is shone from the opposite direction onto the array, the resulting polarization is the opposite handed elliptical polarization to the other direction.
They look like quadrants
Chapter 24: Chemistry- The Chernobyl Nuclear Incident
The Chernobyl nuclear reactor incident is the most famous nuclear reactor accident, and left enormous amounts of devastating that still lasts in 2015. The nature of the accident and the nature of the reactors fits the quadrant model pattern. There were four reactors. The first three did not explode on the accident that left ruin. The fourth exploded.The ruin from the Chernobyl disaster came from the fourth nuclear reactor. The nature of the quadrant model is that the first three are always different from the fourth. Also the character of the problems at Chernobyl fit the quadrant model pattern.
Square 1: Accident 1. In 1982 there was a meltdown in reactor 1. It was not a bad accident and the reactor was made optional again in several months.
Square 2: Accident 2. In 1986 there was a disaster in reactor number 4. The radioactive cloud spread to Norway.
Square 3: Accident 3: In 1991 there was a fire in reactor number 2.
Square 4: Accident 4. The roof collapsed. The nature of this problem was not like the previous three. That is the nature of the quadrant model. The fourth is always different.
By most standards including the International Fire Service Training Association (IFSTA) there are 4 stages of a fire. These stages are incipient, growth, fully developed, and decay. The following is a brief overview of each stage.
Incipient – This first stage begins when heat, oxygen and a fuel source combine and have a chemical reaction resulting in fire. This is also known as “ignition” and is usually represented by a very small fire which often (and hopefully) goes out on its own, before the following stages are reached. Recognizing a fire in this stage provides your best chance at suppression or escape.
Growth – The growth stage is where the structures fire load and oxygen are used as fuel for the fire. There are numerous factors affecting the growth stage including where the fire started, what combustibles are near it, ceiling height and the potential for “thermal layering”. It is during this shortest of the 4 stages when a deadly “flashover” can occur; potentially trapping, injuring or killing firefighters.
Fully Developed – When the growth stage has reached its max and all combustible materials have been ignited, a fire is considered fully developed. This is the hottest phase of a fire and the most dangerous for anybody trapped within.
Decay – Usually the longest stage of a fire, the decay stage is characterized a significant decrease in oxygen or fuel, putting an end to the fire. Two common dangers during this stage are first – the existence of non-flaming combustibles, which can potentially start a new fire if not fully extinguished. Second, there is the danger of a backdraft when oxygen is reintroduced to a volatile, confined space
CHAPTER 25: Physics- The Pattern of Four in the Earth Atmosphere and Seasons
The Earth atmosphere, consisting of four layers with a possible fifth, fits the quadrant model pattern. What matters is not the number, but the pattern in which they occur, which is revealed by the qualities of each.
*Square one: troposphere, where the Earth weather exists and the biosphere is found
*Square two: stratosphere, the protective layer of the atmosphere containing the ozone layer, which protects the Earth from UV radiation--the second square is always protection and homeostasis
*Square three: mesosphere. Just below the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar-mesospheric noctilucent clouds made of ice crystals. Seemingly solid, they are luminous doers. The third square is always solid and associated with doing
*Square four: thermosphere, an extremely low density mass of air molecules called, rarefied air, leaving an impression that nothing is there--the fourth is always different from the previous three.
*Square five: exosphere; in addition to the four obvious layers of the atmosphere there is possibly a fifth, reflecting the qualities of the fourth--like the thermosphere, the exosphere is composed of rarefied air. The fourth always points to the fifth.
The Earth’s atmosphere
troposphere
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mesosphere
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stratosphere
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thermosphere
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exosphere
Chapter 26: Chemistry- The Four Seasons
The four seasons fit the quadrant model.
*Square one: Spring; the first square is birth
*Square two: Summer, associated with being a very pleasant, social time--the second quadrant is about relationships and life; it is the normal square.
*Square three: Fall; connoting destruction, causing leaves to fall, and life to hibernate; it is often seen as very different and unpleasant and destructive.
*Square four: Winter. The fourth square, represents death.
The four seasons
Spring
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Fall
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Summer
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Winter
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In meteorology, Buys Ballot's law (Dutch pronunciation: [ËŒbÅ“y̯s bɑˈlÉ”t]) may be expressed as follows: In the Northern Hemisphere, if a person stands with his back to the wind, the atmospheric pressure is low to the left, high to the right.[1] This is because wind travels counterclockwise around low pressure zones in the Northern Hemisphere. It is approximately true in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, and is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere, but the angle between the pressure gradient force and wind is not a right angle in low latitudes.
The law outlines general rules of conduct for masters of both sail and steam vessels, to assist them in steering the vessels away from the center and right front (in the Northern Hemisphere and left front in the Southern Hemisphere) quadrants of hurricanes or any other rotating disturbances at sea. Prior to radio, satellite observation and the ability to transmit timely weather information over long distances, the only method a ship's master had to forecast the weather was observation of meteorological conditions (visible cloud formations, wind direction and atmospheric pressure) at his location.
Included in the Sailing Directions for the World are Buys Ballot's techniques for avoiding the worst part of any rotating storm system at sea using only the locally observable phenomena of cloud formations, wind speed and barometric pressure tendencies over a number of hours. These observations and application of the principles of Buys Ballot's Law help to establish the probability of the existence of a storm and the best course to steer to try avoid the worst of it—with the best chance of survival.
The underlying principles of Buys Ballot's law state that for anyone ashore in the Northern Hemisphere and in the path of a hurricane, the most dangerous place to be is in the right front quadrant of the storm. There, the observed wind speed of the storm is the sum of the speed of wind in the storm circulation plus the velocity of the storms forward movement. Buys Ballot's Law calls this the "Dangerous Quadrant". Likewise, in the left front quadrant of the storm the observed wind is the difference between the storm's wind velocity and its forward speed. This is called the "Safe Quadrant" due to the lower observed wind speeds.
To look at it another way, in the Northern Hemisphere if a person is to the right of where a hurricane or tropical storm makes landfall, that is considered the dangerous quadrant. If they are to the left of the point of landfall, that is the safe quadrant. In the dangerous quadrant an observer will experience higher wind speeds and generally a much higher storm surge due to the onshore wind direction. In the Safe quadrant, the observer will experience somewhat lower wind speeds and the possibility of lower than normal water levels due to the direction of the wind being offshore.
These are very general rules that are subject to many other factors, including shapes of the coastline, and topography in any location. Although the principles apply to a very limited extent to a coastal observer during the approach and passage of a storm in any location, Buys Ballot's law was primarily formulated from empirical data to assist ships at sea.
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CHAPTER 27: Physics- The Pattern of Four in the Planets
The planets fit the quadrant model pattern. Scientists have always tried to explain things through naturalistic phenomena, but planets elude such explanations. One example of this is an asteroid belt formed around Mars, probably composed of debris from two colliding and destroyed planets. However, scientists are wrong in their proposal of this explanation. The ultimate answer is revealed in the quadrant model pattern, which is the Form of Existence--the planets are organized the way they are because they reveal the Quadrant Model of Reality, and not other rationalistic reasons.
The first four planets are called terrestrial planets, and are first quadrant planets.
*Square one: Mercury is tiny; it is the sensor. It orbits very close to the sun, is full of craters, making it weird; the first square is always weird. It’s orbit is known as strange.
*Square two: Venus is the perceiver, and in the second square, which is homeostasis. The second square is always pretty. Upon closer inspection its atmosphere is made up of sulfuric acid, which is deadly to humans, and not a wonderful place. It has only a superficial quality of being pretty; that is the nature of the second square.
*Square three: Earth, the responder in the doing, action square. The third square is also considered bad. Earth is plagued with wars, violence, and destructive weather, evidencing much action. Yet it is the only known planet known to sustain life. Life is associated with action. The third square is action.
*Square four: Mars is the aware square. The fourth has a quality of not belonging, and of seeming to be a void. For instance, Rationals comprise only five percent of the population, and are very different from the other three temperaments. Mars is unusual in the solar system in that scientists speculate that water and life existed there. Some scientists even propose that life on Earth came from asteroids or from Mars. While apparently a void, it still arouses suspicion that life may yet be found on the planet; the fourth is always mysterious.
After Mars there is the asteroid belt, which is no coincidence. The asteroid belt demarcates the boundary between one quadrant and another. The first four squares are followed by another four. The asteroid belt demarcates the boundary between the first quadrant and the second. The first four planets are terrestrial planets, which are planets made of rock. The next four planets are gaseous planets. These next four planets are the second quadrant, which is always the prettiest. The second quadrant is belief, faith, behavior and belonging. The second quadrant is also protection. These planets are very large, which empowers them to protect Earth from asteroids by virtue of the gravitational field. Thus they are homeostasis, and they all contain rings, thus they are pretty, which is the nature of the second quadrant.
*Square five: Jupiter is a large, gaseous planet. It is the believer planet, the fifth planet. The second quadrant is always structure. It is large but not very solid since it is made up of gas. It is the first square of the second quadrant, thus it will not be very solid. Some scientists think that Jupiter may have been a failed star. It has a ring, making it very beautiful and comforting. Belief brings comfort.
*Square six: Saturn is the second square of the second quadrant, and, because
of its amazing rings, is the most beautiful. It is gaseous, therefore not solid, which is consistent with the second square of the second quadrant; the second square is always the most aesthetically appealing.
*Square seven: Uranus, the third square of the second quadrant, is the behaver planet. Uranus is unusual in that it is a gaseous planet with a solid core, making it quite different from the previous two. Because it is the third square, it is becoming more solid. The third square is always more solid. Uranus is still in the second quadrant so with its ring it is also quite beautiful.
*Square eight: Neptune is the belonger planet located in the second quadrant. With its ring it too is quite appealing. Neptune also has a partially solid core. The forth square is also usually more solid.
These four planets have the quality of being protective and beautiful. The second quadrant has the quality of homeostasis and has the quality of looking good.
Next is Quadrant 3. A comet belt creates a demarcation between the second quadrant and the third quadrant.
*Square nine: Pluto, in the ninth square, is not a planet; it is a planetesimal. It is the first square of Quadrant 3. Pluto is the thinker; thinking is wild and difficult to control. The first eight planets have concentric orbits, but the orbit of Pluto is different, “doing its own thing”. As a unique individual, the third quadrant is the ego-oriented, selfish quadrant. It does not follow the rules or orbits of the other planets. The other planitesimals fulfill the quadrant model pattern, but will not be gone into with detail, due to my ignorance of them.
In the order and quality of the planets the Quadrant Model of Reality is revealed. Scientists often try to explain that this order and quality is due to random and rational processes. However, the planets, and everything that exists is the way it is because it reveals the Quadrant Model Reality, which is the expression of the Form of Existence.
An interesting side note is a lot of hype is made by conspiracy enthusiasts over a mysterious planet x. Some say that ancient cultures claimed that this planet was the home of the gods. It is fascinating to note that the translation of the name of planet x is the planet of the cross. The cross is the form of existence. No coincidence it was considered the planet of the gods. The dwarf planets continue after Pluto and continue the quadrant model pattern.
The Planets
mercury
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earth
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pluto
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venus
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mars
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jupiter
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uranus
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saturn
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neptune
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Four of Jupiter's moons (the Galilean moons) are readily visible from Earth.The Galilean moons are the four largest moons of Jupiter—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They were discovered by Galileo Galilei around January 1610 and were the first group of objects found to orbit another planet. They were the first group of objects really studied by Galileo
Enceladus (pronounced /É›nˈsÉ›lÉ™dÉ™s/) is the sixth-largest moon of Saturn. In the enter of this terrain are four fractures bounded on either side by ridges, unofficially called "tiger stripes". These ice fractures are very rare in the solar system, but where they occur they reflect the quadrant model image. These fractures appear to be the youngest features in this region and are surrounded by mint-green-colored (in false color, UV–green–near IR images), coarse-grained water ice,
There are four spiral arms of the Milky Way Galaxy, the Galaxy in which Earth resides.
Outside the gravitational influence of the Galactic bars, astronomers generally organize the structure of the interstellar medium and stars in the disk of the Milky Way into four spiral arms. Spiral arms typically contain a higher density of interstellar gas and dust than the Galactic average as well as a greater concentration of star formation, as traced by H II regions[105][106] and molecular clouds.
The Milky Way's spiral structure is uncertain and there is currently no consensus on the nature of the Galaxy's spiral arms. Perfect logarithmic spiral patterns only crudely describe features near the Sun, because galaxies commonly have arms that branch, merge, twist unexpectedly, and feature a degree of irregularity.[88][108][109] The possible scenario of the Sun within a spur / Local arm[106] emphasizes that point and indicates that such features are probably not unique, and exist elsewhere in the Milky Way.
As in most spiral galaxies, each spiral arm can be described as a logarithmic spiral. Estimates of the pitch angle of the arms range from about 7° to 25°. There are thought to be four spiral arms that all start near the Milky Way's center. These are named as follows, with the positions of the arms shown in the image at right:
Observed (normal lines) and extrapolated (dotted lines) structure of the spiral arms. The gray lines radiating from the Sun's position (upper center) list the three-letter abbreviations of the corresponding constellations.
Color Arm(s)
cyan 3-kpc Arm (Near 3 kpc Arm and Far 3 kpc Arm) and Perseus Arm
purple Norma and Outer arm (Along with extension discovered in 2004[111])
green Scutum–Centaurus Arm
pink Carina–Sagittarius Arm
In December 2013, astronomers found that the distribution of young stars and star-forming regions matches the four-arm spiral description of the Milky Way. Thus, the Milky Way appears to have two spiral arms as traced by old stars and four spiral arms as traced by gas and young stars
Especially energetic alpha particles deriving from a nuclear process are produced in the relatively rare (one in a few hundred) nuclear fission process of ternary fission. In this process, three charged particles are produced from the event instead of the normal two, with the smallest of the charged particles most probably (90% probability) being an alpha particle.
Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways
They were used by Rutherford to find the model of the atom
Chapter 28: Physics- The Four Great Observatoriees
Nasa’s four “great observatories” fit the quadrant model pattern. They are
Square 1: the Hubble space telescope
Square 2: the Compton gamma ray observatory
Square 3: the Chandra x Ray observatory
Square 4: the spritzer space telescope
CHAPTER 29: Physics- The Four Conic Sections in Mathematics
In mathematics conic sections are curves obtained as the intersection of a cone. There are four conic sections. These curves are the curves through which terrestrial bodies like planets and asteroids travel. They are
*Square one: hyperbola. If the plane intersects both halves of the double cone but does not pass through the apex of the cones then the conic is a hyperbola
*Square two: parabola. If the plane is not closed and it does not pass through the apex of the cones then it is a parabola
*Square three: ellipse. If the plane is a closed curve then it is an ellipse. The ellipse fits the qualities of the third square because it is a closed curve, thus an individual. It is solid and physical
*Square four: circle. If the plane is closed, and the radius is the same throughout, it is a circle. The fourth does not seem to belong. Sometimes there appear to be only three conic sections, but the fourth may exist according to mathematicians. Theses shapes are th shapes that orbits of bodies in space take.
Conic sections
hyperbola
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ellipse
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parabola
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circle
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A tetrad is an area 2 km x 2 km square. The term has a particular use in connection with the British Ordnance Survey national grid, and then refers to any of the 25 such squares which make up a standard hectad.[1]
Tetrads are sometimes used by biologists for reporting the distribution of species to maintain a degree of confidentiality about their data,[2] though the system is not in universal use.[1]
The tetrads are labelled from A to Z (omitting O) according to the "DINTY" system as shown in the grid below, which takes its name from the letters of the second line.[1]
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Chapter 30: Chemistry- Carbon and Silicon, The Miracle Elements
Chemistry and biology are closely connected. Chemistry is the second square; biology is the third square science. The second square is always connected to the third. Chemistry reveals how connections are made that result in the emergence of life.
The two elements called “miracle elements” are carbon and silicon. All living organisms are composed primarily of carbon. The reason carbon is so special is that it has four valence electrons; in other words, carbon looks like a quadrant. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon chemistry. Silicon is the other miracle element. Computers are made of silicon and many materials are made of silicon. While most of the Earth is made of carbon and silicon, sand and glass are made of silicon. What makes silicon so special is that it has four valence electrons. In other words, silicon also looks like a quadrant.
Substitution and elimination reactions (between Lewis-bases and alkyl-halides) are some of the first reactions taught in organic chemistry. The figure above, organizes the main factors that distinquish: SN1, SN2, E1 or E2 mechanisms into a single, 4-quadrant spectrum. We describe the heirarchy of these factors in more detail below.
Acidic/Cationic conditions or Basic/Anionic conditions distinquich “1” vs “2” mechanism, respectively.
Elimination requires alpha hydrogens and predominates with 2-3° alkyl-halides.
Elimination predominates with harder bases (due to stronger electrostatic interactions) while Substitution predominates with softer/nucleophilic bases(due to better orbital overlap). See post on Hard-Soft Acid-Base Theory for more details.
In addition the most general rules outlined above:
Under Acidic conditions: Substitution is favored with protic solvents (due to stabilization of the carbocation intermediate)
Under Basic condition: Elimination is favored with higher substitution of either halide or base
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The four stages in coal formation are peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite. Each of these stages must be completed for coal to form.
Square 1: Stage one in coal production is peat. Peat is a fibrous substance that is oxidized by water and carbon dioxide. When a plant dies, and stays under water, it builds up an accumulation of peat. Peat, when burned, produces a lot of smoke and a large flame and therefore is rarely used as a heat source. the first square is not a doer.
Square 2: Stage two of the coal formation process is lignite. Lignite forms when peat is put under considerable vertical pressure. It contains small amounts of plant matter and is very fragile so it must never be handled before burning. The second square is not yet solid and physical. The third square is the doer and is the most solid.
Square 3: Bituminous coal is the third stage of coal production. The lignite continues receiving heavy vertical pressure until it turns a dark brown and becomes soft coal. Bituminous coal is used as an energy source in many parts of the world. The third square is doing. This is used for fuel.
Square 4:The final stage of coal production is the anthracite stage. During this stage, soft coal becomes hard coal. It takes on a certain luster and is formed due to intense pressure and high temperatures. Anthracite produces little smoke and is the coal most people are familiar with.
Coal was very important in history as a fuel. It is no coincidence the process of creating such an important fuel would resemble the quadrant model pattern
Chapter 31: Biology- CHON
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and nitrogen, it is taught, are the four main components of biological life. They are referred to by biology professors as CHON. The four bring to mind the quadrant model, especially since carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are very prevalent, but nitrogen is a lot less prevalent. The forth is always different from the previous three.
Square 1: hydrogen
Square 2: Carbon makes up 18 percent of the body
Square 3: Hydrogen makes up 10 percent
Square 4: nitrogen makes uom 3 percent. The fourth is different. Thats the nature if the quadrant model
Square 5 all other elements make up the rest calcium is the questionable fifth potassium the sixth
The classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows:
Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2 (assuming non-cyclic structures). Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as either linear or branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property (like chlorination reaction to form chloroform). Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers.[6] As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, branched hydrocarbons can be chiral. Chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms. Those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic structures).[9] Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes, with general formula CnH2n-2.
Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached. The general formula for a saturated hydrocarbon containing one ring is CnH2n.
Aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring.
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