Quadrant Model of Reality: Quadrant Model of Reality Book 2 Science Physics Chemistry Biology Psychology

Science Chapter

Physics chapter

QMRPerhaps to reduce the risk of public misunderstanding, Newton included at the beginning of Book 3 (in the second (1713) and third (1726) editions) a section entitled "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy." In the four rules, as they came finally to stand in the 1726 edition, Newton effectively offers a methodology for handling unknown phenomena in nature and reaching towards explanations for them. The four Rules of the 1726 edition run as follows (omitting some explanatory comments that follow each):

Rule 1: We are to admit no more causes of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances.

Rule 2: Therefore to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.

Rule 3: The qualities of bodies, which admit neither intensification nor remission of degrees, and which are found to belong to all bodies within the reach of our experiments, are to be esteemed the universal qualities of all bodies whatsoever.

Rule 4: In experimental philosophy we are to look upon propositions inferred by general induction from phenomena as accurately or very nearly true, not withstanding any contrary hypothesis that may be imagined, till such time as other phenomena occur, by which they may either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions.

This section of Rules for philosophy is followed by a listing of 'Phenomena', in which are listed a number of mainly astronomical observations, that Newton used as the basis for inferences later on, as if adopting a consensus set of facts from the astronomers of his time.

Both the 'Rules' and the 'Phenomena' evolved from one edition of the Principia to the next. Rule 4 made its appearance in the third (1726) edition; Rules 1–3 were present as 'Rules' in the second (1713) edition, and predecessors of them were also present in the first edition of 1687, but there they had a different heading: they were not given as 'Rules', but rather in the first (1687) edition the predecessors of the three later 'Rules', and of most of the later 'Phenomena', were all lumped together under a single heading 'Hypotheses' (in which the third item was the predecessor of a heavy revision that gave the later Rule 3).

From this textual evolution, it appears that Newton wanted by the later headings 'Rules' and 'Phenomena' to clarify for his readers his view of the roles to be played by these various statements.

In the third (1726) edition of the Principia, Newton explains each rule in an alternative way and/or gives an example to back up what the rule is claiming. The first rule is explained as a philosophers' principle of economy. The second rule states that if one cause is assigned to a natural effect, then the same cause so far as possible must be assigned to natural effects of the same kind: for example respiration in humans and in animals, fires in the home and in the Sun, or the reflection of light whether it occurs terrestrially or from the planets. An extensive explanation is given of the third rule, concerning the qualities of bodies, and Newton discusses here the generalisation of observational results, with a caution against making up fancies contrary to experiments, and use of the rules to illustrate the observation of gravity and space.

Isaac Newton’s statement of the four rules revolutionised the investigation of phenomena. With these rules, Newton could in principle begin to address all of the world’s present unsolved mysteries. He was able to use his new analytical method to replace that of Aristotle, and he was able to use his method to tweak and update Galileo’s experimental method. The re-creation of Galileo's method has never been significantly changed and in its substance, scientists use it today.

Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena for which classical physics cannot account:

quantization of certain physical properties

quantum entanglement

principle of uncertainty

wave–particle duality

Chemistry chapter

The universe's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen and helium in the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.

During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen-1 (protium, 1H) and helium-4 (4He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (2H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10−10) of lithium and beryllium. Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not.[19] It is generally agreed that no heavier elements than boron were produced in the Big Bang. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron.[20] Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis.[21] However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means.

Periodic table showing the cosmogenic origin of each element in the Big Bang, or in large or small stars. Small stars can produce certain elements up to sulfur, by the alpha process. Supernovae are needed to produce "heavy" elements (those beyond iron and nickel) rapidly by neutron buildup, in the r-process. Certain large stars slowly produce other elements heavier than iron, in the s-process; these may then be blown into space in the off-gassing of planetary nebulae

On Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of natural transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides.[22] For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon-14 (14C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon-40 (40Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium-40 (40K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural materials, produced as individual atoms by natural fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processes.

Human technology has produced various additional elements beyond these first 94, with those through atomic number 118 now known

Biology chapter

The Canon of Medicine (Arabic: القانون في الطب al-Qānūn fī aṭ-Ṭibb) is an encyclopedia of medicine in five books compiled by Persian philosopher Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and completed in 1025.[1] It presents an overview of the contemporary medical knowledge, which had been largely influenced by Galen[2]. Avicenna is considered one of the first people to compile medical knowledge and the greatest

Avicenna begins part one by dividing theoretical medicine and medical practice. He describes what he says are the "four causes" of illness, based on Aristotelian philosophy: The material cause, the efficient cause, the formal cause, and the final cause:[7]:29-31

Material Cause Avicenna says that this cause is the human subject itself, the "members or the breath" or "the humours" indirectly.

Efficient Cause The efficient cause is broken up into two categories: The first is "Extrinsic", or the sources external to the human body such as air or the region we live in. The second efficient cause is the "Intrinsic", or the internal sources such as our sleep and "its opposite-the waking state", the "different periods of life", habits, and race.

Formal Cause The formal cause is what Avicenna called "the constitutions ; the compositions". According to Oskar Cameron Gruner, who provides a treatise within Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, this was in agreement with Galen who believed that the formal cause of illness is based upon the individual's temperament.

Final Cause The final cause is given as "the actions or functions".

Material Cause Avicenna says that this cause is the human subject itself, the "members or the breath" or "the humours" indirectly.

Final Cause The final cause is given as "the actions or functions".

According to AvicennaI the Temperaments (General description)[edit]

The temperaments are reported to be the interaction between the four different element's qualities, such as the conflict between dryness, wetness, cold, and hot. Avicenna suggests that these qualities battle between each other until an equilibrium state is reached and this state is known as the temperaments.[7]:57-65

The Canon also adopted the ancient theory of Four Temperaments and extended it to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams." This expanded theory of four temperaments is given in the following table:[9]

Evidences of the four primary temperaments

Evidence Hot Cold Moist Dry

Morbid states Inflammations become febrile

Loss of vigour Fevers related to serous humour

Rheumatism Lassitude

Functional power Deficient energy Deficient digestive power Difficult digestion

Subjective sensations Bitter taste

Excessive thirst

Burning cardiac orifice Lack of desire for fluids Mucoid salivation

Sleepiness Insomnia, wakefulness

Physical signs High pulse rate,

approaching lassitude Flaccid joints Diarrhea

Swollen eyelids Rough skin

Acquired habit

Foods & medicines Calefacients harmful Infrigidants harmful Moist aliments harmful Dry regimen harmful

Infrigidants beneficial Calefacients beneficial Humectants beneficial

III The Temperaments Belonging to Age[edit]

The Canon divides life into four "periods" and then subdivides the first period into five separate categories.

The following table is provided for the four periods of life:[7]:68

Period Title Name Year of Age

I The Period of Growth Adolescence Up to 30

II The Prime of Life Period of beauty Up to 35 or 40

III Elderly life Period of decline. Senescence. Up to about 60

IV Decrepit Age Senility To the end of life

Avicenna says that the third period shows signs of decline in vigor and some decline in intellectual power. In the fourth period, both vigor and intelligence decline.

The Book of Healing (Arabic: کتاب الشفاء Kitab Al-Shifaʾ, Latin: Sufficientia) is a scientific and philosophical encyclopedia written by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) from ancient Persia, near Bukhara in Greater Khorasan. Despite its English title, it is not concerned with medicine. Also called The Cure it is intended to "cure" or "heal" ignorance of the soul. This book is Ibn Sina’s major work on science and philosophy. He probably began to compose the al-Shifa in 1014, completed it around 1020,[1] and published it in 1027.[2]

The book is divided into four parts: logic, natural sciences, mathematics (a quadrivium of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music), and metaphysics.[2] It was influenced by ancient Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle, Hellenistic thinkers such as Ptolemy, earlier Persian and Muslim scientists and philosophers such as Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alfarabi) and Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.

Aristotle in his book posterior analytics writes that there are four kinds of questions and four kinds of things.Aristotle starts with a remarkable statement, the kinds of things determine the kinds of questions, which are four:

Whether the relation of a property (attribute) with a thing is a true fact.

What is the reason of this connection.

Whether a thing exists.

What is the nature and meaning of the thing.

Galen's education had exposed him to the four major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans), with teachers from the Rationalist sect and from the Empiricist sect.

In the last few centuries, various psychologists would begin expressing the four temperaments in terms of pairs of behaviors that were held in common by two temperaments each.

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), from his work with dogs, came up with the factors of "passivity" (active or passive) and "extremeness" (extreme response or moderate response). His view of the temperaments in dogs was:

The Melancholic type (Weak inhibitory): categorized as "weak" dogs;

Choleric type (Strong excitatory): strong, unbalanced, easily aroused (excitable);

Sanguine type (Lively): strong, balanced, mobile;

Phlegmatic type (Calm imperturbable): strong, balanced, sluggish.

This theory would also be extended to humans.

Alfred Adler (1879–1937) measured "activity" (connected with "energy") against "social interest", yielding the four "styles of life":[3]

Ruling or Dominant type: high activity, low social interest

Getting or Leaning type: low activity, high social interest

Avoiding type: low activity, low social interest

Socially Useful type: high activity, high social interest

These he compared to the choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic and sanguine respectively.[4]

Erich Fromm's (1900–1980) factors were acquiring and assimilating things ("assimilation"), and reacting to people ("socialization"). These two factors form four types of character, which he calls Receptive, Exploitative, Hoarding and Marketing.

Also deserving mention is a single scale invented in the 1940s by Karen Horney (1885–1952). This one dimension measured "movement" towards, against and away from people. This would result in the coping strategies, in which these three "neurotic" patterns would be paired with a fourth, "healthy" one called "movement with people". These would describe behaviors associated with both extroversion and reacting to people, in which people attempt to avoid getting hurt, by either distancing themselves from others or maintaining self-sufficiency and independence on one hand; or approaching others, attempting to control or exploit them, and otherwise gain power and recognition; or "give in" to them to gain acceptance and approval, on the other.

As the twentieth century progressed, numerous other instruments were devised measuring not only temperament, but also various individual aspects of personality and behavior, and several began using forms of extroversion and the developing category of people versus task focus as the factors.

In 1928, William Moulton Marston identified four primary emotions, each with an initial feeling tone of either pleasantness or unpleasantness. This led to his viewing people's behavior along two axes, with their attention being either "passive" or "active", depending on the individual's perception of his or her environment as either "favorable" or "antagonistic". By placing the axes at right angles, four quadrants form with each describing a behavioral pattern:

Dominance, which produces activity in an antagonistic environment; with a feeling of unpleasantness until stimulus is acted upon

Compliance, which produces passivity in an antagonistic environment; with a feeling of unpleasantness until stimulus is reconciled

Inducement, which produces activity in a favorable environment; with a feeling of pleasantness increasing as interaction increases

Submission, which produces passivity in a favorable environment; with a feeling of pleasantness increasing as yielding increases

This would be further developed in the 1970s by John G. Geier[5] into the DiSC assessment System, which grades individual scales of "Dominance", "Influence", "Steadiness", and "Conscientiousness". By now, it would be classified in terms of the two factors; consisting of pairs of Extroverted or "Assertive" aspects (D, I), Introverted or "Passive" aspects (S, C), Task-oriented or "Controlled" aspects (D, C) and social or "Open" aspects (I, S).

The California Psychological Inventory's CPI 260 Instrument also has similar scales, of "Initiates action, Confident in social situations" versus "Focuses on inner life, Values own privacy"; and "Rule-favoring, Likes stability, Agrees with others" versus "Rule-questioning, Has personal value system, Often disagrees with others" and the four "lifestyles": Leader, Supporter, Innovator, and Visualizer.

Two-Factors expanded to measure more than four types[edit]

Galen also had intermediate scales for "balance" between the hot/cold and wet/dry poles, yielding a total of nine temperaments. Four were the original humors, and five were balanced in one or both scales.[6][7][8]

Another addition to the two factor models was the creation of a 10 by 10 square grid developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton in their Managerial Grid Model introduced in 1964. This matrix graded, from 0-9, the factors of "Concern for Production" (X-axis) and "Concern for People" (Y-axis), allowing a moderate range of scores, which yielded five "leadership styles":

Impoverished (low X, Y)

Produce or Perish (high X low Y)

Country Club (low X high Y)

Team (high X and Y)

Middle of the Road (moderate X, Y)

The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) used a version of this with "Assertiveness" and "Cooperativeness" as the two factors, also leading to a fifth mode:

Competing, (assertive, uncooperative)

Avoiding (unassertive, uncooperative)

Accommodating (unassertive, cooperative)

Collaborating (assertive, cooperative)

Compromising (intermediate assertiveness and cooperativeness).

FIRO-B would call the two dimensions Expressed Behavior and Wanted Behavior, and use three separate matrices for the respective areas of Inclusion (social skills) Control (leadership and responsibility-taking) and Affection (deep personal relationships). In 1977, "locator charts" were produced for each area by Dr. Leo Ryan, providing a map of the various scores, following the Managerial Grid model, with unofficial names assigned to different score ranges. They were generally grouped into five main types for each area, in the vein of the Managerial Grid and TKI, except that moderate scores (generally 4, 5) in only one dimension (with the other dimension being high or low) were given separate names, creating nine basic groups for each area (low e/w, low e/high w, low e/moderate w, etc.). In the control area, there is a tenth group created by a further division of the low e/high w range.

This would form the basis of the Five Temperaments theory by Dr. Richard G. and Phyllis Arno, in which the ancient temperaments were mapped to the FIRO-B scales (in all three areas), with Phlegmatic becoming the moderate e/w instead of low e/high w, which was now taken to constitute a fifth temperament called "Supine", which has many of the "introverted and relationship oriented" traits of the other types defined as such, above. (The "Wanted behavior" scale is generally renamed "Responsive behavior"). The moderate scores mixed with high or low are designated "Phlegmatic blends" and divided with 4 being a blend of Phlegmatic with the lower adjacent temperament, and 5 being a blend with the higher adjacent temperament. This results in 13 separate ranges in each area.

According to AvicennaI the Temperaments

Evidences of the four primary temperaments

Evidence Hot Cold Moist Dry

Morbid states Inflammations become febrile

Loss of vigour Fevers related to serous humour

Rheumatism Lassitude

Functional power Deficient energy Deficient digestive power Difficult digestion

Subjective sensations Bitter taste

Excessive thirst

Burning cardiac orifice Lack of desire for fluids Mucoid salivation

Sleepiness Insomnia, wakefulness

Physical signs High pulse rate,

approaching lassitude Flaccid joints Diarrhea

Swollen eyelids Rough skin

Acquired habit

Foods & medicines Calefacients harmful Infrigidants harmful Moist aliments harmful Dry regimen harmful

Infrigidants beneficial Calefacients beneficial Humectants beneficial

Relation to weather Worse in summer Worse in winter Bad in autumn

Then Avicenna describes the four simple intemperapents and the four simple temperaments A. Simple "intemperaments"[7]:63

Hot temperament (hotter than normal)

Cold temperament (colder than normal)

Dry temperament (drier than usual)

Moist temperament (more moist than usual)

B. Compound "intemperaments"

The compound intemperaments are where two things are wrong with the temperament, i.e. hotter and moister; hotter and drier; colder and moister; colder and drier. There are only four because something cannot be simultaneously hotter and colder or drier and moister. The four simple temperaments and four compound intemperaments can each be divided into "Those apart from any material substance" and "Those in which some material substance is concerned", for a total of sixteen intemperaments. Examples of the sixteen intemperaments are provided in the "third and fourth volumes."[7]:64

Other factors devised along the way measured other aspects of personality, mostly cognitive aspects. This would form a second strain of temperament theory, one which enjoys the most popularity today.

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) defined his typology by a duality of the beautiful and sublime, and concluded it was possible to represent the four temperaments with a square of opposition using the presence or absence of the two attributes. He determined that the phlegmatic type has no interest in either the beautiful or the sublime, so there was an absence of both (sb). The melancholic had a feeling for both (SB), and the sanguine had a predominating feeling for the beautiful (sB), while the choleric, he determined after comparing with the melancholic, lacked a sense of beauty and had only a sense of the sublime (Sb).[9]

Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based. In his book Dimensions of Personality (1947) he paired Extraversion (E), which was "the tendency to enjoy positive events", especially social ones, with Neuroticism (N), which was the tendency to experience negative emotions. By pairing the two dimensions, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the four ancient temperaments.

High N, High E = Choleric

High N, Low E = Melancholy (also called "Melancholic")

Low N, High E = Sanguine

Low N, Low E = Phlegmatic

He later added a third dimension, psychoticism, resulting in his "P-E-N" three factor model of personality. This has been correlated with two separate factors developed by the Big Five personality traits (Five Factor Model), called "agreeableness" and "conscientiousness"; the former being similar to the people/task orientation scale elaborated above. Neuroticism in Eysenck's case acted like the people/task-orientation scale (except for being inverted as to which temperaments were "high" or "low"), but was later separated as a distinct factor in the Big Five.

Carl Jung, in the early 20th century, introduced the four factors that would become a part of the later MBTI, and these included extroversion/introversion, sensing and intuition, and thinking/feeling, which would be correlated to Agreeableness, with Judging-Perceiving roughly as Conscientiousness.

Ernst Kretschmer (1888–1964) divided personality into two "constitutional groups": Schizothymic, which contain a "Psychaesthetic proportion" between sensitive and cold poles, and Cyclothymic which contain a "Diathetic" proportion between gay and sad. The Schizoids consist of the Hyperesthetic (sensitive) and Anesthetic (Cold) characters, and the Cycloids consist of the Depressive (or "melancholic") and Hypomanic characters.

David W. Keirsey would make the connection of the two groups with Myers' Sensors and iNtuitors, providing the two factors for his four temperaments.[10] He would rename Sensing to "Observant" or "Concrete", and Intuiting to "Introspection" or "Abstract", and pair it with "Cooperative" versus "Pragmatic" (or "Utilitarian") which would be the "Conscientiousness" scale; to form:

SP Artisan (Concrete, Pragmatic)

SJ Guardian (Concrete, Cooperative)

NT Rational (Abstract, Pragmatic)

NF Idealist (Abstract, Cooperative)

Keirsey also divided his temperaments by "Role-Informative"/"Role Directive" to form eight "intelligence types"; and finally by E/I, to yield the 16 types of the MBTI. It was when his former student, Berens, paired the latter two factors separately that she yielded here Interaction Styles, discussed above. Keirsey also divided the intelligence types by I/E into "roles of interaction".[11]

Ernst writes that Steiner used imagination and insight as a basis for his ideas, drawing mystical knowledge from the occult Akashic Records, a work which is supposedly situated on the astral plane, and which Steiner said was accessible to him via his intuitive powers.[4] On this basis, Steiner proposed "associations between four postulated dimensions of the human body (physical body, etheric body, astral body, and ego), plants, minerals, and the cosmos".[3] Steiner also proposed a connection betweens planets, metals and organs so that, for example, the planet Mercury, the element mercury and the lung were all somehow associated. These propositions form the basis of anthroposophical medicine

Psychology chapter

It might be useful to think of the 4 "languages" in which people endeavour to articulate their concerns and favoured action. In principle these languages are complementary and equally necessary. Each has its great strengths and weaknesses. How about:

Pozzy: This is the language in which everything must be expressed positively. Great for political correctness. This is the language of hope-mongers -- unfortunately also the direct cause of the Challenger Space Shuttle disaster (the manufacturers, as in many modern organizations, discouraged upward reporting of problems).

Neggy: The is the negative, critical language typical of newspaper reporting and general cynicism. The language of doom-mongers. Useful to have around if you want to fix infrastructure problems (pipe-leaks, broken-legs, etc) where a good diagnosis is essential to rapid remedial action. Does not seem to be able to deal with wider global challenges.

Luvvy: This is the language in which everything is based on love and being lovely. Implicit and unquestioning belief in brotherhood, sisterhood, solidarity, community and the like. Great as a basis for initiating relationships. Tends to be at an extreme loss in recognizing or dealing with nasty situations, Saddam Hussein's, etc. Poor at sustaining relationships through their bad patches.

Tuffy: This is the tough language of the corporate, military and gang worlds -- bulldozer language. Certainly achieves things, including the need for other styles to compensate for its insensitivities.

In response to the above, philosopher Antonio de Nicolas (private communication, 1998) -- who has studied the interplay of four languages from other perspectives -- made the following remarks:

The four languages you propose I would further divide them into the following categories: Pozzy and Luvvy are the languages of diplomacy while Neggy and Tuffy are the languages of advocacy. Diplomacy takes the other's position seriously and tries to find a middle ground satisfactory to both: the other and I. Advocacy on the other hand is based on Logical principles and the aim is to win, my position over their's.

The languages of advocacy are those of the left brain, the mimetic conceptual and the "interpreter module" verbal. There are "blind" languages for they depend for their information on the right brain store of sensation and images. Since they are blind, they know not their origin, thus they rely on the substitution systems of logic and fight for position: win or lose. The languages of diplomacy correspond to the reptilian and limbic brain and to the translation of these brains into the "visual" imagistic synthesis of the right brain hemisphere of the neocortex. Images. as you see are a derived text, not original, but can be made so through Pozzy and Luvvy. The languages of advocacy are a mirror image of Luvvy and Pozzy but on their own are totally destructive: win, lose.

Global Governance is possible if in each situation, Iraq, Middle East, all four languages are sorted out so that not any one by itself determines the outcome. All four must be part of the solution.

Succumbing

QMRSuccumbing to the temptation to ask why there might only be the the initial four fundamental languages (Pozzy, Neggy, Luvvy, Tuffy) -- what other language candidates might there be, and how do they relate to one another? Examples might include:

Tekky: With all its joy in gadgets, technical fixes and scientific explanations, and yet more monitoring. The green's have there own variants concerned with recipes for permaculture, composting toilets, eco-housing, and the like. Tends to assume, as with architecture, that right human relations follow from right technical solutions to environmental problems. The result is many soulless environments.

Artty: This is the language of art, decor, music, crafts and design. Can be great for look-good / smell-good / vibe-good environments that it is nice to hang out in. However this language is notorious for its inability to handle conflicting tastes and for the maneuverings to impose particular tastes and marginalize others. Fickle in its blind response to fashion and other rules of taste.

Wizzy: This is the language of wisdom and gurus -- emulated to a high degree by consultants and therapists. Also used as a vehicle for personal aspiration, prayer and relating to the cosmos. Great for wise sayings and recommendations -- things one ought to do. Amazingly inept when several speakers of it get together to articulate action in response to a concrete situation or an opposing perspective.

Leggy: This is the language of law and legislation. Basic to any bureaucracy governed by procedures and regulations. Most efforts at global organization are formulated in this language -- as well as the articulation of human rights and responsibilities. Easily takes over mentalities as an end in itself. Quite insensitive to its own limitations and absurdities -- and the pain it can cause.

It is possible that such languages could relate to a broader frame -- which might include Myers-Briggs, etc. They could combine in various ways. Luvvy and Tuffy together frame the Tuff-Luvv strategies. Luvvy and Wizzy are together the essence of much New Age Luvv-Wizz discourse. Which languages are primary to the organization of global society / community etc and which secondary? International programmes tend to get trapped in Wizz-Legg discourse.

Edward de Bono has explored a variant of this approach through two books: Six Thinking Hats (1987) and Six Action Shoes (1991). These books deal with what he has called "operacy". This is the skill of action, of getting things done and making things happen -- which he equates with literacy and numeracy. They build on a well-publicized series of his earlier books dealing with creative approaches to problem-solving, notably in corporate policy-making environments. He argues that, to get a well-rounded view, a committee needs to look at issues wearing a succession of colour-coded hats (or shoes), corresponding to different styles of thought (or action).

According to de Bono (1991), the metaphoric framework of six thinking hats has been adopted by many major corporations around the world. It is also used increasingly in education. As de Bono points out: "The six hat method has been widely accepted because it is simple, it is practical, and it works. It actually changes how thinking takes place in meetings and elsewhere: instead of the usual to and fro arguments it makes it possible for people to have constructive discussions." (1991, p. 4). The six pairs of action shoes develop the action dimension of the thinking associated with the six hats.

Meta-ethics is the branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments. Meta-ethics is one of the four branches of ethics generally recognized by philosophers, the others being descriptive ethics, normative ethics and applied ethics.

Florence Littauer is a Christian self-help author and public speaker. Littauer is best known for her series of books based upon the Personality Plus personality system.[1] She was listed as one of Helen K. Hosier's "100 Christian Women Who Changed the Twentieth Century" and has received the National Speakers Association's Council of Peers Award for Excellence and has been designated by them as a Certified Speaking Professional.[2][3] She created the personality plus model

Contents [hide]

1 Background

2 Personality Plus

2.1 Personality groups

3 Bibliography

4 References

5 External links

Background[edit]

Littauer grew up in her father's store in Haverhill, Massachusetts, with her sharing three rooms with her family. Her parents were Walter and Katie F. Chapman. She attended the University of Massachusetts on a scholarship,[4] where she received a Bachelor's degree in English with a minor in psychiatry.[5]

Littauer met her husband Fred Littauer met at a Jewish day camp for girls, with the two becoming engaged about a year later.[6] The wedding was covered by Life Goes to a Wedding and the two have had four children together. Their third child, Fred Jr "Freddie", died from issues related to seizures he suffered during his infancy and their fourth child, Larry (deceased), suffered from a brain disorder and was institutionalized.[6][7] During this time Littauer suffered depression, which continued until she met Roy Gustafson, a member of the Billy Graham Evangelistic Team.[5] From this meeting Littauer and her husband began a ministry, a public speaking business, and a series of religious themed books.[8] The Littauers would have another child following Freddie's death. In October 2002, Fred died of a heart attack at their home while Littauer was away on a speaking engagement. Behind the Personality: The Story of My Life was in its final editing stages at that time and Littauer inserted a tribute to her late husband in the final chapter of the book.[9]

Personality Plus[edit]

Personality groups[edit]

Powerful Cholerics are considered to be leader and commander types, being dominant, strong, decisive, and occasionally arrogant. They tend to be good leaders because they are driven to get things done, however they might offend some people along the way. Cholerics are also known as the "POWERFUL" type. Some famous examples are Oprah Winfrey, Dr. Phil, Phil Donahue, Donald Trump, Bill Gates and Bill O'Reilly.

Perfect Melancholy personality types are described by Littauer to be the mental types, with their personality displaying a strong emphasis on thinking, evaluation, and assessment. Their typical behaviour involves thinking, assessing, making lists, evaluating the positives and negatives, and general analysis of facts. They love maps, charts and graphs. They are usually the most intelligent of the four types, however they tend to dwell on details. A Melancholy is a planner, making sure things happen, although sometimes they can paralyze themselves with over-analysis. Lists and "doing things the right way" are characteristics of this personality type. Melancholies are also known as the "Perfect" type. Some famous examples are Hillary Clinton, Ernest Hemingway, Vincent Van Gogh and Beethoven.

Popular Sanguines are a social personality type, displaying characteristics such as a predisposition to socialize and entertain. They enjoy fun, socializing, chatting, telling stories - and are fond of promising the world, because that's the friendly thing to do. A Sanguine gets on well with people and can get others excited about issues, but cannot always be relied upon to get things done. They love interacting with others and play the role of the entertainer or center of attention in group interactions. They have a tendency to over-promise and under-deliver. Sanguines are also known as the "Popular" type. Some famous examples are Bill Clinton, Robin Williams, Kelly Ripa and Richard Simmons.

Peaceful Phlegmatics are described as having a flat-type personality, being laid back and desiring a peaceful environment above all else. They are easy going, laid back, nonchalant, unexcitable and relaxed. Desiring a quiet and peaceful environment above all else. They tend not to actively upset people, but their indifference may frustrate people. They try not to make decisions, and generally go for the status quo. They are good as mediators because they don't usually have many enemies. They also have a "dry" and quick sense of humor. Phlegmatics are also known as the "Peaceful" type. Some famous examples are Calvin Coolidge, Tim Duncan, Sandy Koufax, and Keanu Reeves, Koffi Annan.

None of these types is specifically described as being positive or negative - hence the combination of positive and negative adjectives (i.e. "Powerful" with "Choleric"). They each have upsides and downsides. The characteristics are for observing and identifying, rather than judging.

According to the model there are four types of people

But to be assertive, or to become more assertive than we are today, requires the deployment of a different communication style, and to this end there are four possible styles which may be applicable. These styles arise because individuals bring different levels of energy and empathy to any conversation and this allows a four-quadrant grid model to be constructed, as can be seen below.

The model below has one axis describing the level of ‘energy’ that an individual may adopt in a situation (running from ‘Strong’ to ‘Gentle’). This includes the verbal energy in terms of speaking (when the voice may be louder and more forceful), but also the non-vocal characteristics such as leaning forward or backwards, high/low use of other body language and/or facial expressions, etc. The other axis on the grid relates to the level of ’empathy’ that may be preferred by an individual (or one that evolves). This runs from ‘warm’ to ‘cool’ and clearly relates to the interest in and warmth towards the other person.

By intersecting these two axes the grid created shows four assertiveness styles.

Assertiveness Styles Diagram (quadrant)

Every one of these four styles may be adopted in different situations, although it is likely that most individuals will stick to their greatest preference in most circumstances that they encounter. Of course, all of these styles have their associated strengths and weaknesses and some are more useful and applicable in different circumstances, than others.

Firm and positive assertiveness requires considerable practice for many people. However, it is fair to say that successful efforts to be assertive often arise from a strong feeling of self-worth, or high self-esteem, combined with a strong and positive belief about the intrinsic worth or value of others around you.

Individuals may actually draw on all four of these different styles in the same communication, or in different situations from time to time. In addition, an individual can learn or choose to use more of a particular style than another. However, for the most part, an individual is likely to have a primary and/or a secondary style that is considerably stronger than the others. This means that they are likely to adopt this style (or styles of there are two) more often and with greater ease than other styles.

Each assertiveness style has its inherent strengths and weaknesses, depending upon the person, the other party or parties in the discussion, and the type of communication to take place.

Of these four styles, research tends to suggest that it is the “Firmly Asserting” style that is used the most and is adopted more than any other by people that are seen to be the most positive in their efforts to be assertive (and who are happy with the end result of their efforts). This is followed by the Warmly Proposing style, the Aggressively Controlling style and the Passively Observing style last.

The Kohs Block test, also known as the Kohs Block Design Test,[1] is a performance test designed to be an IQ test. The test taker must, using 16 colored cubes, replicate the patterns displayed on a series of test cards. The design of the test was motivated by a belief that the test could easily be administered to persons with language or hearing disabilities. 16 is the squares of the quadrant model

In Maslow's (1971) later years, he become more interested in the higher order or metaneeds and tried to further distinguish them. Maslow theorized that the ultimate goal of life is self-actualization, which is almost never fully attained, but rather is something we try to always strive for.

He later theorized that this level does not stop; it goes on to self-transcendence, which carries us to the spiritual level, e.g. Gandhi, Mother Theresa, Dalai Lama, or even poets, such as Robert Frost. Maslow's self-transcendence level recognizes the human need for ethics, creativity, compassion and spirituality. Without this spiritual or transegoic sense, we are simply become machines.

This expansion of the higher order needs is shown here:

Maslow Hierarchy of Needs in his later years

Note that the four meta needs (above the inner pyramid) can be pursued in any order, depending upon a person's wants or circumstances, as long as the basic needs have all been met (the below chart is listed from top to bottom needs):

Self-transcendence — a transegoic (see Note below) level that emphasizes visionary intuition, altruism, and unity consciousness.

Self-actualization — know exactly who you are, where you are going, and what you want to accomplish. A state of well-being.

Aesthetic — to do things not simply for the outcome but because it's the reason you are here on earth — at peace, more curious about the inner workings of all things.

Cognitive — to be free of the good opinion of others — learning for learning alone, contribute knowledge.

Esteem — feeling of moving up in world, recognition, few doubts about self.

Belongingness and love — belong to a group, close friends to confide with.

Safety — feel free from immediate danger.

Physiological — food, water, shelter, sex.

Note: Transegoic means a higher, psychic, or spiritual state of development. The trans is related to transcendence, while the ego is based on Freud's work. We go from preEGOic levels to EGOic levels to transEGOic. The EGO in all three terms is used in the Jungian sense of consciousness as opposed to the unconscious. Ego equates with the personality.

In addition, just as in his earlier model, we may be in a state of flux — we shift between levels (Maslow, 1968). For example there may be peak experiences for temporary self-actualization and self-transcendence. These are our spiritual or creative moments.

So Maslow finally established in his famous needs hierarchy that there are four basic needs and four meta needs

Assertive people:

feel empowered – they do not feel that they are unjustly controlled by others

are proactive – that is, they make things happen, and are not reactive – always waiting to see how they will respond to the words and actions of others

know an assert their rights and responsibilities in dealing with others

are able to resist the aggressive, manipulative and submissive ploys of other people.

By intersecting these two axes the grid created shows four assertiveness styles.

Assertiveness Styles Diagram

Each assertiveness style has its inherent strengths and weaknesses, depending upon the person, the other party or parties in the discussion, and the type of communication to take place.

Systems and Processes in Instructional System Design

A system may be thought of as a set of concepts or parts that must work together to perform a particular process. Bela Banathy (1968) defined a human-made system as an entity comprised of parts that is designed and built by people into an organized whole for the attainment of a specific purpose.

An organization is a system or a collection of systems. Every job in an organization is used by a system to produce or support a product or service. The product or service is the means by which a organization survives or supports itself. A large organization may have several systems that are generally broken down into departments or groups, while a smaller company may only have one system.

Inputs of a System

There are four inputs necessary in every system to produce a product or service (Laird, 1985):

People: The workers in the group are linked by a common activity.

Material: The raw products that go into the system.

Technology: The technique for achieving a practical purpose or goal.

Time: The measured period during which an action or process begins and ends.

Note: We often think of technology as computers, electronics, etc., but it is much more. The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines technology as the practical application of knowledge, especially in a particular area. It includes the usage and knowledge of tools, techniques, crafts, processes, and methods of organization.

Malcolm Knowles is generally considered to have first coined the term informal learning in his book, Informal Adult Education: A Guide for Administrators, Leaders, and Teachers (1950).

Allen Tough (1971) was among the first persons to formally study how adults use informal learning through his research at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

The next big proponent of informal learning is probably Jay Cross (2007), who wrote about it extensively through his blog and book, Informal Learning: Rediscovering the Natural Pathways That Inspire Innovation and Performance (2007).

Informal, Formal, and Nonformal Learning

The terms formal and informal learning have nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather with the direction of who controls the learning objectives and goals. In a formal learning environment, the training or learning department sets the goal and objectives, while informal learning means the learner sets the goal and objectives (Cofer, 2000).

In addition, if the organization (other than the training department) sets the learning goals and objectives, such as a line manager directing OJT, then it is normally referred to as nonformal learning (Hanley, 2008). Thus, in a formal learning episode, learning professionals, such as instructional designers or trainers, set the goals; while a nonformal episode, someone outside of the learning department, such as a manager or supervisor, sets the goals or objectives.

Incidental and Intentional learning

Two other terms worth mentioning are incidental and intentional learning, which refers to the intent of the learning objectives. An intentional learning environment has a self-directed purpose in that it has goals and objectives on what and/or how to learn (Good, Brophy, 1990).

Incidental learning occurs when the learner picks up on something else in the learning environment, such as the action of a model that causes him or her to loose focus on the learning objectives or goal and focus on an unplanned learning objective (Good, Brophy, 1990).

Thus, formal learning is normally always intentional. Informal learning is intentional if the learner sets an objective or goal for herself and incidental if the learning occurs haphazardly or serendipity.

While incidental learning is often dismissed by instructors, it is an important concept because it often has a motivating effect with the learners that lead to discovery learning (an unplanned learning episode, but proves to be quite useful). So unless other considerations prevent it, it can sometimes be worthwhile to detour from the primary objectives to take advantage of an unplanned teachable moment.

Charting the Types of Learning

The various types of learning may be charted as:

Formal and informal learning

The formal and informal learning chart may also be represented as:

Formal and informal learning

The Continuum of Formal and Informal Learning

Formal and informal learning should not be thought of as completely distinct entities, but rather as being part of a continuum:

Learning Continuum

That is, while at times you be able to identify an episode of learning as being either formal or informal, at other times they will blend together. For example, After Action Reviews provide a formal learning environment, but the learning tends to be informal in that the participants choose the topics to be discussed.

While it might seem obvious to most readers that both formal and informal learning include both incidental and intentional learning, it might not be as obvious that formal learning often includes episodes of informal learning and vice versa. A two-year study calculated that each hour of formal learning spills over to four-hours of informal learning or a 4:1 ratio (Cofer, 2000). Bricks & Mortar

Bell (1977) used the metaphor of brick and mortar to describe the relationship of formal and informal learning. Formal learning acts as bricks fused into the emerging bridge of personal growth. Informal learning acts as the mortar, facilitating the acceptance and development of the formal learning. He noted that informal learning should NOT replace formal learning activities, as it is this synergy that produces effective growth.

And of course the opposite occurs in that episodes of informal learning often leads to formal learning. In addition, some learning episodes that are strictly informal may be too narrowly based in that the learner only learns part of a task or superficial skills that may not be transferable to the job (Bell, Dale 1999).

Sociology chapter

Besides the basic social skills that every person in the organization must understand, there are four primary social judgment skills that a good leader must learn (Northouse, 2007; Zaccaro, Mumford, Connelly, Marks, Gilbert, 2000):

Perspective Taking - Using empathy to understand other's attitudes towards goals, problem solving, solutions offered, and their points of view.

Social Perceptiveness - Having insight and awareness to how employees will react to organizational change by understanding what is important to them and what motivates them.

Behavior Flexibility - The ability to change and adapt one's behavior to situational changes by being flexible rather then locked in to one's impulses.

Social Performance - Understanding the employees' perspectives in order to communicate a vision. If there is resistance or conflict, be a mediator and/or coach, rather than a boss who gives orders.

Social Judgment skills can be increased by watching and reflecting on how others do it, increasing your listening skills, and using empathy.

Watching how other people do something and then learning from it is called modeling. It is one of the primary ways that people learn social skills. Reflecting on how people react to you and to others will help expand your understanding of the skill and help you to learn it more deeply.

When talking with others, be sure to listen to them rather than just hear them. In addition, listen for understanding, rather than be judgmental.

To empathize with them, heed the Sioux Indian Tribal Prayer,

“Great Spirit, help us never to judge another until we have walked for two weeks in his moccasins.”

Empathy differs from sympathy in that sympathy connotes spontaneous emotion rather than a conscious, reasoned response. For more information, see Motivation.

Internal Relationship Functions

Coach team members

Use more collaborative methods to involve all team members (this survey includes questions to determine if the environment is collaborative)

Manage conflict

Build commitment and esprit de corps through the use of ethos leadership

Satisfy team members' needs

Model what you expect from your team members

External Environmental Functions

Network to increase influence and gather information

Advocate by representing your team so that it shows them at their best

Get support for your team by gathering resources and recognition for your team

Buffer the team from environmental distractions

Assess the environment through surveys and other performance indicators to determine its impact on the organization

Share information with the team

The Four Layers or Steps in the Team Leadership Model

1. Top layer: Effective team performance begins with leader’s mental model of the situation and then determining if the situation requires Action or Monitoring?

2. Second Layer: Is it at an Internal or External leadership level?

3. Third layer: Is it Task, Relational, or an Environmental intervention? Select a function depending on the type of intervention. See the next section for explanation of Function Interventions.

4. Bottom layer: Correctly performing the above three steps create high Performance through Development and Maintenance functions.

Team Leadership Function Interventions

Internal Task Functions:

Focus on goals by clarifying and/or getting agreement

Restructure plans, processes, roles, etc. in order to gain desired results (process improvement)

Guide the decision-making process so that better information is obtained, coordination is better, focusing on issues, etc.

Train members through both formal and informal means

Assess performance an confront when necessary

Team Leadership Model

TeamworkA lack of leadership is often seen as a roadblock to a team's performance. As Stewart and Manz (1995, p.748) write,

“More specifically, work team management or supervision is often identified as a primary reason why self-management teams fail to properly develop and yield improvements in productivity, quality, and quality of life for American workers.”

Rather than focusing on ineffective teams, Larson and LaFasto (1989) looked in the opposite direction by interviewing excellent teams to gain insights as to what enables them to function to a high degree. They came away with the following conclusions:

A clear elevating goal — they have a vision

Results driven structure — visions have a business goal

Competent team members — with right number and mix of diversity

Unified commitment — they are a team, not a group

A collaborative climate — aligned towards a common purpose

High standards of excellence — they have group norms

Principled leadership — the central driver of excellence

External support — they have adequate resources

Team Leadership Model

While there are several Team Leadership models, Hill's Team model is perhaps one of the best known ones as it provides the leader or a designated team member with a mental road map to help diagnose team problems, and then take appropriate action to correct team problems (Northouse, 2007). This Team Leadership model is built on a number of research projects:

Performance Counseling (also called confrontation counseling) is not yelling, making accusations, pounding your fists on the table, or getting in someone's face. Neither is it nagging, condemning, or belittling a person.

Counseling is making an employee face the evidence of their performance or behavior and requiring them to decide about their future. Confronting is most successfully performed before there is a major incident. This is when the issues deal primarily with performance deterioration.

Factors in a Decision to Confront

There are four main influencing factors when someone makes a decision to confront an employee: Personal Belief System, Organizational Belief System, Objective Standards, and Factual Reference Base.

The Personal Belief System includes:

cultural attitudes

unique experiences

personal beliefs

personal attitudes

This is how a person looks and reacts to life, people, and events. For example, a retired Army sergeant, who is use to people being on time, will probably have less tolerance for employees who are late than someone who has worked at home for the last 10 years. Another example is a non-drinking supervisor who has had a close family member killed by a drunk driver will normally have a different view on a substance abuser than someone who likes to go out and have a few drinks after work.

The Organizational Belief System includes:

employee-individual expectations

employee-group expectations

peer group expectations

upper-level leadership expectations

This is made up of the personal beliefs of individuals in different roles within the organization. For example, someone who is operating a forklift on a plant floor in an unsafe manner has specific expectations on how you should look at confrontation when dealing with his or hers unsafe practices. Your peers and the employee's peers will have similar or contradictory expectations ranging from eliminating a safety risk to expecting compassion and leniency, while your managers might want you to solve the problem without making waves.

The Objective Standards include:

company standards

industry standards

applicable laws and regulations

These are the laws, regulations, and workplace standards that set an objective standard or baseline.

The Factual Reference Base includes:

realistic understanding of consequences

aware of helping resources

punitive consequences

factual knowledge

confidence in process

Objective: Although there are several solutions to a performance problem, it is only by getting to the root problem that a solution can be devised. The Performance Analysis Quadrant, shown below, is one tool for identifying the root cause.

Performance Analysis Matrix

Note: The four quadrants are based on Jones' (1993) description of the four factors that affects job performance.

Have the learners perform the activity below (Knowing vs. Doing) and then discuss the following questions:

How does the definition of a performance problem affect the general strategy for solving it? (Hint — see the four quadrants)

Considering the employee performance problems in your company, is there a pattern to the form they take? (Hint — most are normally in Quadrant B)

What implications does this model have for the role of a supervisor as a problem-solver?

Knowing vs Doing

Procedure: Direct the learners to draw a mental image of an employee they know who is not performing adequately. With their knowledge of the facts available, ask them to select an intersection point in the Performance Analysis Matrix that best portrays their answers to the two questions on the vertical and horizontal axes dealing with knowledge and attitude. Discuss answers and then explain how such analysis might provide clues to the four different solutions:

Quadrant A: If the employee has sufficient job knowledge but has an improper attitude, this may be classed as motivational problem. The consequences (rewards) of the person's behavior will have to be adjusted.

Quadrant B: If the employee has both job knowledge and a favorable attitude, but performance is unsatisfactory, then the problem may be out of control of the employee. i.e. lacking resources, bad process, time pressures. An environmental analysis is called for.

Quadrant C: If the employee lacks both job knowledge and a favorable attitude, that person may be improperly placed in the position. This may imply a problem with employee selection, and suggest that transfer or discharge should be considered.

Quadrant D: If the employee desires to perform, but lacks the requisite job knowledge or skills, then additional training may be the answer.

The Leadership matrix survey is a quadrant plot Plot your final scores on the graph below by drawing a horizontal line from the people score (vertical axis) to the right of the matrix, and drawing a vertical line from the task score on the horizontal axis to the top of the matrix. The area of intersection is the leadership dimension that you operate out of (see example below).

Leadership Matrix

Example

leadership Matrix Example

The above sample shows score of 4 in the people section and a score of 6 in the task section. The quad where the two lines intersect is the leadership style, in this case — Authoritarian.

The Results

This chart will give you an idea of your leadership style:

Impoverished (1,1 to 4,4): weak on both tasks and people skills

Authoritarian (people - 1 to 4 and task - 5 to 9): strong on tasks, weak on people skills

Socialite (people - 5 to 9 and task 1-4): strong on people skills, weak on tasks

Team Leadership (6,6 to 9,9): strong on both tasks and and people skills

Middle-of-the-Road (5,5): in the middle of the chart, but with more experience and skills can display good team leadership

However, like any other instrument that attempts to profile a person, you have to take in other factors, such as, how your manager and employees rate you as a leader, do you get your job done, do you take care of your employees, or are you helping to “grow” your organization.

You should review the statements in the survey and reflect on the low scores by asking yourself, “If I scored higher in that area, would I be a more effective leader?” And if the answer is yes, then it should become a personal action item

Focuses upon the task on hand to discover what needs to be accomplish.

Organizes the materials so that the task can be accomplished.

Uses the materials to get the task done

Uses one's inner-abilities and instincts to wrap things up (know when to stop and what to finish) so that the next priority task can be started — don't waste time on the unimportant details.

In The Big Rocks of Time (it's the last section of the page), Stephen Covey uses jars as a metaphor for the amount of time we have and rocks for the tasks that must be prioritized (the bigger the rock, the more important it is). And just as a jar can only hold so many rocks, we only have so much time in a day to get the right things done, thus it is important that we decide which tasks are the big ones (the most important) to ensure they fit within our “time jar.”

Time Management Activity

1. Have the learners read the Time Management Model below. Also note they will need to read the section on The Big Rocks of Time (about 5 min.).

2. Break them into small groups composed of 2 to 4 learners. Have them discuss what they have just read (about 10 min.).

3. The learners will now work alone. Ensure each person has a pen and paper. Have them divided the paper into two columns: Life and Work. Ask them to list their most important priorities in the respective column. If a priority spans both columns, then have them draw a line into the next column to show the priority is both a life and work priority (about 15 to 20 min.).

4. The learners should join their previous group (or you can create new small groups) and discuss their lists with each other (about 25 min.):

Will the items that span both list be the easier ones to accomplish?

How will you handle the items that might contradict each other? For example spend more time with family vs. work harder to get promoted?

Which column(s) contains the most items and most important items? Why?

What must you do to ensure these big priorities get accomplished?

Reading Material: Time Management Model

The ability to manage time normally takes two skills:

Organization: the ability to organize tasks according to their priorities

Task: the ability to focus on the task on hand

This is shown in the model below:

Time Management Model

Perfectionists will often spend too much time arranging their priorities, but do not focus on the task at hand.

Slobs are always in disarray because they fail to prioritize and do not focus on the task at hand.

Doers focus on a task they are performing, but often fail to accomplish the important ones because they fail to prioritize.

Time Managers both prioritize their tasks so that they know which ones need accomplished first and always focus on the task at hand.

We can also rearrange the two dimensions so that they shows the four steps of good time management when performing a task:

Four Framework Approach

In the Four Framework Approach, Bolman and Deal (1991) suggest that leaders display leadership behaviors in one of four types of frameworks: Structural, Human Resource, Political, or Symbolic:

Four Framework Approach model

This model suggests that leaders operate in one of these four categories and there are times when one approach is more appropriate and times when it would not be. That is, any style can be effective or ineffective, depending upon the situation. Relying on only one of these approaches would be inadequate, thus we should strive to be conscious of all four approaches, and not just rely on one or two.

For example, during a major organization change, a Structural leadership style may be more effective than a Symbolic leadership style; during a period when strong growth is needed, the Symbolic approach may be more appropriate. We also need to understand ourselves as each of us tends to have a preferred approach. We need to be conscious of these at all times and be aware of the limitations of just favoring one approach.

The four leadership behaviors are:

Structural Framework - Structural Leaders focus on structure, strategy, environment, implementation, experimentation, and adaptation.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a social architect whose leadership style is analysis and design. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a petty tyrant whose leadership style is petty details.

Human Resource Framework - Human Resource Leaders believe in people and communicate that belief; they are visible and accessible; they empower, increase participation, support, share information, and move decision making down into the organization.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a catalyst and servant whose leadership style is support, advocating, and empowerment. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a pushover, whose leadership style is abdication and fraud.

Political Framework - Political leaders clarify what they want and what they can get; assess the distribution of power and interests, build linkages to other stakeholders, use persuasion first, but will use negotiation and coercion if necessary.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is an advocate, whose leadership style is coalition and team building. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a hustler, whose leadership style is manipulation.

Symbolic Framework - Symbolic leaders view organizations as a stage or theater to play certain roles and give impressions, use symbols to capture attention, frame experience by providing plausible interpretations of experiences, and discover and communicate a vision.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a prophet, whose leadership style is inspiration. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a fanatic or fool, whose leadership style is smoke and mirrors.

Leadership models may be defined as guides that suggest specific leadership behaviors to use in a specific environment or situation. In addition, they often use a graphic representation to show the required leadership behavior.

Three models are discussed:

Managerial Grid - focuses on a leader's concern for task and concern for people to predict leadership outcomes

Four Framework Approach - uses four common concepts to guide leadership behavior in specific situations

Situational Leadership - guides a leader on the type of coaching required to develop a worker in a specific situation

Leadership or Managerial Grid

Two large studies found that two types of leader behaviors were important concepts in leadership skills. While the two separate studies used different terms, they can be thought of as concern for people and concern for tasks. The study at Ohio State University identified these two behaviors as (Fleishman, 1953, Stogdill, 1974):

Consideration - relationship behaviors, such as respect and trust (concern for people)

Initiating Structure - task behaviors, such as organizing, scheduling, and seeing that work is completed (concern for tasks)

The study at the University of Michigan identified these two behaviors as (Katz,, Maccoby, Morse, 1950; Northouse, 2007):

Employee Orientation - approaching employees with a strong human relations orientation (concern for people)

Production Orientation - stressing the technical and production aspect of the job (concern for tasks)

The researchers from Michigan State thought of these two behaviors as being on opposite ends of a single continuum. Thus, a leader could be strong with one of these two behaviors, but would be weaker in the opposite one.

The Ohio State studies viewed these two behaviors as distinct and independent. Thus, a leader could be high or low in one or both behaviors. For example, in the U.S. Army, one of the most important rules is to take care of your soldiers and complete the mission (task) — a leader should be good with both. Bad leaders can do neither or do one, but not the other.

The notion that just two dimensions can describe leadership behavior has the attraction of simplicity. However, humans are far from being two dimensional in their behaviors, hence, you have to learn more than the model, but the model is a great place to start.

Two researchers, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, (1985) created a short questionnaire that asked leaders how they approached tasks and people. They also created a grid similar to the one shown below. Depending on how a leader scored, would place him or her in one of four quadrants:

Leadership Grid

The four quadrants represent the level of strength of the two behaviors:

Authoritarian — strong on tasks, weak on people skills

Country Club — strong on people skills, weak on tasks

Impoverished — weak on tasks, weak on people skills

Team Leader — strong on tasks, strong on people skills

The goal to good leadership is to score at least a 6 on both task and people, which places the leader in the Team Leader grid.

The four leadership behaviors are discussed in more detail below.

Team Leader (high task, high relationship) - These leaders lead by positive example and endeavor to foster a team environment so that all team members can reach their highest potential, both as individual team members and as a group of people who use cooperation and collaboration. They encourage the team to reach goals as effectively as possible, while also working tirelessly to strengthen the bonds among the various members. They normally lead some of the most productive teams.

Authoritarian Leader (high task, low relationship) - Leaders who get this rating are very much task oriented and are hard on their workers (autocratic). There is little or no allowance for cooperation or collaboration. Authoritarian leaders mostly display these characteristics: they are very strong on schedules; they expect people to do what they are told without question or debate; when something goes wrong they tend to focus on who is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what went wrong and how to prevent it; they are intolerant of what they see as dissent (it may just be someone's creativity), thus it is difficult for their subordinates to contribute or develop.

Country Club Leader (low task, high relationship) - These leaders predominantly use reward power to maintain discipline and to encourage the team to accomplish its goals. Conversely, they are almost incapable of employing the more punitive coercive and legitimate powers. This inability results from fear that using such powers could jeopardize relationships with the other team members.

Impoverished Leader (low task, low relationship) - These leaders use a “delegate and disappear” management style. Since they are not committed to either task accomplishment or maintenance, they essentially allow their team to do whatever they wish and prefer to detach themselves from the team process by allowing the team to suffer from a series of power struggles within the group.

The Sweet Spot on the Grid

Lead Primarily as Team Leader, but be Situational for the Other Three — The most desirable place for a leader to be along the two axes at most times would be a 9 on task and a 9 on people — the Team Leader. However, do not entirely dismiss the other three. Certain situations might call for one of the other three to be used at times. For example, by playing the Impoverished Leader, you allow your team to gain self-reliance. Be an Authoritarian Leader to instill a sense of discipline in an unmotivated worker. Be an Impoverished Leader to allow others to teach others to lead. By carefully studying the situation and the forces affecting it, you will know at what points along the axes you need to be in order to achieve the desired result.

Information Systems: Four types of Information System as identified by McFarlan!

McFarlan, in his ‘strategic grid’, identifies four types of information systems based on the role they play in an organization. (see Fig .5.1).

Information System

Image Courtesy : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/CS.jpg

1. Strategic systems:

These systems involve applications that are critical for future competitive success of the enterprise. The typical example would be applications for customer services and resource management in banking and insurance sector. For a reasonably large sized manufacturing company, the strategic systems may have applications such as order management system, product profitability systems, sales forecast and market intelligence systems, manufacturing resource planning system (MRP II), etc. These systems offer benefits in the long run and involve large investments in IT infrastructure.clip_image002

2. Turnaround systems:

These are high potential, high risk systems and are essentially experimental in nature. The proposals for such systems generally emanate from new business idea or opportunity that needs to be explored. The purpose of such applications, generally, is to give a test run and if found cost effective and feasible, it may be used for a variety of applications.

The typical applications in this class could be capacity planning system, data exchange link between the company and customers, suppliers etc. The typical cases of such systems would be in manufacturing enterprises.

3. Factory systems:

Automation of existing operations with the objective of improving performance in terms of speed, accuracy and cost savings by reduction of manpower or other resource requirements is the key feature of factory systems. These systems are low return; low risk applications and the likely benefits can be easily identified and estimated with a reasonable degree of accuracy. The application portfolio of factory systems is dominated by maintenance work.

These applications are important as the operations are highly dependant on them and influence day-to-day functioning of the enterprise. They help in smooth operations, and need to be totally reliable and cost effective as well. The billing and inventory management applications in a retail store would be a typical factory system. In a manufacturing enterprise, factory systems may also include applications such as shop-floor control, maintenance scheduling and product costing.

Incidentally, this has also been the traditional domain of IT applications. Benefits from such systems are easily identifiable and thus, find easy acceptability among managers responsible for operations.

4. Support systems:

These systems relate to routine applications such as payroll, financial accounting, etc. Generally, the driving force behind the development of these applications is likely improvement in efficiency of the specific tasks and the statutory obligation of generating accurate and timely information for reporting to various external users. Such systems, therefore, need to work with lowest possible budget and serve the purpose.

Therefore, such applications try to use, to the extent possible ready-made software, even if it entails making compromises with regard to information needs of users. Such systems are not critical for success of the enterprise and thus, many a time obsolete systems are allowed to continue for reasons of economy.

Each type of system deserves a different approach in planning IT infrastructure as the risk of failure, as well as benefits from the success of each system are different. Each system should have its own priority list for IT plan objectives. The list may be classified into (a) exiting applications, (b) planned for near future applications, and (c) potential applications.

The choice among conflicting objectives should be made in view of the nature of the system and its present and future role in the achievement of common goals of the enterprise. However, once an application is selected, it is necessary to prepare a detailed plan for designing the IT infrastructure.

The portfolio approach to IT infrastructure planning is, thus, based on the premise that not all applications in the business process are equally good contenders of claims over the resources, as they will offer varying types and amount of benefits to the achievement of desired goals of the enterprise.

It is, therefore, necessary to identify applications in the business process where information technology can offer substantial benefits and then evaluate each application on its merits to determine priority among these applications.

Organization Development

Organization Development (OD)is a process by which behavioral science knowledge and practices are used to help organizations achieve greater effectiveness, including improved quality of work life and increased productivity (Cummings, & Huse, 1989).

In the 1950s and 1960s a new, integrated approach originated known as Organization Development (OD): the systematic application of behavioral science knowledge at various levels (group, intergroup, and total organization) to bring about planned change (Newstrom & Davis, 1993)

Emerges From Four Backgrounds

According to one theory, OD emerged from four major backgrounds (Cummings, & Huse, 1989):

Laboratory Training: The National Training laboratories (NTL) development of training groups known as sensitivity training or T-groups. Laboratory Training began in 1946 when Kurt Lewin and his staff at the Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT were asked by the Connect Interracial Commission and the Committee on Community Interrelations of the American Jewish Congress for help on training community leaders. A workshop was developed for the leaders to learn about leadership and to discuss problems. At the end of each day, the researchers discussed privately what behaviors and group dynamics they had observed. The leaders asked permission to sit in on these feedback sessions. Reluctant at first, the researchers finally agreed. Thus the first T-group was formed in which people reacted to information about their own behavior.

Survey Research Feedback: Kurt Lewin formed the Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT in 1945. After he died in 1947, his staff moved to the University of Michigan to join the Survey Research Center as part of the Institute for Social Research. It was headed by Rensis Likert, a pioneer in developing scientific approaches to attitude surveys (five-point Likert scale).

Action Research: In the 1940s John Collier, Kurt Lewin, and William Whyte discovered that research needed to be closely linked to action if organizational members were to use it to manage change. Action research has two results: 1) organizational members use research on themselves to guide action and change, while 2) researchers were able to study the process to gain new information. Two noted action research studies was the work of Lewin and his students at the Hardwood Manufacturing Company (Marrow, Bowers & Seashore, 1967) and Lester Coch and John French's classic research on overcoming resistance to change (Coch & French, 1948).

Productivity and Quality-of-Work-Life (QWL): This was originally developed in Europe during the 1950s and is based on the work of Eric Trist and his colleagues at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in London. This approach examined both the technical and the human sides of organizations and how they are interrelated.

The Hawthorne effect — an increase in worker productivity produced by the psychological stimulus of being singled out and made to feel important.

Individual behaviors may be altered by the study itself, rather than the effects the study is researching was demonstrated in a research project (1927 - 1932) of the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois. This series of research, first led by Harvard Business School professor Elton Mayo along with associates F. J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson started out by examining the physical and environmental influences of the workplace (e.g. brightness of lights, humidity) and later, moved into the psychological aspects (e.g. breaks, group pressure, working hours, managerial leadership). The ideas that this team developed about the social dynamics of groups in the work setting had lasting influence — the collection of data, labor-management relations, and informal interaction among factory employees.

The major finding of the study was that almost regardless of the experimental manipulation employed, the production of the workers seemed to improve. One reasonable conclusion is that the workers were pleased to receive attention from the researchers who expressed an interest in them. The study was only expected to last one year, but because the researchers were set back each time they tried to relate the manipulated physical conditions to the worker's efficiency, the project extended out to five years.

Four general conclusions were drawn from the Hawthorne studies:

The aptitudes of individuals are imperfect predictors of job performance. Although they give some indication of the physical and mental potential of the individual, the amount produced is strongly influenced by social factors.

Informal organization affects productivity. The Hawthorne researchers discovered a group life among the workers. The studies also showed that the relations that supervisors develop with workers tend to influence the manner in which the workers carry out directives.

Work-group norms affect productivity. The Hawthorne researchers were not the first to recognize that work groups tend to arrive at norms of what is a fair day's work; however, they provided the best systematic description and interpretation of this phenomenon.

The workplace is a social system. The Hawthorne researchers came to view the workplace as a social system made up of interdependent parts.

For decades, the Hawthorne studies provided the rationale for human relations within the organization. Then two researchers (Franke, Kaul, 1978) used a new procedure called time-series analyses. Using the original variables and including in the Great Depression and the instance of a managerial discipline in which two insubordinate and mediocre workers were replaced by two different productive workers, with one who took the role of straw boss (see note below); they discovered that production was most affected by the replacement of the two workers due to their greater productivity and the affect of the disciplinary action on the other workers. The occurrence of the Depression also encouraged job productivity, perhaps through the increased importance of jobs and the fear of losing them. Rest periods and a group incentive plan also had a somewhat positive smaller effect on productivity. These variables accounted for almost all the variation in productivity during the experimental period. Early social sciences may have readily to embrace the original Hawthorne interpretations since it was looking for theories or work motivation that were more humane and democratic.

1949 - Sociotechnical Systems Theory

A group of researchers from London's Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, led by Eric Trist, studied a South Yorkshire coal mine in 1949. Their research leads in the development of the Sociotechnical Systems Theory which considers both the social and the technical aspects when designing jobs. It marks a 180-degree departure from Frederick Taylor's scientific management. There are four basic components to sociotechnical theory:

environment subsystem

social subsystem

technical subsystem

organizational design.

Van Merriënboer, J.J.G. (1997). Training Complex Cognitive Skills: A Four-Component Instructional Design Model for Technical Training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

The flowchart model shown above lists the five phases along with their basic steps (Berkowitz, O'Neil, 1979). While it does a good job of showing the phases and steps, it does not really show the dynamics of the ISD process. In addition, it only shows a selected number of steps under each phase that may or may not be needed for a particular learning process and omits steps that may be needed for other learning processes. A better diagram is achieved using the following model:

ISD

While the ISD model is often listed in linear order (as shown in the first model), the above model illustrates how it is actually performed — in an iterative and cyclic fashion (Merriënboer, 1997; Department of the Army, 2011). Thus, ADDIE is NOT a waterfall method (static and linear) as some believe. The model also highlights the importance of evaluation and feedback throughout the entire life-cycle and shows the importance of gathering and distributing information between the five phases.

Another version of the ADDIE model is the U.S. Army's non-linear model (Department of the Army, 2011). Note the use of two evaluations in the model — the inner circle is for formative evaluations, while the outer one is for summative evaluations.

Instructional System Design models differ from Instructional Design (ID) models in that ISD models have a broad scope and typically divide the instruction design process into roughly five phases (van Merriënboer, 1997, pp 2-3):

Analysis - Study the environment in order to understand it and describe the goals and objectives required to correct performance deficiencies (performance gap) that will improve the organization's performance.

Design - Define the learning objectives — what the learners need to do to learn the new performance (activities), and what will motivate them to learn and perform. This becomes your blueprint.

Development - Elaborate and build the products called for in the blueprint (the finished product is often called courseware or learning activities).

Implementation - Deliver or conduct the training.

Evaluation - Determine if the performers and learning process achieved the desired results. Formative evaluations are performed throughout the first four phases and a summative evaluation is performed at the end of the process.

On the other hand, Instructional Design (ID) models normally only focus on the design and somewhat on the analysis parts, thus they are able to address a particular need in a learning process.

Thus, ADDIE is used to guide the entire process of creating the learning platform, while various ID models are plugged into it to fill in the blank spots (van Merriënboer, 1997), such as shown in this example:

ID models are used in conjunction with ISD

For more information, see the ADDIE Timeline and Instruction Design.

Why ADDIE?

Why use ADDIE or ISD? Simply stated, it provides a means for sound decision making in order to determine the who, what, when, where, why, and how of a learning program.

The concept of a system approach is based on obtaining an overall view of the learning process. It is characterized by an orderly process for gathering and analyzing collective and individual performance requirements, and the ability to respond to identified learning and training needs. The application of a systems approach insures that learning programs and the required support materials are continually developed in an effective and efficient manner to match the variety of needs in a rapidly changing environment. (Branson, 1975)

The Learning or Training System

When some people see or hear the word “system”, they often think of mega-methodologies that require several bookcases and intense training to use. ISD is not that difficult or complicated. The ISD model was designed to solve human performance problems related to learning or training (U.S. Department of Defense, 1975). The figure shown below is a flowchart of the ISD model. It was first created by Florida State University in conjunction with the Department of Defense, but can now be found in almost any type of organization (Watson, 1981). It grew out of the “systems analysis” concepts that became popular after World War II and is probably the most extensively used instructional design model in use today. In addition, it has evolved over the years to keep up with new technologies and ideas.

Instructional System Design (ISD) is often referred to as ADDIE, which is the acronym for the five phases of ISD:

Analysis

Design

Development

Implementation

Evaluation.

ISD or ADDIE may be defined as the systematic and iterative method for creating learning experience that develop and enhance skills and knowledge.

In the past, ISD or ADDIE was often referred to as a Systems Approach to Training (SAT), (U.S. Department of Defense, 1975; Department of the Army, 2011).

ISD can be thought of as a roadmap that helps to ensure the learners and their organization achieve their learning and performance goals through formal, nonformal, and informal environments.

Finding a mentorFinding a mentor

ISD helps to guide the Instructional Designer in the human performance puzzle

Related Models

Besides ADDIE or ISD, there are other systematic approaches to training such as the Dick and Carey Model and Bela Banathy's Instructional System. These approaches have some common elements:

Competency Based (Job Related): The learners are required to master a Knowledge, Skill, and/or Attitude (KSA). The training focuses on the job by having the learners achieve the criteria or standards necessary for proper task performance.

Sequential: Lessons are logically and sequentially integrated.

Tracked: A tracking system is established that allows changes and updates to the learning materials to be performed efficiently.

Evaluated: Evaluation and corrective action allows continuous improvement and maintenance of training material that reflects current status and conditions.

While ISD can handle a variety of performance and learning needs, some problems might require a different approach. Other models that may fit the problem better can be found at Design Methodologies: ISD, Design Thinking, Agile Design, System Design, or X Problem?

Models of Organizational Behavior

There are four major models or frameworks that organizations operate out of, Autocratic, Custodial, Supportive, and Collegial (Cunningham, Eberle, 1990; Davis ,1967):

Autocratic — The basis of this model is power with a managerial orientation of authority. The employees in turn are oriented towards obedience and dependence on the boss. The employee need that is met is subsistence. The performance result is minimal.

Autocratic Organizations

Custodial — The basis of this model is economic resources with a managerial orientation of money. The employees in turn, are oriented towards security, benefits, and dependence on the organization. The employee need that is met is security. The performance result is passive cooperation.

Custodial Organization

Supportive — The basis of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of support. The employees in turn are oriented towards job performance and participation. The employee need that is met is status and recognition. The performance result is awakened drives.

Supportive Organization

Collegial — The basis of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of teamwork. The employees in turn are oriented towards responsible behavior and self-discipline. The employee need that is met is self-actualization. The performance result is moderate enthusiasm.

Collegial Organization

Although there are four separate models, almost no organization operates exclusively in one. There will usually be a predominate one, with one or more areas over-lapping with the other models.

The first model, autocratic, has its roots in the industrial revolution. The managers of this type of organization operate mostly out of McGregor's Theory X. The next three models build on McGregor's Theory Y. They have each evolved over a period of time and there is no one best model. In addition, the collegial model should not be thought as the last or best model, but the beginning of a new model or paradigm.

The Four Pillars: Leadership, Management, Command, & Control

LCMMWhile there is much agreement nowadays about the need for good leaders and managers, the need for command and control have come under fire as organizations move away from hierarchical (vertical) layers to horizontal or flat structures. However, command and control are just as important as leadership and management if we return to their true meaning. In fact, they are the four pillars of every organization as they directly drive the organization. Used properly, the organization will grow; used improperly, it will sink.

These are not distinct processes, but rather concepts that all leaders perform in order to build and strengthen their organizations.

The Four Pillars

The relationships of the four pillars: Interpersonal, Conceptional, Effectiveness, and Efficiency

As the above diagram shows, the four pillars overlap, thus they are not separate processes. This blending gives the organization the ability to focus on opportunities and deal with threats (Department of the Army, 1987, 1996):

Leadership drives the interpersonal aspects of the organization, such as moral and team spirit.

Management deals with the conceptual issues of the organization, such as planning, budgeting, and organizing.

Command guides the organization with well thought-out visions that make it effective.

Control provides structure to the organization in order to make it more efficient.

Benefits of the Four Concepts

Benefits of the four pillars

Command and Control

While most people think of command as simply telling others what to do, it goes far beyond that. Command is the imparting of a vision to the organization in order to achieve a goal. It does this by formulating a well-thought out vision and then clearly communicating it. Command emphasizes success and reward. That is, the organization has to be successful to survive and in turn, reward its members (both intrinsically and extrinsically).

An example would be visioning a process that helps to increase informal learning and make it more effective. A bad vision would be implementing a social media tool, such as a wiki or Twitter. This is because social media tools are the means rather than a goal. That is, they are specific objectives that enable you to achieve your goal (vision).

Now you might implement a social media tool as explained below, but the real goal is to increase interactions that lead to informal learning, while a supporting process is the tool itself.

Visions do not have to come from the top, but rather anywhere within the organization. Informal leaders are often good sources of visions; however, if the vision requires resources, then they normally need the support of a strong formal leader.

In contrast, Control is the process used to establish and provide structure in order to deal with uncertainties. Visions normally produce change, which in turn produce tension. These uncertainties cause tensions that leaders must deal with so they do not impede the organization. This is far different from most peoples' conception in which they think of control as controlling others.

For example, an organization might implement a new social media tool to enable its worker to interact with others and aid the process of informal learning more effectively. After implementing the tool the leader might ask, “Is the tool we provided to increase the effectiveness of informal learning really working?” Thus, control is also used to measure and evaluate.

Inherent in evaluation is efficiency — the act of examining the new tool often leads to processes that make it more efficient. This can be good because it can save money and often improve a tool or process. The danger of this is if the command process is weak and the control process is strong then it can make efficiency the end-goal. That is, it replaces effectiveness with efficiency.

A good example of this is our recent recession and its effects on our economy that caused many organizations to perform massive layoffs. Now the very same organizations are complaining that they cannot find qualified workers. Efficiency overrode effectiveness—they failed to realize that they would need a trained and skilled workforce in the future.

Leadership and Management

Management's primary focus is on the conceptual side of the business, such as planning, organizing, and budgeting. It does the leg work to make visions reality. Do NOT equate the term “management" with “controlling people." Management is more about ensuring that the organization's resources are allocated wisely, rather than trying to control people. In fact, good managers know that trying to control others is extremely difficult if not impossible.

Management helps to acquire, integrate, and allocate resources in order to accomplish goals and task. Going back to the above example of increasing informal learning by implementing a new social media tool, the managers must look at the real goal, rather than the tool. The real goal is to increase informal learning and human interactions in order to make them more effective, not to put into place a social media tool. The tool is simply an objective to help you reach your goal.

If the tool becomes the primary goal, then the wrong polices could be put into place that decrease its value as an informal learning tool, for example, implementing a policy that no one in the company can ask a question on Twitter as it might make us look stupid or our competitors will know what we are trying to do. This policy removes the real purpose of the tool—enabling the employees to learn informally from each other.

Secondly, if the focus is only on the tool, then other options are omitted, such as tearing down cubicles and creating open spaces where people can meet with each other.

In contrast, Leadership deals with the interpersonal relations such as being a teacher and coach, instilling organizational spirit to win, and serving the organization and workers.

The Synergy of the Four Pillars

While all four processes have their place, they are not implemented separately, but rather in concert. Using the example of implementing a new social media tool for increasing informal learning:

Command communicates the vision or goal to the best people who can implement it. Throughout the process, it adjusts to new knowledge and refines the vision.

Management allocates the resources and helps to organize the activities that will make it a reality. This is normally a continuous process, rather than a single activity.

Leadership helps to guide, coach, and motivate the people to do their best throughout the entire process.

Control looks for opportunities to reduce risks, which in turn makes the process more efficient.

The four pillars need to be in harmony with each other. As the diagram below show, when one or more of them is too strong, the organization falls out of balance:

Dangers of ineffective of Command, Control, Management, and Leadership processes, when one or two are too strong

Likewise, if any of the pillars become too weak, it drives the organization out of balance:

xxxxxxxx

Thus, the four pillars must consistently be weighed against each other to ensure they are in proper balance so the organization can grow and prosper.

Smith postulated four "maxims" of taxation: proportionality, transparency, convenience, and efficiency. Some economists interpret Smith's opposition to taxes on transfers of money, such as the Stamp Act, as opposition to capital gains taxes, which did not exist in the 18th century.[21] Other economists credit Smith as one of the first to advocate a progressive tax.[22][23] Smith wrote, "The necessaries of life occasion the great expense of the poor. They find it difficult to get food, and the greater part of their little revenue is spent in getting it. The luxuries and vanities of life occasion the principal expense of the rich, and a magnificent house embellishes and sets off to the best advantage all the other luxuries and vanities which they possess. A tax upon house-rents, therefore, would in general fall heaviest upon the rich; and in this sort of inequality there would not, perhaps, be anything very unreasonable. It is not very unreasonable that the rich should contribute to the public expense, not only in proportion to their revenue, but something more than in that proportion" Smith believed that an even "more proper" source of progressive taxation than property taxes was ground rent. Smith wrote that "nothing [could] be more reasonable" than a land value tax.

Geoffrey P. Chamberlain’s theory of strategy [1] was first published in 2010. The theory draws on the work of Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.,[2] Kenneth R. Andrews,[3] Henry Mintzberg [4] and James Brian Quinn [5] but is more specific and attempts to cover the main areas they did not address. Chamberlain analyzes the strategy construct by treating it as a combination of four factors.

Factor 1. What strategy is.[edit]

The theory introduces a specific and coherent interpretation of the strategy construct. Chamberlain argues that it is not possible either to analyze or compare strategies if we cannot clearly describe and categorize what we are looking at. Factor 1 is summarized in seven propositions:

Proposition 1: Strategy operates in a bounded domain (i.e., separate from the policy, tactical and operational domains).

Proposition 2: A strategy has a single, coherent focus.

Proposition 3: A strategy consists of a basic direction and a broad path.

Proposition 4: A strategy can be deconstructed into elements.

Proposition 5: Each of the individual components of a strategy’s broad path (i.e., each of its essential thrusts) is a single coherent concept directly addressing the delivery of the basic direction.

Proposition 6: A strategy’s essential thrusts each imply a specific channel of influence.

Proposition 7: A strategy’s constituent elements are each formed either deliberately or emergently.

Factor 2. The forces that shape strategy.[edit]

Chamberlain’s theory states that an entity’s strategy is the result of the interaction of a variety of forces in and around the entity, with the strategist’s cognitive bias. Those forces are divided arbitrarily into three broad categories: internal, external, and shareholders.

His cognitive bias theory applies two long-established psychological theories (Michael Kirton’s “adaption-innovation” theory [6] and Eduard Spranger’s theory that there are six types of cognitive emphasis [7]) to identify twelve types of strategist. Chamberlain argues that only six of these types are likely to be successful as strategists, and describes those six, which he calls Operators, Executives, Administrators, Entrepreneurs, Pioneers and Visionaries.

Factor 3. The processes that form strategy.[edit]

Chamberlain asserts that his Factors 1 and 2 implicitly specify the various processes that can be involved in strategy formation. He explains these and shows how they relate to each other by presenting a simple sequential process chart that distinguishes between deliberate and emergent strategy at each step. He claims that this aspect of his theory offers a solution to an old dispute in the management literature over the technical and practical differences between deliberate and emergent strategy formation.[8][9]

Factor 4. The mechanisms by which strategy can take effect.[edit]

As explained above, Factor 1 divides any entity’s environment into three categories. In his Factor 4 discussion, Chamberlain divides the ways in which each of those environmental areas can be influenced, into two types. The first type, the rational approach, consists of only considering standard economic forces, as described for example by Adam Smith,[10] Joseph Schumpeter [11] and Michael Porter.[12] The second type of influence technique, the social approach, considers combinations of economic and psychological forces, including for example those described by Herbert A. Simon,[13] Hillman and Hitt,[14] and Pfeffer and Salancik.[15] Combining the three environmental areas with the two influence techniques creates six categories of techniques strategies can employ to achieve their intended effects. Chamberlain calls these categories “channels of influence” (see Proposition 6 above), and asserts that a competent strategist is able to use all of the six. He argues that a strategist who only considers one channel of influence – for example the external rational channel, which Porter’s theories rely on – is trapped in a paradigm.

With a clear understanding of your Stakeholders, engaging and communicating can be achieved through a variety of channels based upon who the stakeholder is.[12]

High power, interested people: Manage closely. Best channels: Issue, Change Logs, Status Meetings

High power, less interested people: Keep satisfied. Best channels: Steering Committee, Board Meeting Updates

Low power, interested people: Keep informed. Best channels: In-Person, Video, Email Updates

Low power, less interested people: Monitor. Best channels: Send Email, Status Reports

You may now have a long list of people and organizations that are affected by your work. Some of these may have the power either to block or advance. Some may be interested in what you are doing, others may not care. Map out your stakeholders on a Power/Interest Grid as shown by the image, and classify them by their power over your work and by their interest in your work. There are other tools available to map out your stakeholders and how best to influence then.[7]

For example, your boss is likely to have high power and influence over your projects and high interest. Your family may have high interest, but are unlikely to have power over it. Someone's position on the grid shows you the actions you have to take with them:[8]

High power, interested people: these are the people you must fully engage and make the greatest efforts to satisfy.

High power, less interested people: put enough work in with these people to keep them satisfied, but not so much that they become bored with your message.

Low power, interested people: keep these people adequately informed, and talk to them to ensure that no major issues are arising. These people can often be very helpful with the detail of your project.

Low power, less interested people: again, monitor these people, but do not bore them with excessive communication

four primary schools of thought in general jurisprudence:[2]

Natural law is the idea that there are rational objective limits to the power of legislative rulers. The foundations of law are accessible through reason and it is from these laws of nature that human-created laws gain whatever force they have.[2]

Legal positivism, by contrast to natural law, holds that there is no necessary connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from some basic social facts. Legal positivists differ on what those facts are.[3]

Legal realism is a third theory of jurisprudence which argues that the real world practice of law is what determines what law is; the law has the force that it does because of what legislators, barristers and judges do with it. Similar approaches have been developed in many different ways in sociology of law.

Critical legal studies are a younger theory of jurisprudence that has developed since the 1970s. It is primarily a negative thesis that holds that the law is largely contradictory, and can be best analyzed as an expression of the policy goals of the dominant social group.[4]

The four- step impact assessment is a 2 by two quadrant grid.

The Four-Step Impact Assessment is an academic framework initiated and published by Jonathan Mann and colleagues at the François-Xavier Bagnoud Center for Health and Human Rights at the Harvard School of Public Health. The assessment takes into account the negotiation of objectives between human rights and public health. Such an approach takes into account a measure of each discipline's respective overlap to expose infringement of goals. Such infringement or confluence can be mapped out in what Mann and colleagues proposed in a 2 by 2 table, as illustrated below.

The Four-Step Impact Assessment:

To what extent does the proposed policy or program represent “good public health”?

Is the proposed policy or program respectful and protective of human rights?

How can we achieve the best possible combination of public health and human rights quality?

How serious is the public health problem?

Is the proposed response likely to be effective?

What are the severity, scope and duration of the burdens on human rights resulting from the proposed policy or program?

To what extent is the proposed policy or program restrictive and intrusive?

Is the proposed policy or program over inclusive or under inclusive?

What procedural safeguards are included in the proposed policy or program?

Will the proposed policy or program be periodically reviewed to assess both its public health effectiveness and its impact on human rights? Identify specific changes to the proposed policy or program that increase its human rights and/or public health quality while maintaining (or even strengthening) its public health effectiveness.

Finally, does the proposed policy or program (as revised) still appear to be the optimal approach to the public health problem?

As a way to visualize the intersection of both health and human rights, this table places Human Rights Quality on the Y-axis, and Public Health Quality on the X-axis. The levels or rank of both measures are graphically displayed at some point in the cartesian plane. The organizations that jointly supported this framework consisted of Mann’s Francois Xavier Bagnoud Center for Health and Human Rights, the International Federation of Red Cross, and Red Crescent Societies.

Fassinger's Model of Gay and Lesbian Identity Development contains four stages at the individual and group level: (1) awareness, (2) exploration, (3) deepening/commitment, and (4) internalization/synthesis.[17]

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