Quadrant Model of Reality Book 4 Science

A Quadrant is a square that is divided into four squares. The quadrant model is one square divided into four squares, and each of those four squares is divided into four squares, yielding 16 squares. The quadrant model, centered around these 16 squares, is the fundamental basis of reality. The quadrant model pattern is the organizing principle behind existence. In my previous books I discussed the nature of the quadrant model pattern.

The first quadrant/square is more mental and weird/inspiring. It is related to the idealist personality.

The second quadrant/square is more normal and related to homeostasis and structure and organization. It is related to the guardian personality.

The third quadrant/square is associated with doing/ action and is bad and destructive. It is associated with the artisan.

The fourth quadrant/ square is connected with transcendence and is different than the other three. It does not seem to belong. It is associated with rational.

The fourth quadrant/ squares properties are indicated by the fourth square. The fourth square points to the fifth. The fifth is ultra transcendent and related to God.

This book, like the previous quadrant model books, will be built around the four fields of inquiry science, religion, art, and philosophy.

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

Chemistry Chapter

The back end of line (BEOL) is the second portion of IC fabrication where the individual devices (transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.) get interconnected with wiring on the wafer, the metalization layer. Common metals are Copper interconnect and Aluminum interconnect.[1] BEOL generally begins when the first layer of metal is deposited on the wafer. BEOL includes contacts, insulating layers (dielectrics), metal levels, and bonding sites for chip-to-package connections. After the last FEOL step, there is a wafer with isolated transistors (without any wires). In BEOL part of fabrication stage contacts (pads), interconnect wires, vias and dielectric structures are formed. For modern IC process, more than 10 metal layers can be added in the BEOL. The process used to form DRAM capacitors creates a rough and hilly surface, which makes it difficult to add metal interconnect layers and still maintain good yield. In 1998, state-of-the-art DRAM processes had 4 metal layers, while state-of-the-art logic processes had 7 metal layers.

QMRBefore 1998, practically all chips used aluminum for the metal interconnection layers. [13] The four metals with the highest electrical conductivity are silver with the highest conductivity, then copper, then gold, then aluminum. As of 2011, many commercial processes support 2 or 3 metal layers; the most layers supported on a commercial process is 11 layers, and 12 layers are expected to be supported soon.[14] After BEOL there is a "back-end process" (also called post-fab), which is done not in the cleanroom, often by a different company. It includes wafer test, wafer backgrinding, die separation, die tests, IC packaging and final test.

Moral story[edit] The problem warns of the dangers of treating large but finite resources as infinite, i.e., of ignoring distant but absolute and inevitable constraints. As Carl Sagan wrote when referring to the fable, "Exponentials can't go on forever, because they will gobble up everything."[7] Similarly, The Limits to Growth uses the story to present the unintended consequences of exponential growth: "Exponential growth never can go on very long in a finite space with finite resources.

Second half of the chessboard[edit]

A chessboard with each square labeled with the number of wheat grains according to the problem. A red line divides the chessboard in half.

An illustration of Ray Kurzweil's second half of the chessboard principle. The letters are abbreviations for the SI metric prefixes.

In technology strategy, the second half of the chessboard is a phrase, coined by Ray Kurzweil,[3] in reference to the point where an exponentially growing factor begins to have a significant economic impact on an organization's overall business strategy.

While the number of grains on the first half of the chessboard is large, the amount on the second half is vastly (232 > 4 billion times) larger.

The number of grains of rice on the first half of the chessboard is 1 + 2 + 4 + 8... + 2,147,483,648, for a total of 4,294,967,295 (232 − 1) grains of rice, or about 100,000 kg of rice (assuming 25 mg as the mass of one grain of rice).[4] India's annual rice output is about 1,200,000 times that amount.[5]

The number of grains of rice on the second half of the chessboard is 232 + 233 + 234 ... + 263, for a total of 264 − 232 grains of rice (the square of the number

of grains on the first half of the board plus itself). Indeed, as each square contains one grain more than the total of all the squares before it, the first square of the second half alone contains more grains than the entire first half. On the 64th square of the chessboard alone there would be 263 = 9,223,372,036,854,775,808 grains of rice, or more than two billion times as much as on the first half of the chessboard. On the entire chessboard there would be 264 − 1 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 grains of rice, weighing 461,168,602,000 metric tons, which would be a heap of rice larger than Mount Everest. This is around 1,000 times the global production of rice in 2010 (464,000,000 metric tons).[6]

Macdonnell also investigates the earlier development of the theme.[2] [According to al-Masudi's early history of India], shatranj, or chess was invented under an Indian king, who expressed his preference for this game over backgammon. [...] The Indians, he adds, also calculated an arithmetical progression with the squares of the chessboard. [...] The early fondness of the Indians for enormous calculations is well known to students of their mathematics, and is exemplified in the writings of the great astronomer Āryabaṭha (born 476 A.D.). [...] An additional argument for the Indian origin of this calculation is supplied by the Arabic name for the square of the chessboard, (بيت, "beit"), 'house'. [...] For this has doubtless a historical connection with its Indian designation koṣṭhāgāra, 'store-house', 'granary' [...]. Pedagogical applications[edit] This exercise can be used to demonstrate how quickly exponential sequences grow, as well as to introduce exponents, zero power, capital-sigma notation and geometric series. Derivatives of the problem can be used to explain more advanced mathematical topics, such as hexagonal close packing of equal spheres. (How big a chessboard would be required to be able to contain the rice in the last square, assuming perfect spheres of short-grained rice?)

The simple, brute-force solution is to just manually double and add each step of the series: T_{64}=1+2+4+\cdots +9,223,372,036,854,775,808=18,446,744,073,709,551,615 where T_{64} is the total number of grains. The series may be expressed using exponents: T_{64}=2^{0}+2^{1}+2^{2}+\cdots +2^{63} and, represented with capital-sigma notation as: \sum _{i=0}^{63}2^{i}.\, It can also be solved much more easily using: T_{64}=2^{64}-1.\, A proof of which is: s=2^{0}+2^{1}+2^{2}+\cdots +2^{63}. Multiply each side by 2: 2s=2^{1}+2^{2}+2^{3}+\cdots +2^{63}+2^{64}. Subtract original series from each side: 2s-s=-2^{0}+2^{64} \therefore s=2^{64}-1.\, Origin and story[edit] The wheat and chess problem appears in different stories about the invention of chess. One of them includes the geometric progression problem. Its earliest written record is contained in the Shahnameh, an epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE. Another version has the inventor of chess (in some tellings Sessa, an ancient Indian Minister) request his ruler give him wheat according to the wheat and chessboard problem. The ruler laughs it off as a meager prize for a brilliant invention, only to have court treasurers report the unexpectedly huge number of wheat grains would outstrip the ruler's resources. Versions differ as to whether the inventor becomes a high-ranking advisor or is executed.[1]

QMRThe wheat and chessboard problem (sometimes expressed in terms of rice instead of wheat) is a mathematical problem in the form of a word problem: If a chessboard were to have wheat placed upon each square such that one grain were placed on the first square, two on the second, four on the third, and so on (doubling the number of grains on each subsequent square), how many grains of wheat would be on the chessboard at the finish? The problem may be solved using simple addition. With 64 squares on a chessboard, if the number of grains doubles on successive squares, then the sum of grains on all 64 squares is: 1 + 2 + 4 + 8... and so forth for the 64 squares. The total number of grains equals 18,446,744,073,709,551,615, much higher than what most intuitively expect. The exercise of working through this problem may be used to explain and demonstrate exponents and the quick growth of exponential and geometric sequences. It can also be used to illustrate sigma notation. When expressed as exponents, the geometric series is: 20 + 21 + 22 + 23... and so forth up to 263. The base of each exponentiation, "2", expresses the doubling at each square, while the exponents represent the position of each square (0 for the first square, 1 for the second, etc.).

QMRIf continents are defined strictly as discrete landmasses, embracing all the contiguous land of a body, then Asia, Europe and Africa form a single continent which may be referred to as Afro-Eurasia. This produces a four-continent model consisting of Afro-Eurasia, America, Antarctica and Australia.

QMRIn 1507 Martin Waldseemüller published a world map, Universalis Cosmographia, which was the first to show North and South America as separate from Asia and surrounded by water. A small inset map above the main map explicitly showed for the first time the Americas being east of Asia and separated from Asia by an ocean, as opposed to just placing the Americas on the left end of the map and Asia on the right end. In the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, Waldseemüller noted that the earth is divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa and the fourth part, which he named "America" after Amerigo Vespucci's first name.[57] On the map, the word "America" was placed on part of South America.

An explanatory text, the Cosmographiae Introductio, widely believed to have been written by Waldseemüller's colleague Matthias Ringmann, accompanied the map. It was said in Chapter IX of that text that the earth was now known to be divided into four parts, of which Europe, Asia and Africa, being contiguous with each other, were continents, while the fourth part, America, was “an island, inasmuch as it is found to be surrounded on all sides by the seas”.[7]

The name for the northern land mass, Parias, is derived from a passage in the Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, in which, after several stops, the expedition arrives at a region that was “situated in the torrid zone directly under the parallel which describes the Tropic of Cancer. And this province is called by them [the inhabitants] Parias”.[10] Parias was described by Waldseemüller’s follower, Johannes Schöner as: “The island of Parias, which is not a part or portion of the foregoing [America] but a large, special part of the fourth part of the world”, indicating uncertainty as to its situation.

The map shows the cities of Catigara (Kattigara) and Mallaqua (Malacca) on the western coast of the great peninsula that projects from the southeastern part of Asia, or INDIA MERIDIONALIS (Southern India) as Waldseemüller called it. This peninsula forms the eastern side of the SINUS MAGNUS ("Great Gulf"), the Gulf of Thailand.[12] Amerigo Vespucci, writing of his 1499 voyage, said he had hoped to sail westward from Spain across the Western Ocean (the Atlantic) around the Cape of Cattigara mentioned by Ptolemy into the Sinus Magnus.[13] Ptolemy understood Cattigara, or Kattigara, to be the most eastern port reached by shipping trading from the Graeco-Roman world to the lands of the Far East. Vespucci failed to find the Cape of Cattigara on his 1499 voyage: he sailed along the coast of Venezuela but not far enough to resolve the question of whether there was a sea passage beyond leading to Ptolemy’s Sinus Magnus. The object of his voyage of 1503–1504 was to reach the fabulous spice emporium of “Melaccha in India” (that is, Malacca, or Melaka, on the Malay Peninsula).[14] He had learned of Malacca from one Guaspare (or Gaspard), a pilot with Pedro Álvares Cabral’s fleet on its voyage to India in 1500–1501, whom Vespucci had encountered in the Atlantic on his return from India in May 1501.[15] Christopher Columbus, in his fourth and last voyage of 1502–1503, planned to follow the coast of Champa southward around the Cape of Cattigara and sail through the strait separating Cattigara from the New World, into the Sinus Magnus to Malacca. This was the route he understood Marco Polo to have gone from China to India in 1292 (although Malacca had not yet been founded in Polo’s time).[16] Columbus anticipated that he would meet up with the expedition sent at the same time from Portugal to Malacca around the Cape of Good Hope under Vasco da Gama, and carried letters of credence from the Spanish monarchs to present to da Gama.[17] The map therefore shows the two cities that were the initial destinations of Amerigo Vespucci and Christopher Columbus in their voyages that led to the unexpected discovery of a New Official WorldStarHipHop

QMRCosmographiae Introductio (Saint-Dié, 1507) was a book published in 1507 to accompany Martin Waldseemüller's printed globe and wall-map (Universalis Cosmographia), which were the first appearance of the name 'America'. Waldseemüller’s maps and book, along with his 1513 edition of Ptolemy’s Geography, were very influential and widely copied at the time.

That part of the page of the 1507 (September) edition of the Cosmographiae Introductio in which the name of America is proposed for the New World. From Narrative and critical history of America, Volume 2 by Justin Winsor.

It is widely held to have been written by Matthias Ringmann although some historians attribute it to Waldseemüller himself. The book includes the reason for using the name America in the wall map and the globe, and contains a Latin translation of the four journeys of Amerigo Vespucci as an appendix.

The full title of the book is: "Cosmographiae introductio cum quibusdam geometriae ac astronomiae principiis ad eam rem necessariis. Insuper quatuor Americi Vespucii navigationes. Universalis Cosmographiae descriptio tam in solido quam plano, eis etiam insertis, quae Ptholomaeo ignota a nuperis reperta sunt."

(translation: Introduction to Cosmography With Certain Necessary Principles of Geometry and Astronomy To which are added The Four Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci A Representation of the Entire World, both in the Solid and Projected on the Plane, Including also lands which were Unknown to Ptolemy, and have been Recently Discovered)[1]

Universalis Cosmographia (map of 1507)

The map of the world in 1507, entitled "Universalis cosmographia secundum Ptholomaei traditionem et Americi Vespucii aliorumque lustrationes", was published in an edition of 1000 copies, of which it seems only a single copy survives. The surviving copy was found in the library of Prince von Waldburg-Wolfegg-Waldsee in the Castle of Wolfegg in Württemberg. It was bought by the Library of Congress in 2001. This preservation seems to be due the several sheets being bound into a single cover by the cartographer, Johannes Schöner.

The map consists of twelve sections printed from woodcuts combined with metal types, each measuring 18 x 24.5 inches (46 x 62 cm). Each section is one of four, that form one of three zones. The map uses a modified Ptolemaic coniform projection with curved meridians to depict the entire surface of the Earth.

Biology Chapter

Psychology Chapter

Driving needs[edit] Each of the four corner temperaments has a driving need that energizes its behavior. For the Melancholic, the motivation is fear of rejection and/or the unknown. They have a low self-esteem and, figuring that others do not like them, they reject others first.[12] The Supine also has low self-esteem, but is driven to try to gain acceptance by liking and serving others.[13] The Sanguine is driven by the need for attention, and tries to sell themselves through their charm, and accepts others before those others can reject them. Their self-esteem crashes if they are nevertheless rejected. Yet, they will regain the confidence to keep trying to impress others. The Choleric is motivated by their goals, in which other people are tools to be used.[14] The Phlegmatic's lack of a motivation becomes their driving need: to protect their low energy reserve.[15]

From four to five[edit]

The low scores in both "wanted" and "expressed" would correspond to the Melancholy. A high score in "expressed" with a low score in "wanted" corresponds to Choleric. A high score on both scales corresponds to the Sanguine.

So the temperaments were divided between introverts, extroverts, and in the other dimension, "relationship-oriented", and "task-oriented". In the older model, the fourth temperament, Phlegmatic, had generally been regarded as "introverted" like the Melancholy, yet more "agreeable", like the Sanguine. For example, the "slow response/short-lived sustain" of the original conception, where it shares one factor with the Sanguine, and the other with the Melancholy. In the other instruments using people/task-orientation, the type that holds the corresponding place in respect to the other types (such as Social Styles' "Amiable" or Adler's "Leaning") is also generally correlated with the Phlegmatic in comparisons.

However, while the Phlegmatic is not as extroverted as the Sanguine and Choleric, nor as serious as the Melancholy and Choleric; he is neither as introverted as the Melancholy, nor as relationship-oriented as the Sanguine. This created a problem whereby a "middle-of-the-road" temperament was needed to complete the list of temperaments. A new temperament was created as a neutral, balanced temperament. However, the new temperament's lack of expression and personality was similar to the Phlegmatic, so the traits the Phlegmatic and the fifth temperament shared were removed from the Phlegmatic, and the remaining traits were renamed to Supine while the fifth temperament became known as the Phlegmatic.

Comparison of fifth temperament to the phlegmatic[edit]

The Phlegmatic also is peaceful at heart, and is one reason the Phlegmatic had held the place in the older four temperament model the Supine holds in the five temperament model. The difference is that the Supine is more "needy" for acceptance (or control) from people, yet less able to initiate and express this need to them than the Phlegmatic. Supines are often frustrated because they expect people to know they want interaction, while the Phlegmatic expresses a moderate need, and wants only the same moderate amount in return.

Four temperament theories such as LaHaye's often depict the Phlegmatic as being very fearful (according to LaHaye, "he is a worrier by nature", which is what "keeps him from venturing out on his own to make full use of his potential)."[11]

The FIRO-B connection[edit]

FIRO-B was another such two-factor system, originally created by Dr. Schutz in 1958, using the same scales corresponding to extroversion/introversion and people/task focus. The difference now was that there were three such matrices. These three areas of interaction are Inclusion, Control, and Affection. Note that these areas include the two familiar scales: how you want to relate to others (called "expressed behavior"), and how you want them to relate to you (called "wanted behavior"). Scores in these scales range from 0 to 9. In 1977, "locator charts" were produced for each area by Leo Ryan, providing a map of the various scores, following the Managerial Grid model; with unofficial names assigned to different score ranges.

Schutz was emphatic that all FIRO scores in themselves "Are not terminal — they can and do change", and that they "Do not encourage typology" [10] (and thus contradicted the notion of inborn temperament). However, the four ancient temperaments were eventually mapped to the FIRO-B scales, including the three separate temperament grids for individuals' scores in each area.

A Melancholy tends to be an introverted loner, and in the area of "control" such a person would exhibit a low need to control others, and also have a low tolerance of control by others (i.e. "dependency"). In the areas of inclusion and affection, such people would display a low need to include or be close to others, and a low need to be included by others. A Choleric, however, is an extroverted "leader"-type who, in the area of control, has a high need to control others, but a low tolerance of others controlling him. He also has a high need to include or be close to others, but a low level of "responsiveness" (used as another term for "wanted" behavior) to them. He tends to be a "user", and only relates to people according to his own terms, which are usually goal-oriented. A Sanguine is an extrovert who has a high need to include and be close to others, but unlike the Choleric, the Sanguine genuinely likes being around people just for the sake of socialization. The Sanguine also "swings" between both control and dependency.

Development of related "two factor" models and the regaining popularity of the ancient temperaments[edit]

Simple emoticons of the five temperaments: Sanguine (top right), Choleric (bottom right), Melancholy (bottom left), and Phlegmatic (centre), with the new temperament Supine (top left) and Phlegmatic blends in between.

From the beginning, with Galen's ancient temperaments, it was observed that pairs of temperaments shared certain traits in common.

sanguine quick, impulsive, and relatively short-lived reactions. (hot/wet)

phlegmatic a longer response-delay, but short-lived response. (cold/wet)

choleric short response time-delay, but response sustained for a relatively long time. (hot/dry)

melancholic (Also called "Melancholy") long response time-delay, response sustained at length, if not, seemingly, permanently. (cold/dry)[6]

Therefore, it was evident that the sanguine and choleric shared a common trait: quickness of response, while the melancholy and phlegmatic shared the opposite, a longer response. The melancholy and choleric, however, shared a sustained response, and the sanguine and phlegmatic shared a short-lived response. That meant that the Choleric and melancholy both would tend to hang on to emotions like anger, and thus appear more serious and critical than the fun-loving sanguine, and the peaceful phlegmatic. However, the choleric would be characterized by quick expressions of anger, while the melancholy would build up anger slowly, silently, before exploding. Also, the melancholy and sanguine would be sort of "opposites", as the choleric and phlegmatic, since they have opposite traits.

As the twentieth century progressed, numerous other instruments were devised measuring not only temperament, but also various individual aspects of personality and behavior, and several began using factors that would correspond to the delay and sustain behaviors; usually, forms of Extroversion and a developing category of people versus task focus (eventually embodied as "Agreeableness").

Examples include DiSC assessment system and Social styles. In both of these, the four behaviors or styles resembled the key characteristics of the ancient four temperaments: the Choleric's extroversion and seriousness; the Melancholy's introversion and seriousness; the Sanguine's extroversion and sociability, and the Phlegmatic's peacefulness. As personality typing increased, Christian writer and speaker Tim LaHaye helped repopularize the ancient temperaments beginning in his books.[7][8][9] Another addition to the two factor models was the creation of a 10 by 10 square grid developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton in their Managerial Grid Model introduced in 1964. This matrix graded from 0 to 9, the factors of "Concern for People" and "Concern for Production", allowing a moderate range of scores, which yielded five "leadership styles". The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) used a version of this with "Assertiveness" and "Cooperativeness" as the two factors, and an intermediate score in both scales likewise resulting in a fifth mode directly in the center of the grid.

History and the ancient four temperaments[edit]

Five Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory of the Greek Historian Hippocrates (460-370 BC), who believed certain human behaviors were caused by body fluids (called "humors"): blood (sanguis), [yellow] bile (cholera or Gk. χολη, kholé) black bile (μελας, melas, "black", + χολη, kholé, "bile"); and phlegm. Next, Galen (131-200 AD) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation De Temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna (980-1037) then extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams."[2]

This is also related to the classical elements of air, water, earth, and fire; as sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, and choleric, respectively. They made up a matrix of hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the Four Elements.[3][unreliable source?] There were also intermediate scales for balance between each pole, yielding a total of nine temperaments. Four were the original humors, and five were balanced in one or both scales.[4][5][unreliable source?]

Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) disregarded the idea of fluids as defining human behavior, and Maimonides (1135–1204), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Alfred Adler (1879–1937), and Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) all theorized on the four temperaments and greatly shaped our modern theories of temperament. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based.

QMRFive temperaments is a theory in psychology, that expands upon the Four Temperaments proposed in ancient medical theory. The development of a theory of five temperaments begins with the Two-factor models of personality and the work of the late William Schutz, and his FIRO-B program. It is a measure of interpersonal relations orientations that calculates a person's behavior patterns based on the scoring of a questionnaire. Although FIRO-B does not speak in terms of "temperament", this system of analysis graded questionnaires on two scales in three dimensions of interpersonal relations. When paired with temperament theory, a measurement of five temperaments resulted.[1]

QMRThe Four Temperaments is a ballet made by New York City Ballet co-founder and ballet master George Balanchine to music he commissioned from Paul Hindemith (the latter's eponymous 1940 music for string orchestra and piano) for the opening program of Ballet Society, immediate forerunner of City Ballet.

The work is divided into five parts, a theme and four variations, which reflect the temperaments. Balanchine downplayed the references to medieval "humors" that were believed to determine a person's temperament, saying the four personality types—melancholic, sanguinic, phlegmatic, and choleric—were merely points of departure for the creation of abstract music and dance.[1]

The première took place on Wednesday, 20 November 1946, at the Central High School of Needle Trades, New York City, with mise en scène by Kurt Seligmann and lighting by Jean Rosenthal. Leon Barzin conducted and the pianist was Nicholas Kopeikine. The City Ballet première was held in 1951 in practice clothes and without scenery; in 1964 it received new lighting at the New York State Theater, Lincoln Center, by David Hays. NYCB principal dancer Albert Evans chose to include The Four Temperaments in his farewell performance, Sunday, June 20, 2010.

The ballet can be read to be a creation story.[2]

Cultural references[edit] In 1946 George Balanchine choreographed a ballet he titled The Four Temperaments, set to music he commissioned from Paul Hindemith. The music, and thus the ballet, is in five parts: a theme and four variations titled Melancholic, Sanguine, Phlegmatic, and Choleric. Émile Zola consciously employed the four temperaments in Thérèse Raquin.[21] The Danish composer Carl Nielsen's Symphony #2 (1901-02), Op.16 entitled "The Four Temperaments" is structured upon the Four Temperaments.

Decline in popularity[edit]

When the concept of the temperaments was on the wane, many critics dropped the phlegmatic, or defined it purely negatively, such as the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, as the absence of temperament. In the Five Temperaments theory, the classical Phlegmatic temperament is in fact deemed to be a neutral temperament, whereas the "relationship-oriented introvert" position traditionally held by the Phlegmatic is declared to be a new "fifth temperament." Gary Smalley has renamed these classifications into a more modern and relatable format based on commonly known animals. These he lists as the "otters", Geminis, (sanguines), "lions", Leos, (cholerics), "golden retrievers", Cancers, (phlegmatics), and "beavers", Pisces, (melancholics).[17]

Contemporary writings[edit]

In Waldorf education and anthroposophy, the temperaments are used to help understand personality. They are seen as avenues into teaching; as each child is considered to possess a unique blend of the four, they can be utilized to individualize the methods used with individual children and establishing a class balance, as well as to help with discipline.

Christian writer Tim LaHaye has attempted to repopularize the ancient temperaments through his books.[18][19][20] Writer Florence Littauer describes the four personality types in her book Personality Plus. See also Two-factor models of personality.

Relation of various four temperament theories

Classical Element Adler[12]

Melancholic Earth Avoiding

Phlegmatic Water Getting

Sanguine Air Socially useful

Choleric Fire Ruling

The four temperament types[edit]

Each of the four types of humors corresponded in ancient times to a different personality type. These were associated with a domination of various biological functions. Lievegoed suggested that the temperaments come to clearest manifestation in childhood, between approximately 6 and 14 years of age, after which they become subordinate (though still influential) factors in personality.[13]

Sanguine[edit]

The sanguine temperament is traditionally associated with air. People with this temperament tend to be lively, sociable, carefree, talkative, and pleasure-seeking. They may be warm-hearted and optimistic. They can make new friends easily, be imaginative and artistic, and often have many ideas.[14][15] They can be flighty and changeable; thus sanguine personalities may struggle with following tasks all the way through and be chronically late or forgetful.[16]

Pedagogically, they can be best reached through awakening their love for a subject and admiration of people.[16]

Choleric[edit]

The choleric temperament is traditionally associated with fire. People with this temperament tend to be egocentric and extroverted. They may be excitable, impulsive, and restless, with reserves of aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try to instill that in others. [14][15]

They tend to be task-oriented people and are focused on getting a job done efficiently; their motto is usually "do it now." They can be ambitious, strong-willed and like to be in charge. They can show leadership, are good at planning, and are often practical and solution-oriented.[14] They appreciate receiving respect and esteem for their work.[16]:20

Pedagogically, they can be best reached through mutual respect and appropriate challenges that recognize their capacities.[16]

Melancholic[edit]

Main article: Melancholia

The melancholic temperament is traditionally associated with the element of earth. People with this temperament may appear serious, introverted, cautious or even suspicious. They can become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world and are susceptible to depression and moodiness. They may be focused and conscientious. They often prefer to do things themselves, both to meet their own standards and because they are not inherently sociable. [15][14]

Pedagogically, they can be best met by awakening their sympathy for others and the suffering of the world.[16]

Phlegmatic[edit] Phlegmatic by Lespagnandelle, part of the Grande Commande, Palace of Versailles The phlegmatic temperament is traditionally associated with water. People with this temperament may be inward and private, thoughtful, reasonable, calm, patient, caring, and tolerant. They tend to have a rich inner life, seek a quiet, peaceful atmosphere, and be content with themselves. They tend to be steadfast, consistent in their habits, and thus steady and faithful friends.[14][15] Pedagogically, their interest is often awakened by experiencing others' interest in a subject.[16] People of this temperament may appear somewhat ponderous or clumsy. Their speech tends to be slow or appear hesitant.[14]

QMRNicholas Culpeper (1616–1654), described the humours as acting as governing principles in bodily health, with astrological correspondences,[8] and explained their influence upon physiognomy and personality.[9] Culpeper proposed that, while some people had a single temperament, others had an admixture of two, a primary and secondary temperament.[10] Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), Alfred Adler (1879–1937), Erich Adickes (1866–1925), Eduard Spranger (1914), Ernst Kretschmer (1920), and Erich Fromm (1947) all theorized on the four temperaments (with different names) and greatly shaped our modern theories of temperament. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based. The factors he proposed in his book Dimensions of Personality were Neuroticism (N), the tendency to experience negative emotions, and Extraversion (E), the tendency to enjoy positive events, especially social ones. By pairing the two dimensions, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the four ancient temperaments.

Other researchers developed similar systems, many of which did not use the ancient temperament names, and several paired extroversion with a different factor, which would determine relationship/task-orientation. Examples are DiSC assessment, social styles, and a theory that adds a fifth temperament. One of the most popular today is the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, whose four temperaments were based largely on the Greek gods Apollo, Dionysus, Epimetheus and Prometheus, and were mapped to the 16 types of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). They were renamed as Artisan (SP), Guardian (SJ), Idealist (NF), and Rational (NT). Rather than using extroversion and introversion (E/I) and task/people focus, like other theories, KTS mapped the temperaments to "Sensing" and "Intuition" (S/N, renamed "concrete" and "abstract") with a new pair category, "cooperative" and "pragmatic" . When "Role-Informative" and "Role-Directive" (corresponding to orientation to people or to task), and finally E/I are factored in, the 16 types are attained. Finally, the Interaction Styles of Linda V. Berens combines Directing and Informing with E/I to form another group of "styles" which greatly resemble the ancient temperaments, and these are mapped together with the Keirsey Temperaments onto the 16 types.

Modern medical science has rejected the theories of the four temperaments, though their use persists as a metaphor within certain psychological fields.[11]

QMRFour approaches to the use of plants as medicine include:[74] 1. The magical/shamanic—Almost all societies, with the exception of cultures influenced by Western-style industrialization, recognize this kind of use. The practitioner is regarded as endowed with gifts or powers that allow him/her to use herbs in a way that is hidden from the average person, and the herbs are said to affect the spirit or soul of the person. 2. The energetic—This approach includes the major systems of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, and Unani. Herbs are regarded as having actions in terms of their energies and affecting the energies of the body. The practitioner may have extensive training, and ideally be sensitive to energy, but need not have supernatural powers. 3. The functional dynamic—This approach was used by early physiomedical practitioners, whose doctrine forms the basis of contemporary practice in the UK. Herbs have a functional action, which is not necessarily linked to a physical compound, although often to a physiological function, but there is no explicit recourse to concepts involving energy. 4. The chemical—Modern practitioners - called Phytotherapists - attempt to explain herb actions in terms of their chemical constituents. It is generally assumed that the specific combination of secondary metabolites in the plant are responsible for the activity claimed or demonstrated, a concept called synergy.

History and development[edit]

Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory. It may have origins in ancient Egypt[1] or Mesopotamia,[2] but it was the Greek physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) who developed it into a medical theory. He believed certain human moods, emotions and behaviors were caused by an excess or lack of body fluids (called "humors"): blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Next, Galen (AD 129 – c. 200) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation De temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. He classified them as hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the four elements.[3] There could also be "balance" between the qualities, yielding a total of nine temperaments. The word "temperament" itself comes from Latin "temperare", "to mix". In the ideal personality, the complementary characteristics or warm-cool and dry-moist were exquisitely balanced. In four less ideal types, one of the four qualities was dominant over all the others. In the remaining four types, one pair of qualities dominated the complementary pair; for example, warm and moist dominated cool and dry. These latter four were the temperamental categories Galen named "sanguine", "choleric", "melancholic" and "phlegmatic" after the bodily humors, respectively. Each was the result of an excess of one of the humors that produced, in turn, the imbalance in paired qualities.[4][5][6]

Choleric, sanguine, melancholic, and phlegmatic temperaments: 17c., part of the Grande Commande In his Canon of Medicine (a standard medical text at many medieval universities), Persian polymath Avicenna (980–1037 AD) extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams."[7]

QMRFour temperaments is a proto-psychological theory that suggests that there are four fundamental personality types, sanguine (optimistic and social), choleric (short-tempered or irritable), melancholic (analytical and quiet), and phlegmatic (relaxed and peaceful). Most formulations include the possibility of mixtures of the types.

The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) incorporated the four temperaments into his medical theories as part of the ancient medical concept of humorism, that four bodily fluids affect human personality traits and behaviors. Later discoveries in biochemistry have led modern medicine science to reject the theory of the four temperaments, although some personality type systems of varying scientific acceptance continue to use four or more categories of a similar nature.

QMRThe Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), is a self-report personality test developed over several decades of empirical research by Raymond B. Cattell, Maurice Tatsuoka and Herbert Eber. The 16PF provides a measure of normal personality and can also be used by psychologists, and other mental health professionals, as a clinical instrument to help diagnose psychiatric disorders, as well as help with prognosis and therapy planning. The 16PF instrument provides clinicians with a normal-range measurement of anxiety, adjustment, emotional stability and behavioral problems.[1][2] It can also be used within other areas of psychology, such as career and occupational selection.[3] 16 is the squares of the quadrant model

Brain Types by Lenore Thomson Front of Left Brain Front of Right Brain Extraverted Thinking & Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition & Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensation & Introverted Intuition Introverted Feeling & Introverted Thinking Back of Left Brain Back of Right

Lenore Thomson[edit]

Lenore Thomson offers yet another model of the cognitive functions. In her book, Personality Type: An Owners Manual, Thomson advances a hypothesis of a modular relationship of the cognitive functions paralleling left-right brain lateralization. In this approach the Judging functions are in the front-left and back-right brain and the Perception functions in the back-left and front-right brain. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference.

Brain Types by Lenore Thomson

Front of Left Brain Front of Right Brain

Extraverted Thinking

&

Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition

&

Extraverted Sensing

Introverted Sensation

&

Introverted Intuition Introverted Feeling

&

Introverted Thinking

Back of Left Brain Back of Right Brain

Type

ISITEJ

ISIFEJ

INIFEJ

INITEJ

Dominant Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

Secondary Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

Left-brain Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

alternatives Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

Right-brain Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

double agents Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

Tertiary Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Inferior Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

Type

ISETIP

ISEFIP

INEFIP

INETIP

Dominant Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

Secondary Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

Right-brain Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

alternatives Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

Left-brain Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

double agents Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

Tertiary Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

Inferior Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

Type

ESETIP

ESEFIP

ENEFIP

ENETIP

Dominant Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

Secondary Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

Right-brain Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

alternatives Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Left-brain Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

double agents Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

Tertiary Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

Inferior Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

Type

ESITEJ

ESIFEJ

ENIFEJ

ENITEJ

Dominant Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Secondary Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Left-brain Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling alternatives Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Right-brain Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition double agents Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Tertiary Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Inferior Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Linda Berens[edit] The layout of Linda Berens's type table is unique and her terminology differs from that of Beebe; however, the ordering of cognitive processes in her and Beebe's models are the same. Engineer Coordinator Type ENETIP INETIP ENITEJ INITEJ 1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking 3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling 4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing 5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition 6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking 7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling 8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing Mediator Guide Type ENEFIP INEFIP ENIFEJ INIFEJ 1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling 3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking 4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing 5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition 6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling 7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking 8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing Expediator Monitor Type ESETIP ISETIP ESITEJ ISITEJ 1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking 3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling 4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition 5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing 6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking 7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling 8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition Improvisor Conservator Type ESEFIP ISEFIP ESIFEJ ISIFEJ 1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling 3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking 4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition 5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing 6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling 7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking 8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition

John Beebe[edit]

Though John Beebe has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. Just as in Myers's table, personality types whose primary four functions are completely opposite are separated by one block along diagonals. The same does not apply to the four "shadow" functions, however.

Type

ISITEJ

ISIFEJ

INIFEJ

INITEJ

1st - Hero/Heroine Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

2nd - Good Parent Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

3rd - Puer/Puella Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

4th - Anima/Animus Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

5th - Opposing Personality Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

6th - Senex/Witch Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

7th - Trickster Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

8th - Daemon Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

Type

ISETIP

ISEFIP

INEFIP

INETIP

1st - Hero/Heroine Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

2nd - Good Parent Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

3rd - Puer/Puella Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

4th - Anima/Animus Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

5th - Opposing Personality Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

6th - Senex/Witch Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

7th - Trickster Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

8th - Daemon Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

Type

ESETIP

ESEFIP

ENEFIP

ENETIP

1st - Hero/Heroine Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition

2nd - Good Parent Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking

3rd - Puer/Puella Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling

4th - Anima/Animus Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing

5th - Opposing Personality Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition

6th - Senex/Witch Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking

7th - Trickster Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling

8th - Daemon Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing

Type

ESITEJ

ESIFEJ

ENIFEJ

ENITEJ

1st - Hero/Heroine Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking 2nd - Good Parent Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition 3rd - Puer/Puella Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing 4th - Anima/Animus Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling 5th - Opposing Personality Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking 6th - Senex/Witch Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition 7th - Trickster Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing 8th - Daemon Extraverted Feelings Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling the Bern

Carl Jung[edit]

Carl Jung developed the theory of cognitive processes in his book Psychological Types in which he defined only four psychological functions which can take introverted or extraverted attitudes, as well as a judging (rational) or perceiving (irrational) attitude determined by the primary function (judging if thinking or feeling, and perceiving if sensation or intuition).[20] He used the terms dominant, auxiliary, and inferior. Each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" in which the function is conscious. The more the function is conscious the more it is introverted for introverts and extraverted for extraverts.[21] The less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious,[clarification needed] and manifest in "happening" to the person and not under conscious control.[clarification needed][22][23][24] Therefore, there is a significant difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the orientation of the functions.

Also, there is a difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the designation of "inferior" function. While the MBTI clearly designates only the fourth function as the inferior, Jung uses a more flexible definition. "As a consequence of this one-sided development, one or more functions are necessarily retarded. These functions may properly be called inferior ..." (Jung, [1921] 1971:Def. Inferior Function, par. 763).

Isabel Myers[edit] A diagram of the cognitive functions of each Myers-Briggs type. A type's background color represents its Dominant function, and its text color represents its Auxiliary function. Isabel Myers created the original type table. In her table, diametrically opposite personality types (that is, those with no traits in common among the dichotomies) are separated by one block along diagonals. Type ISITEJ ISIFEJ INIFEJ INITEJ Dominant or first Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Auxiliary or second Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Tertiary or third Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Inferior or fourth Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Type ISETIP ISEFIP INEFIP INETIP Dominant or first Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Auxiliary or second Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Tertiary or third Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Inferior or fourth Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Type ESETIP ESEFIP ENEFIP ENETIP Dominant or first Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Auxiliary or second Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Tertiary or third Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Inferior or fourth Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Type ESITEJ ESIFEJ ENIFEJ ENITEJ Dominant or first Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Auxiliary or second Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Tertiary or third Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Inferior or fourth Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling the Bern

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator[edit]

Myers' Dichotomies

Extraversion Introversion

Sensing iNtuition

Thinking Feeling

Judging Perceiving

Bold letters are used as shorthand labels

Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometric testing whose ideas remain controversial within psychology, formalised these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ESFP" type is someone whose preferences are extraversion, sensing, feeling and perceiving).

Controversy over attitudes[edit]

Myers interpreted Jung as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. In support of Myers' (and/or Briggs') interpretation, in one sentence Jung seems to state that the "three inferior" functions of an (extreme) extravert are introverted. The "most differentiated function is always employed in an extraverted way, whereas the inferior functions are introverted" (Jung, [1921] 1971:par. 575).

Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect.[citation needed] Jungians interpret Jung as explicitly stating that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance.[citation needed] More recently, typologists such as John Beebe and Linda Berens have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functions—equivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudes—with the four in the opposite attitude to that measured known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious.

There is controversy even within the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), co-founded by Myers, regarding the attitude of the tertiary relative to the dominant. "The MBTI Qualifying Program", a binder given out during official training, puts the tertiary in the opposite attitude to the dominant on page 13; however, The Manual, which gives official instructions on how to use the test, has the tertiary in the same attitude on page 31. Charles Martin, former vice president of research at CAPT, writes the following on page 22 of the binder, "In what attitude is the tertiary? Isabel Myers read Jung to say that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior are all in the same attitude and opposite the dominant. Others (Harold Grant) read: tertiary is in the same attitude as the dominant."[citation needed]

To summarize Jung views, as discussed in Psychological Types and maintained until his death,[20] Jung posited that each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" where every conscious act is directed by the tendency to follow introversion for introverts and extraversion for extraverts. Jung's definition of the general attitude was not limiting the individual from experiencing the opposing attitude, but offers the "decisive determination".[21] The primary, or most developed, differentiated, and conscious function, is entirely positioned in the service of the conscious attitude of introversion or extraversion, but even if all other functions can be conscious and made to follow the general attitude, they are of less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious.[22][23] Later in the book, Jung describes the auxiliary function as being capable of some significant development or differentiation, if it remains less differentiated of that of the primary.[24] His views on the primary and auxiliary functions both being of enough differentiation to be considered conscious and set aside with the primary as opposed to the most inferior two functions can be noted as early as Psychological Types.[25]

Furthermore, the evidence given by Myers [26] for the orientation of the auxiliary function relies on one sentence from Jung:

"For all the types appearing in practice, the principle holds good that besides the conscious main function there is also a relatively unconscious, auxiliary function which is in every respect different from the nature of the main function."[20]

And in using this phrase to set an opposing attitude for the auxiliary function, Myers disregarded that in Jungian language, functions are separate from their orientation, as orientation is a property of consciousness as a whole, and also disregarded the examples Jung gave immediately afterwards in the text that do not speak of attitude:

"From these combinations well-known pictures arise, the practical intellect for instance paired with sensation, the speculative intellect breaking through with intuition, the artistic intuition which selects. and presents its images by means of feeling judgement, the philosophical intuition which, in league with a vigorous intellect, translates its vision into the sphere of comprehensible thought, and so forth."[27]

And also disregards the context and language Jung used in speaking of the four functions:

"I differentiate these functions from one another, because they are neither mutually relatable nor mutually reducible. The principle of thinking, for instance, is absolutely different from the principle of feeling, and so forth."[20]

Introverted intuition (Ni)[edit] Introverted intuition is the intuition that acts in an introverted manner. Introverted intuition is a function that is often described as hard to explain,[17] due to its highly inward and intangiable nature. The introverted intuition type has the ability to 'thread' multiple sources of phenomena into a certain view or vision.[18] This is contrary to its opposite, extraverted sensation, which sees things as they comes and in a very concrete manner.[17] The lack of this extraverted sensation can often make the Ni type a very dogged character, ignoring what is apparent and focusing on their synthesised worldview.[19

Sensation[edit]

Jung presented sensation as "that psychological function which transmits a physical stimulus to perception. [...] not only to the outer stimuli, but also to the inner, i.e. to changes in the internal organs. Primarily, therefore, sensation is sense-perception, i.e. perception transmitted via the sense organs and 'bodily senses' (kinaesthetic, vaso-motor sensation, etc.)." Also, since the process of conscious perception is a psychological phenomenon representing a physical phenomenon, and not the physical phenomenon itself, he adds: "On the one hand, it is an element of presentation, since it transmits to the presenting function the perceived image of the outer object; on the other hand, it is an element of feeling, because through the perception of bodily changes it lends the character of affect to feeling."[1]

Extraverted sensation (Se)[edit]

Extraverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in a realistic and concretist way. Like extraverted thinking, Se concerns itself with the facts; however, this is not for sake of logical fulfillment or completion, but for sake of receiving the highest physiological pleasure as possible. Extraverted sensation has little time for hidden meanings—most phenomena are self-explanatory to the Se psyche.[12]

Since an Se type's source of reward gravitates around perceiving and feeling external phenomena, a user of Se often has a good sense of aesthetic—whether this be the taste of food, or a new trend in clothing.[11]

Due to this mindset, Jung writes of the Se type's morality, "For true enjoyment, [the extraverted sensation type] has its own special morality, its own moderation and lawfulness, its own unselfishness and devotedness. It by no means follows that he is just sensual or gross, for he may differentiate his sensation to the finest pitch of æsthetic purity without being the least unfaithful, even in his most abstract sensations, to his principle of objective sensation."[12] Introverted sensation (Si)[edit] Introverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in such a way as extraverted sensation does above, but in a subjective manner. As Jung notes that all introverted functions focus on the past, Si compares phenomena with past experiences[13] and is very detailed in what it detects,[11] thus creating a level of conscientiousness and procedure in their work.[14]

Psychological functions[edit]

The four psychological functions may be subjugated to the control of consciousness, which can take two attitudes:

Extraversion: "a strong, if not exclusive, determination by the object."[1] Consciously, in an extravert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the extraverted 'general attitude of consciousness': "Now, when the orientation to the object and to objective facts is so predominant that the most frequent and essential decisions and actions are determined, not by subjective values but by objective relations, one speaks of an extraverted attitude. When this is habitual, one speaks of an extraverted type. If a man so thinks, feels, and acts, in a word so lives, as to correspond directly with objective conditions and their claims, whether in a good sense or ill, he is extraverted." [2]

Introversion: "a turning inwards of the libido, whereby a negative relation of subject to object is expressed. Interest does not move towards the object, but recedes towards the subject."[1] Consciously, in an introvert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the introverted 'general attitude of consciousness'. "Everyone whose attitude is introverted thinks, feels, and acts in a way that clearly demonstrates that the subject is the chief factor of motivation while the object at most receives only a secondary value." [1]

The difference between extraversion and introversion comes from the source of the decisive factor in forming motivation and developing ideas, whether it is objective (i.e. the external environment) or subjective (the collective unconscious, or "processes inherent in the psyche"[1]). When discussing function types, Jung ascribed movements of the libido in both directions for each function in each function type, but with one direction being that final judge.

The four basic psychological functions, thought (or intellect), feeling, sensation, and intuition are "basic functions" that can be briefly defined as follows.

Thinking[edit]

According to Jung, thinking is "that psychological function which, in accordance with its own laws, brings given presentations into conceptual connection." Jung also made distinction between active and passive thinking: "The term 'thinking' should, in my view, be confined to the linking up of representations by means of a concept, where, in other words, an act of judgment prevails, whether such act be the product of one's intention or not The faculty of directed thinking, I term intellect: the faculty of passive, or undirected, thinking, I term intellectual intuition." The former, active thought, is what Jung considered a 'judging function'.[3]

Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted thinking and introverted thinking to mean other than the function of thought as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively, but specific set of skills:

Extraverted thinking (Te)[edit]

Extraverted thinking is the thinking function that is objective (being extraverted) and typically employs inductive reasoning.[4] Extraverted thinking often places information such as facts in high order; Te is a process that is concerned with organisation and hierarchy of phenomena.

Although Te prefers data that is concrete and empirical in nature, the information only needs to be external and other phenomena that cannot be reduced to some form of objective nature will be ignored by the Te function. Te also employs a level of goal-setting and results within its function properties.[5]

Introverted thinking (Ti)[edit]

Introverted thinking is the thinking function that is subjective (being introverted) and typically employs deductive reasoning.[4] Ti is concerned with the general idea of phenomena and will attempt to explain a logical problem with subjective information. It contains a set of 'logical principles' that wishes to 'abstract' a system or structure to its bare principles. Hence, Ti is highly analytical; it also enforces a level of independence and individuality within its cognitive framework.[6]

Feeling[edit]

Jung defined feeling as "primarily a process that takes place between the ego and a given content, a process, moreover, that imparts to the content a definite value in the sense of acceptance or rejection [...] Hence feeling is also a kind of judging, differing, however, from an intellectual judgment, in that it does not aim at establishing an intellectual connection but is solely concerned with the setting up of a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection." [7] Also Jung made distinctions between feeling as a judging function, and emotions (affect): "Feeling is distinguished from affect by the fact that it gives rise to no perceptible physical innervations."[8]

Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted feeling and introverted feeling to mean other than the function of feeling as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively, but specific set of skills:

Extraverted feeling (Fe)[edit]

Extraverted feeling (Fe) is the feeling function that is primarily concerned with connection and commonality to others. Since it is extraverted and objective, it encapsulates the system of 'value' outward in the form of common courtesy and etiquette.[9]

Overall, Fe is concerned with phenomena to be harmonious with its external environment. Jung writes of extraverted feelers as those where feeling "loses its personal character -- it becomes feeling per se; it almost seems as though the personality were wholly dissolved in the feeling of the moment. Now, since in actual life situations constantly and successively alternate, in which the feeling-tones released are not only different but are actually mutually contrasting, the personality inevitably becomes dissipated in just so many different feelings."[10]

Introverted feeling (Fi)[edit]

Introverted feeling (Fi) is the feeling function that is primarily concerned with authenticity, personal values and individuality. This is because it is focused inwardly and because of this, a dominant or auxiliary user of Fi can be quite reluctant to share their values, or be indifferent towards causes that are of no interest to the Fi user.[10]

Fi is often seen as very hard to elucidate since so little of it is openly displayed. Jung writes of feeling in introverted feelers "[As feeling] continually seeking an image which has no existence in reality, but which it has seen in a kind of vision. It glides unheedingly over all objects that do not fit in with its aim. It strives after inner intensity, for which the objects serve at most as a stimulus. The depth of this feeling can only be guessed—it can never be clearly grasped. It makes people silent and difficult of access; it shrinks back like a violet from the brute nature of the object in order to fill the depths of the subject. It comes out with negative judgments or assumes an air of profound indifference as a means of defence."

The model in which the four cognitive functions combine to form different psychological types was conceived by Jung in his pioneering work Psychological Types (1921, ISBN 0-691-09770-4). Jung also posited that the functions formed a hierarchy within a person's psychological dynamics — the most developed function is referred to as the "dominant", with the remaining three filling the roles as "auxiliary" and "inferior" functions.

Jung never meant for eight cognitive functions but four basic functions, thinking, feeling, intuition, and sensation. (Jung, C.G. [1921] (1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.)

A summary of Jung's ideas regarding functions and types is described in the following table.

General Attitude Type Extraverted Types

Rational/Irrational Attitude type Judging Types Perceiving Types

Function Type Extraverted Thinking Types Extraverted Feeling Types Extraverted Sensation Types Extraverted Intuitive Types

Auxiliary Function Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling

Primary:

Most differentiated in the extraverted consciousness Thinking Thinking Feeling Feeling Sensation Sensation Intuition Intuition

Auxiliary:

Less differentiated and assisting the primary Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling

Inferior:

Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of introverted unconscious Intuition Sensation Intuition Sensation Feeling Thinking Feeling Thinking

Inferior:

Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of introverted unconscious Feeling Feeling Thinking Thinking Intuition Intuition Sensation Sensation General Attitude Type Introverted Types Rational/Irrational Attitude type Judging Types Perceiving Types Function Type Introverted Thinking Types Introverted Feeling Types Introverted Sensation Types Introverted Intuitive Types Auxiliary Function Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling Primary: Most differentiated in the introverted consciousness Thinking Thinking Feeling Feeling Sensation Sensation Intuition Intuition Auxiliary: Less differentiated and assisting the primary Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling Inferior: Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of extraverted unconscious Intuition Sensation Intuition Sensation Feeling Thinking Feeling Thinking Inferior: Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of extraverted unconscious Feeling Feeling Thinking Thinking Intuition Intuition Sensation Sensation

QMRIn Carl Jung's theories of psychological type the cognitive functions (sometimes known as mental functions) are defined as different ways of perceiving and judging. They are defined as "thinking", "feeling", "sensation" and "intuition".

QMRIn Hinduism, the Mother of all creation is called "Gayatri". Gayatri is the name of one of the most important Vedic hymns consisting of twenty-four syllables. One of the sacred texts says, "The Gayatri is Brahma, Gayatri is Vishnu, Gayatri is Shiva, the Gayatri is Vedas" and Gayatri later came to be personified as a goddess. She is shown as having five heads and is usually seated within a lotus. The four heads of Gayatri represent the four Vedas and the fifth one represents the almighty deity. In her ten hands, she holds all the symbols of Lord Vishnu. She is another consort of Lord Brahma.

QMRLevels of anima development[edit]

Jung believed anima development has four distinct levels, which he named Eve, Helen, Mary and Sophia. In broad terms, the entire process of anima development in a man is about the male subject opening up to emotionality, and in that way a broader spirituality, by creating a new conscious paradigm that includes intuitive processes, creativity and imagination, and psychic sensitivity towards himself and others where it might not have existed previously.[citation needed]

Eve[edit]

The first is Eve, named after the Genesis account of Adam and Eve. It deals with the emergence of a man's object of desire.

Helen[edit]

The second is Helen, an allusion to Helen of Troy in Greek mythology. In this phase, women are viewed as capable of worldly success and of being self-reliant, intelligent and insightful, even if not altogether virtuous. This second phase is meant to show a strong schism in external talents (cultivated business and conventional skills) with lacking internal qualities (inability for virtue, lacking faith or imagination).

Mary[edit]

The third phase is Mary, named after the Christian theological understanding of the Virgin Mary (Jesus' mother). At this level, women can now seem to possess virtue by the perceiving man (even if in an esoteric and dogmatic way), in as much as certain activities deemed consciously unvirtuous cannot be applied to her.

Sophia[edit]

The fourth and final phase of anima development is Sophia, named after the Greek word for wisdom. Complete integration has now occurred, which allows women to be seen and related to as particular individuals who possess both positive and negative qualities. The most important aspect of this final level is that, as the personification "Wisdom" suggests, the anima is now developed enough that no single object can fully and permanently contain the images to which it is related.

Levels of animus development[edit]

Jung focused more on the man's anima and wrote less about the woman's animus. Jung believed that every woman has an analogous animus within her psyche, this being a set of unconscious masculine attributes and potentials. He viewed the animus as being more complex than the anima, postulating that women have a host of animus images whereas the male anima consists only of one dominant image.

Jung stated that there are four parallel levels of animus development in a woman.[3]

Man of mere physical power[edit]

The animus "first appears as a personification of mere physical power - for instance as an athletic champion or muscle man, such as 'the fictional jungle hero Tarzan'".[4]

Man of action or romance[edit]

In the next phase, the animus "possesses initiative and the capacity for planned action...the romantic man - the 19th century British poet Shelley; or the man of action - America's Ernest Hemingway, war hero, hunter, etc."[5]

Man as a professor, clergyman, orator[edit] In the third phase "the animus becomes the word, often appearing as a professor or clergyman...the bearer of the word - Lloyd George, the great political orator".[5] Man as a helpful guide to understanding herself[edit] "Finally, in his fourth manifestation, the animus is the incarnation of meaning. On this highest level he becomes (like the anima) a mediator of...spiritual profundity".[6] Jung noted that "in mythology, this aspect of the animus appears as Hermes, messenger of the gods; in dreams he is a helpful guide." Like Sophia, this is the highest level of mediation between the unconscious and conscious mind.[citation needed]

QMRPsychological Types is Volume 6 in the Princeton / Bollingen edition of the The Collected Works of C. G. Jung.[1] It was also published in the U.K. by Routledge.[2] The original German language edition, Psychologische Typen, was first published by Rascher Verlag, Zurich in 1921.[3] Extensive detailed abstracts of each chapter are available online.[4]

In the book Jung categorized people into primary types of psychological function. He proposed four main functions of consciousness:

Two perceiving functions: Sensation and Intuition

Two judging functions: Thinking and Feeling

The functions are modified by two main attitude types: extraversion and introversion. Jung theorized that the dominant function characterizes consciousness, while its opposite is repressed and characterizes unconscious behavior.

The eight psychological types are as follows:

Extraverted sensation Introverted sensation Extraverted intuition Introverted intuition Extraverted thinking Introverted thinking Extraverted feeling Introverted feeling In Psychological Types, Jung describes in detail the effects of tensions between the complexes associated with the dominant and inferior differentiating functions in highly and even extremely one-sided types. Myers and Briggs came later and added the perceptive and judging function which ultimately yielded the 16 types

The Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 (c. 1800–1600 BC) gives an approximation of √2 in four sexagesimal figures, 1 24 51 10, which is accurate to about six decimal digits,[1] and is the closest possible three-place sexagesimal representation of √2:

1 + \frac{24}{60} + \frac{51}{60^2} + \frac{10}{60^3} = \frac{30547}{21600} = 1.41421\overline{296}.

Another early close approximation is given in ancient Indian mathematical texts, the Sulbasutras (c. 800–200 BC) as follows: Increase the length [of the side] by its third and this third by its own fourth less the thirty-fourth part of that fourth.[2] That is,

1 + \frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{3 \cdot 4} - \frac{1}{3 \cdot4 \cdot 34} = \frac{577}{408} = 1.41421\overline{56862745098039}.

This ancient Indian approximation is the seventh in a sequence of increasingly accurate approximations based on the sequence of Pell numbers, that can be derived from the continued fraction expansion of √2. Despite having a smaller denominator, it is only slightly less accurate than the Babylonian approximation.

Pythagoreans discovered that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with its side, or in modern language, that the square root of two is irrational. Little is known with certainty about the time or circumstances of this discovery, but the name of Hippasus of Metapontum is often mentioned. For a while, the Pythagoreans treated as an official secret the discovery that the square root of two is irrational, and, according to legend, Hippasus was murdered for divulging it.[3][4][5] The square root of two is occasionally called "Pythagoras' number" or "Pythagoras' Constant", for example by Conway & Guy (1996).[6] The Babylonian tablet was a quadrant

QMRThe square root of 2, written in mathematics as √2 or 2^{1/2}, is the positive algebraic number that, when multiplied by itself, gives the number 2. Technically, it is called the principal square root of 2, to distinguish it from the negative number with the same property. Geometrically the square root of 2 is the length of a diagonal across a square with sides of one unit of length; this follows from the Pythagorean theorem. It was probably the first number known to be irrational. Its numerical value, truncated to 65 decimal places, is: 1.41421356237309504880168872420969807856967187537694807317667973799... (sequence A002193 in OEIS). The square root of 2. The approximation 99/70 (≈ 1.41429) for the square root of two is frequently used. Despite having a denominator of only 70, it differs from the correct value by less than 1/10,000 (approx. 7.2 × 10−5). The approximation 665857/470832 is valid to within 1.13 x 10−12: its square is 2.0000000000045.... Plato tried to find this by drawing a quadrant

QMRA Kummer extension is a field extension L/K, where for some given integer n > 1 we have K contains n distinct nth roots of unity (i.e., roots of Xn−1) L/K has abelian Galois group of exponent n. For example, when n = 2, the first condition is always true if K has characteristic ≠ 2. The Kummer extensions in this case include quadratic extensions L = K(√a) where a in K is a non-square element. By the usual solution of quadratic equations, any extension of degree 2 of K has this form. The Kummer extensions in this case also include biquadratic extensions and more general multiquadratic extensions. When K has characteristic 2, there are no such Kummer extensions.

QMRHarry Beilin described Jean Piaget's theoretical research program[19] as consisting of four phases: the sociological model of development, the biological model of intellectual development, the elaboration of the logical model of intellectual development, the study of figurative thought.

QMRMénage à trois[edit] A love triangle should not be confused with a ménage à trois, a three-way relationship in which all members are romantically involved with each other instead of being in conflict over one person. Ménage à trois is French and directly translates to "household for three" meaning it is usually composed of a "married couple and a lover...who live together while sharing sexual relations". This differs from a love triangle because each participant is equally motivated purely by sexual desires. The ménage à trois may be considered a subset of 'The Sandwich...a straight three-handed operation...which may be operated with any assortment of sexes: three men, three women, two men and a woman ("Ménage à trois"), or two women and a man ("The Tourist Sandwich")'.[23] There is also the possibility of 'a ménage à trois powered by the passion of hatred'.[24] Love rectangle[edit] Love rectangle (also quadrangle or quad or "love square") is a somewhat facetious term to describe a romantic relationship that involves four people, analogous to the typically three-sided love triangle. Many people use this term for a romantic relationship between two people that is complicated by the romantic attentions of two other people or one person who is complicated by the romantic attentions of three other people, but it is more frequently reserved for relationships where there are more connections. Minimally, both male characters usually have some current or past association with both female characters. These relationships need not be sexual; they can be friendships or familial relations. Both males and/or both females can also be friends, family members (frequently siblings) or sworn enemies. Love rectangles tend to be more complicated than love triangles, often using their tangled relationships as a source of comedic humor. They may however only be a spin-off from the main love triangle, where 'as a sub-plot, A may try to rekindle B's love by introducing yet a fourth party (D)'.[25] Similarly extraneous is the husband in the Marquis de Sade's "Room for Two", where the witty, pretty heroine sets out to find 'two assistants for her husband', unbeknown to each other; and who, on being discovered by the one assistant with the other, calls out "Don't disturb us, my friend, and take your place in what's left to you; you can easily see there's room for two'.[26] An example of a love rectangle in classic literature is in William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, between the characters Lysander, Demetrius, Helena, and Hermia. Demetrius is granted Hermia's hand in marriage by her father, but Hermia loves Lysander, and the two flee, intending to elope. Demetrius pursues the couple, and Helena pursues Demetrius, whom she has always loved. The fairy Puck, in trying to use magic to resolve the situation, temporarily transfers both men's affections to Helena. Further tampering restores Lysander's love for Hermia. Demetrius, now in love with Helena, withdraws his claim on Hermia, and both couples are wed. Another love rectangle happens in Mozart's Così Fan Tutte, where female characters Dorabella and Fiordiligi (siblings) are Ferrando and Gugliemo's girlfriends respectively, and by the end of the opera they "accidentally" swap their boyfriends. The love rectangle concept is popular in television programs such as Lost (Jack/Kate/Sawyer/Juliet), True Blood (Bill/Sookie/Eric/Alcide), That '70s Show (Kelso/Jackie/Hyde/Laurie), One Tree Hill (Lucas/Peyton/Nathan/Brooke), The Vampire Diaries (Stefan/Elena/Damon/Katherine) and on the ABC soap opera Love Lives (Megan/Joey/Andrea/Collin). This is also a common theme in many manga and anime, a sub-genera known as harem in which multiple characters are in love with the protagonist. For additional terms, the word "love" can be prefixed to other polygons with the appropriate number of vertices, to reflect romantic relationships involving more people, e.g. "love pentagon" or a "love hexagon."

QMRMénage à trois[edit] A love triangle should not be confused with a ménage à trois, a three-way relationship in which all members are romantically involved with each other instead of being in conflict over one person. Ménage à trois is French and directly translates to "household for three" meaning it is usually composed of a "married couple and a lover...who live together while sharing sexual relations". This differs from a love triangle because each participant is equally motivated purely by sexual desires. The ménage à trois may be considered a subset of 'The Sandwich...a straight three-handed operation...which may be operated with any assortment of sexes: three men, three women, two men and a woman ("Ménage à trois"), or two women and a man ("The Tourist Sandwich")'.[23] There is also the possibility of 'a ménage à trois powered by the passion of hatred'.[24] Love rectangle[edit] Love rectangle (also quadrangle or quad or "love square") is a somewhat facetious term to describe a romantic relationship that involves four people, analogous to the typically three-sided love triangle. Many people use this term for a romantic relationship between two people that is complicated by the romantic attentions of two other people or one person who is complicated by the romantic attentions of three other people, but it is more frequently reserved for relationships where there are more connections. Minimally, both male characters usually have some current or past association with both female characters. These relationships need not be sexual; they can be friendships or familial relations. Both males and/or both females can also be friends, family members (frequently siblings) or sworn enemies. Love rectangles tend to be more complicated than love triangles, often using their tangled relationships as a source of comedic humor. They may however only be a spin-off from the main love triangle, where 'as a sub-plot, A may try to rekindle B's love by introducing yet a fourth party (D)'.[25] Similarly extraneous is the husband in the Marquis de Sade's "Room for Two", where the witty, pretty heroine sets out to find 'two assistants for her husband', unbeknown to each other; and who, on being discovered by the one assistant with the other, calls out "Don't disturb us, my friend, and take your place in what's left to you; you can easily see there's room for two'.[26] An example of a love rectangle in classic literature is in William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, between the characters Lysander, Demetrius, Helena, and Hermia. Demetrius is granted Hermia's hand in marriage by her father, but Hermia loves Lysander, and the two flee, intending to elope. Demetrius pursues the couple, and Helena pursues Demetrius, whom she has always loved. The fairy Puck, in trying to use magic to resolve the situation, temporarily transfers both men's affections to Helena. Further tampering restores Lysander's love for Hermia. Demetrius, now in love with Helena, withdraws his claim on Hermia, and both couples are wed. Another love rectangle happens in Mozart's Così Fan Tutte, where female characters Dorabella and Fiordiligi (siblings) are Ferrando and Gugliemo's girlfriends respectively, and by the end of the opera they "accidentally" swap their boyfriends. The love rectangle concept is popular in television programs such as Lost (Jack/Kate/Sawyer/Juliet), True Blood (Bill/Sookie/Eric/Alcide), That '70s Show (Kelso/Jackie/Hyde/Laurie), One Tree Hill (Lucas/Peyton/Nathan/Brooke), The Vampire Diaries (Stefan/Elena/Damon/Katherine) and on the ABC soap opera Love Lives (Megan/Joey/Andrea/Collin). This is also a common theme in many manga and anime, a sub-genera known as harem in which multiple characters are in love with the protagonist. For additional terms, the word "love" can be prefixed to other polygons with the appropriate number of vertices, to reflect romantic relationships involving more people, e.g. "love pentagon" or a "love hexagon."

QMRMénage à trois[edit] A love triangle should not be confused with a ménage à trois, a three-way relationship in which all members are romantically involved with each other instead of being in conflict over one person. Ménage à trois is French and directly translates to "household for three" meaning it is usually composed of a "married couple and a lover...who live together while sharing sexual relations". This differs from a love triangle because each participant is equally motivated purely by sexual desires. The ménage à trois may be considered a subset of 'The Sandwich...a straight three-handed operation...which may be operated with any assortment of sexes: three men, three women, two men and a woman ("Ménage à trois"), or two women and a man ("The Tourist Sandwich")'.[23] There is also the possibility of 'a ménage à trois powered by the passion of hatred'.[24] Love rectangle[edit] Love rectangle (also quadrangle or quad or "love square") is a somewhat facetious term to describe a romantic relationship that involves four people, analogous to the typically three-sided love triangle. Many people use this term for a romantic relationship between two people that is complicated by the romantic attentions of two other people or one person who is complicated by the romantic attentions of three other people, but it is more frequently reserved for relationships where there are more connections. Minimally, both male characters usually have some current or past association with both female characters. These relationships need not be sexual; they can be friendships or familial relations. Both males and/or both females can also be friends, family members (frequently siblings) or sworn enemies. Love rectangles tend to be more complicated than love triangles, often using their tangled relationships as a source of comedic humor. They may however only be a spin-off from the main love triangle, where 'as a sub-plot, A may try to rekindle B's love by introducing yet a fourth party (D)'.[25] Similarly extraneous is the husband in the Marquis de Sade's "Room for Two", where the witty, pretty heroine sets out to find 'two assistants for her husband', unbeknown to each other; and who, on being discovered by the one assistant with the other, calls out "Don't disturb us, my friend, and take your place in what's left to you; you can easily see there's room for two'.[26] An example of a love rectangle in classic literature is in William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, between the characters Lysander, Demetrius, Helena, and Hermia. Demetrius is granted Hermia's hand in marriage by her father, but Hermia loves Lysander, and the two flee, intending to elope. Demetrius pursues the couple, and Helena pursues Demetrius, whom she has always loved. The fairy Puck, in trying to use magic to resolve the situation, temporarily transfers both men's affections to Helena. Further tampering restores Lysander's love for Hermia. Demetrius, now in love with Helena, withdraws his claim on Hermia, and both couples are wed. Another love rectangle happens in Mozart's Così Fan Tutte, where female characters Dorabella and Fiordiligi (siblings) are Ferrando and Gugliemo's girlfriends respectively, and by the end of the opera they "accidentally" swap their boyfriends. The love rectangle concept is popular in television programs such as Lost (Jack/Kate/Sawyer/Juliet), True Blood (Bill/Sookie/Eric/Alcide), That '70s Show (Kelso/Jackie/Hyde/Laurie), One Tree Hill (Lucas/Peyton/Nathan/Brooke), The Vampire Diaries (Stefan/Elena/Damon/Katherine) and on the ABC soap opera Love Lives (Megan/Joey/Andrea/Collin). This is also a common theme in many manga and anime, a sub-genera known as harem in which multiple characters are in love with the protagonist. For additional terms, the word "love" can be prefixed to other polygons with the appropriate number of vertices, to reflect romantic relationships involving more people, e.g. "love pentagon" or a "love hexagon."

QMRAntonia Anna "Toni" Wolff (18 September 1888 — 21 March 1953) was a Swiss Jungian analyst and a close associate of Carl Jung. During her analytic career Toni Wolff published relatively little under her own name, but she helped Jung identify, define, and name some of his best-known concepts including anima, animus, and persona.[1] Her best-known paper was an essay on four "types" or aspects of the feminine psyche: the Amazon, the Mother, the Hetaira (or Courtesan), and the Medial (or mediumistic) Woman.[2]

QMRThere are four separate surviving manuscripts of "The Secret Book of John". Three of these were found in the Nag Hammadi codices in 1945, while the fourth was found independently 50 years earlier from another site in Egypt. All four versions date to the 4th century. Three of these appear to be independently produced Coptic translations of an original Greek text. Two of the four are similar enough that they probably represent copies of a single source. Although the different versions of the texts have minor variants (The Berlin Codex has many minor differences with the Nag Hammadi II and IV), all texts generally agree that the main revealing entity was Jesus Christ.