Quadrant Model of Reality Book 5 Science

Physics Chapter

Crux /ˈkrʌks/ is a constellation located in the southern sky in a bright portion of the Milky Way, and is the smallest but one of the most distinctive of the 88 modern constellations. Its name is Latin for cross, and it is dominated by a cross-shaped or kite-like asterism that is commonly known as the Southern Cross. Predominating the asterism is the most southerly and brightest star, the blue-white Alpha Crucis or Acrux, followed by four other stars, descending in clockwise order by magnitude: Beta, Gamma (one of the closest red giants to Earth), Delta and Epsilon Crucis.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based navigation system that provides location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. At least four are needed, three for spacial dimensions and one for time.

The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) was a 1632 Italian-language book by Galileo Galilei comparing the Copernican system with the traditional Ptolemaic system. It is one of the most famous works in science history, because it was the work that questioned the geocentric Ptolemaic view of the Universe and proposes a heliocentric Copernican view. This is the work that got Galileo in trouble and tried and put in prison. Galileo was not persecuted because he proposed a heliocentric universe, but because in this work he tried to make the Pope look dumb, giving him the title Simplicio, or simple. The work employs the quadrant model pattern. The text of ‘A Dialogue of the Two Chief World Systems’ was divided in four parts (days), reflecting the quadrant model pattern. The first day was about dimensions and perfection, new stars, sunspots and observation of the moon. The second day dealt with movement, the pendulum, air and wind. The third day treated the measurement of the stars and the retrograde movement of sunspots and finally the fourth day was concerned with the tides and the impetus (each day builds on the next and interestingly the fourth day Galileo's ideas were wrong. The fourth is always different, and each square builds on the next, the nature of the quadrant model pattern). So the first and third days were ‘static’, about measurements and the second and fourth days were ‘dynamic’, concerned with the processes which lead to the argument of a sun-centered cosmos. This presentation coincided with the four phases (unity – separation – unity – separation) in the Greek interpretation of being as proposed by the philosopher Empedocles. This characterization of the four phases is also is familiar in the (quadralectic) interpretation of the quadrants. There is no proof that Galileo deliberately employed the four-division in this way. The dialogue signifies to scientists the triumph of science and one of the greatest achievements in science history, and they see it as the symbol of Galileo as the martyr for science, like Jesus was the Martyr for the Christians. It is no coincidence that it reflects the quadrant model pattern, the form of existence.

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The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle that states that two identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) cannot occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. In the case of electrons, it can be stated as follows: it is impossible for two electrons of a poly-electron atom to have the same values of the four quantum numbers: n, the principal quantum number, ℓ , the angular momentum quantum number, mℓ, the magnetic quantum number, and ms, the spin quantum number. The Pauli exclusion principle is one of the most revolutionary discoveries in physics and quantum mechanics. The Pauli exclusion principle is the basis and reason why there are quantum jumps in quantum mechanics and why there are different orbitals of the atom. I described that there are the four orbitals, s, p, d, and the different one f. Therefore the Pauli Exclusion principle is the basis for all of chemistry and physics. It is no coincidence it fits the quadrant model pattern. Quantum physicists did not know why the Pauli Exclusion Principle was the basis for atoms. They just said it was. This made Einstein say that quantum mechanics was weird and probably not the ultimate explanation for reality, because he felt it was based off of random weird rules that had no basis to them, and he felt that there was a higher order in physics. I would tell Einstein that the Pauli Exclusion principle was not random but based on the quadrant model pattern, the form of existence, which would rectify Einstein's view of reality.

The Dirac equation is considered one of the greatest breakthroughs in physics and quantum mechanics history. In particle physics, the Dirac equation is a relativistic wave equation derived by British physicist Paul Dirac in 1928. In its free form, or including electromagnetic interactions, it describes all spin-½ massive particles such as electrons and quarks, for which parity is a symmetry, and is consistent with both the principles of quantum mechanics and the theory of special relativity, and was the first theory to account fully for special relativity in the context of quantum mechanics.

It accounted for the fine details of the hydrogen spectrum in a completely rigorous way. The equation also implied the existence of a new form of matter, antimatter, previously unsuspected and unobserved and which was experimentally confirmed several years later. It also provided a theoretical justification for the introduction of several-component wave functions in Pauli's phenomenological theory of spin.

The wave functions in the Dirac theory are vectors of four complex numbers (known as bispinors), two of which resemble the Pauli wavefunction in the non-relativistic limit, in contrast to the Schrödinger equation which described wave functions of only one complex value. Moreover, in the limit of zero mass, the Dirac equation reduces to the Weyl equation. The new elements in this equation are the 4 × 4 matrices αk and β, and the four-component wave function ψ. There are four components in ψ because evaluation of it at any given point in configuration space is a bispinor. It is interpreted as a superposition of a spin-up electron, a spin-down electron, a spin-up positron, and a spin-down positron (see below for further discussion). The 4 × 4 matrices αk and β are all Hermitian and have squares equal to the identity matrix: (four by four matrices are the quadrant model) \alpha_i^2=\beta^2=I_4 and they all mutually anticommute (if i and j are distinct): \alpha_i\alpha_j + \alpha_j\alpha_i = 0 \alpha_i\beta + \beta\alpha_i = 0 These equations were the basis for the discovery of antimatter reflected the quadrant model pattern. A big part of quantum mechanics is the 4-vector.

The four basic domains of physics are Square 1: Quantum mechanics- classical mechanics less than the size of an atom and far from the speed of light. This type of physics is weird. The first square is always weird. This was mapped out by Bohr and others. Square 2: Classical mechanics. Larger than the size of an atom and far from speed of light. This is normal classical physics like Newtons physics. The second square is always normal. Square 3: Relativistic mechanics. Close to the speed of light and close to the size of an atom. This deal a lot with movement. The third square is doing. This is Einsteins special relativity. Square 4: Quantum field theory. Close to the size of an atom and Close to the speed of light. This one is weird and transcendent. It is different from the other three in that it has not been mapped out or discovered completely where the other three are understood. The fourth is always transcendent. The fourth square also encompasses the previous squares. It is said that quantum field theory would bring together quantum mechanics classical and relativistic mechanics. The nature of the fourth square is it encompasses the previous three. Paul Dirac and Einstein tried to discover Quantum field theory but they were unsuccessful. Some say that M theory is it's solution. I discussed M theory reflects the quadrant model pattern.

Brothers Jim Weiner and Jack Weiner with friends Charles Foltz and Charles Rak claim that they were abducted by aliens during a camping trip in Allagash, Maine on August 20, 1976. According to the four men, hypnotic regression enabled them to recall being taken aboard a circular UFO and being "probed and tested by four-fingered beings with almond-shaped eyes and languid limbs". The first two were twins and are the duality. The fourth actually ended up kind of questioning the experience. The fourth is always different.

Tetrabiblos (Τετράβιβλος) 'four books', also known in Greek as Apotelesmatiká (Ἀποτελεσματικά) "Effects", and in Latin as Quadripartitum "Four Parts", is a text on the philosophy and practice of astrology, written in the 2nd century AD by the Alexandrian scholar Claudius Ptolemy (c. AD 90–c. AD 168). Ptolemy is referred to as "the most famous of Greek astrologers"[2] and "a pro-astrological authority of the highest magnitude".[3] As a source of reference his Tetrabiblos is described as having "enjoyed almost the authority of a Bible among the astrological writers of a thousand years or more" The four books reflect the quadrant model pattern Compiled in Alexandria in the 2nd century, the work gathered commentaries about it from its first publication.[2] It was translated into Arabic in the 9th century, and is described as "by far the most influential source of medieval Islamic astrology".[5] Square 1:Book I: principles and techniques. The first square is gibing rules. The first square is homeostatic like the second. It is mental and gibes his philosophy. The first square is mental Square 2:Book II: Mundane astrology Book II presents Ptolemy's treatise on mundane astrology. This offers a comprehensive review of ethnic stereotypes, eclipses, significations of comets and seasonal lunations, as used in the prediction of national economics, wars, epidemics, natural disasters and weather patterns. The second square is always normal And homeostasis. He describes gentiv stereotypes of people In different climates. The second quadrant is belonging and belonging and belief is related to genetics and your group Square 3:Book III: Individual horoscopes (genetic influences and predispositions). Recall the third quadrant is thinking and related to the individual Square 4:Book IV: Individual horoscopes (external accidentals). The fourth square is the individual as well but is always transcendent

In traditional Western astrology there are four triplicities based on the classical elements. Beginning with the first sign Aries which is a Fire sign, the next in line Taurus is Earth, then to Gemini which is Air, and finally to Cancer which is Water -- in Western astrology the sequence is always Fire, Earth, Air, & Water in that exact order. This cycle continues on twice more and ends with the twelfth and final astrological sign, Pisces. The elemental rulerships for the twelve astrological signs of the zodiac (according to Marcus Manilius) are summarized as follows: Fire — Aries, Leo, Sagittarius - hot, dry Earth — Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn - cold, dry Air — Gemini, Libra, Aquarius - hot, wet Water — Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces - cold, wet

Triplicty rulerships (using the "Dorothean system"[2]) are as follows: Triplicity Day Ruler Night Ruler Participating Ruler Fire (Aries, Leo, Sagittarius): Sun Jupiter Saturn Earth (Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn): Venus Moon Mars Air (Gemini, Libra, Aquarius): Saturn Mercury Jupiter Water (Cancer, Scorpio, Pisces): Venus Mars

The triplicities of seasonal elements in ancient astrology were the following:

Spring - Aries - Taurus - Gemini

Summer - Cancer - Leo - Virgo

Autumn - Libra - Scorpio - Sagittarius

Winter - Capricorn - Aquarius - Pisces

The astrological aspects (such as conjunctions or oppositions, among others) are delineated in the center of the chart. The twelve signs of the Zodiac are located at the outer portion of the chart wheel; similarly, twelve segments of arc form astrological houses which are said to have significance for different areas of life. There are many different systems for calculating the houses. The sample chart uses a quadrant house system of house division whereby the angles of the chart divide the chart into four quadrants with three houses within each quadrant, and in which the houses usually include portions of more than one astrological sign. Each quadrant has an angular house, which includes one of the angles of the chart; a succedent house follows this, with a cadent house at the end of the quadrant.

In general houses are classified into four categories in hidu astrology Kendra: the angular houses, that is the first, fourth, seventh and tenth houses. (kendra, from Greek κἐντρα,[38] also describes the relationship between any houses or grahas which are about 90 degrees apart.) These are very strong houses for grahas to occupy. Trikona: the houses forming a triangle within the chart with the first house, about 120 degrees apart from one another, that is the first, fifth and ninth. These are the most auspicious houses. (From Greek τρἰγωνα.[38]) Dusthāna: the less fortunate houses which tend to rule unhappy areas. These houses make no clear geometric connection to the Lagna. Dusthanas include the sixth, eighth and twelfth houses. Upachaya: "growth" or "remedial" houses, where malefic planets tend to improve, include the third, sixth, tenth and eleventh houses. Succedent houses are called pāṇaphara (from Greek ἐπαναφοραἱ), and cadent houses are called āpoklima (Gk. ἀποκλἰματα).[38]

Quadrant house systems divide the houses so that they agree with the "quadrant" concept (ascendant on the first house cusp, nadir / Imum Coeli on the fourth, descendant on the seventh, and midheaven / Medium Coeli on the tenth).[citation needed]

The angles of the astrological chart are the four Cardinal points of an astrological chart: the Ascendant, the Midheaven, the Descendant and the Imum Coeli.

Epicyclical motion is used in the Antikythera Mechanism, an ancient Greek astronomical device for compensating for the elliptical orbit of the Moon, moving faster at perigee and slower at apogee than circular orbits would, using four gears, two of them engaged in an eccentric way that quite closely approximates Kepler's second law.

The Four Pillars of Destiny is a Chinese, Japanese and Korean conceptual term describing the four components that supposedly create a person's destiny or fate. The four components within the moment of birth are year, month, day, and hour.

Cygnus /ˈsɪɡnəs/ is a northern constellation lying on the plane of the Milky Way, deriving its name from the Latinized Greek word for swan. The swan is one of the most recognizable constellations of the northern summer and autumn, it features a prominent asterism known as the Northern Cross (in contrast to the Southern Cross). Cygnus was among the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, Cygnus contains Deneb, one of the brightest stars in the night sky and one corner of the Summer Triangle, as well as some notable X-ray sources and the giant stellar association of Cygnus OB2. One of the stars of this association, NML Cygni, is one of the largest stars currently known. The constellation is also home to Cygnus X-1, a distant X-ray binary containing a supergiant and unseen massive companion that was the first object widely held to be a black hole. Backbone of Milky Way. The Northern Cross serves to point out the Milky Way – the luminescent river of stars passing through the Northern Cross and stretching all across the sky. You need a clear, dark sky to see this hazy swath of sky, whose “haze” is really myriad stars. But it’s a sight well worth pursuing. The Milky Way band we see stretched across our sky is an edgewise view into the disk of our galaxy, the flat part of the galaxy where nearly all the visible stars are. Keep in mind, though, that all the stars outside this band visible to your unaided eye still belong to our home galaxy, the Milky Way. When you look at the Northern Cross, you’re looking directly into the Milky Way disk, where the soft glow of millions of stars glazes over the heavens. In fact, the galactic plane (equator) runs right through the Northern Cross, encircling the sky above and below the horizon.

The Einstein Cross or Q2237+030 or QSO 2237+0305 is a gravitationally lensed quasar that sits directly behind ZW 2237+030, Huchra's Lens. It is a famous cosmic mirage. Four images of the same distant quasar appear around a foreground galaxy due to strong gravitational lensing. The quasar's redshift indicated that it is located about 8 billion light years from Earth, while the lensing galaxy is at a distance of 400 million light years.[2] The apparent dimension of the galaxy are 0.87x0.34 arcminutes[citation needed], while the apparent dimension of the cross in its centre accounts for only 1.6x1.6 arc seconds. The Einstein cross looks like four stars but it is actually one. That is the nature of the quadrant model. The four seem separate but they are actually one.

The simplest fusion reaction is the proton-proton chain, common in all main sequence stars. It has the following four stages:

Hertzsprung-Russell Diagrams are the most important models in astronomy and anybody taking an introductory astronomy class will learn them. The diagram can be divided into four parts Square 1: hot and bright Square 2: hot and dim Square 3: cold and dim Square 4: hot and bright The majority of stars, including our Sun, are found along a region called the Main Sequence. Main Sequence stars vary widely in effective temperature but the hotter they are, the more luminous they are, hence the main sequence tends to follow a band going from the bottom right of the diagram to the top left. These stars are fusing hydrogen to helium in their cores. Stars spend the bulk of their existence as main sequence stars. Other major groups of stars found on the H-R diagram are the giants and supergiants; luminous stars that have evolved off the main sequence, and the white dwarfs. Whilst each of these types is discussed in detail in later pages we can use their positions on the H-R diagram to infer some of their properties. The diagram is always presented as divided into four parts, main sequence dwarfs, giants, supergiants, and white dwarfs. The white dwarfs are different form the other three. The fourth is always different. The fourth is death. White dwarfs are dead stars made out of pure carbon. Recall carbon is the quadrant image.

The proton-proton chain is the main hydrogen fusion sequence powering main sequence stars such as our Sun and those of lower mass. The net result is that four protons are fused to form a He-4 nucleus, gamma photons, positrons and neutrinos. The total mass of the products is slightly less than the constituents - the difference being converted to and released as energy. A different sequence, the CNO cycle (for carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) dominates in higher mass main sequence stars. In the CNO cycle carbon-12 nuclei act as nuclear catalysts but the overall result is much the same as for the proton-proton chain, four protons are converted into a He-4 nucleus, releasing energy, primarily as high-energy gamma photons. The main factor that determines where a star lays on the main sequence is its mass. A star with a mass of about one-tenth that of the Sun has just enough gravitational force to heat the core to about 10 million K, the temperature needed for hydrogen fusion to start. If a protostar is less massive than this, fusion cannot be triggered and it becomes a brown dwarf or a "failed" star, emitting energy in the infrared. The greater the mass of a main sequence star, the higher its core temperature and the greater the rate of its hydrogen fusion. Higher-mass stars therefore produce more energy and are thus more luminous than lower mass ones. This comes at a cost though. High mass stars consume their core hydrogen fuel much faster than lower-mass ones. Our Sun has sufficient hydrogen in its core to last about 10 billion years (1010 years) on the main sequence. A five solar-mass star would consume its core hydrogen in about 70 million years whilst an extremely massive star may only last three or four million years.

Tharsis Montes is the largest volcanic region on Mars. It is approximately 4,000 km across,10 km high, and contains 12 large volcanoes. The largest volcanoes in the Tharsis region are 4 shield volcanoes named Ascraeus Mons, Pavonis Mons, Arsia Mons, and Olympus Mons. The Tharsis Montes (Ascraeus, Pavonis, and Arsia) are located on the crest of the crustal bulge and their summits are about the same elevation as the summit of Olympus Mons, the largest of the Tharsis volcanoes. While not the largest of the Tharsis volcanoes, Arsia Mons has the largest caldera on Mars, having a diameter of120 km (75 mi)! The main difference between the volcanoes on Mars and Earth is their size; volcanoes in the Tharsis region are up to 100 times larger than those anywhere on Earth. The pattern fits the quadrant model pattern. With Olympus Mons being off to the side and the other three together.

Newton believed that scientific theory should be coupled with rigorous experimentation, and he published four rules of scientific reasoning in Principia Mathematica (1686) that form part of modern approaches to science:

admit no more causes of natural things than are both true and sufficient to explain their appearances,

to the same natural effect, assign the same causes,

qualities of bodies, which are found to belong to all bodies within experiments, are to be esteemed universal, and

propositions collected from observation of phenomena should be viewed as accurate or very nearly true until contradicted by other phenomena.

Chemistry Chapter

Silicon crystal receivers were used as semiconductors. The modern electronic world is built on semiconductors. With the outbreak of the second world war semiconductors were used for British radar systems. Valves used to be used, but the British changed to semiconductor crystals, giving the upper hand. It is said that silicon semiconductor crystals won the war. I discussed that silicon is the shape of the quadrant, with four valence electrons like Carbon. Silicon and carbon are considered the miracle elements and no coincidence they are the shape of quadrants.

Amplifiers are also said to be one of the greatest technological inventions. Amplifiers were responsible for being able to send long distance signals anywhere in the world and were thus a huge invention. There are four types of amplifiers The four basic types of amplifiers are as follows:

Voltage amplifier – This is the most common type of amplifier. An input voltage is amplified to a larger output voltage. The amplifier's input impedance is high and the output impedance is low.

Current amplifier – This amplifier changes an input current to a larger output current. The amplifier's input impedance is low and the output impedance is high.

Transconductance amplifier – This amplifier responds to a changing input voltage by delivering a related changing output current.

Transresistance amplifier – This amplifier responds to a changing input current by delivering a related changing output voltage. Other names for the device are transimpedance amplifier and current-to-voltage converter.

Electronic amplifiers use one variable presented as either a current and voltage. Either current or voltage can be used as input and either as output, leading to four types of amplifiers. In idealized form they are represented by each of the four types of dependent source used in linear analysis, as shown in the figure, namely:

Input Output Dependent source Amplifier type

I I Current controlled current source CCCS Current amplifier

I V Current controlled voltage source CCVS Transresistance amplifier

V I Voltage controlled current source VCCS Transconductance amplifier

V V Voltage controlled voltage source VCVS Voltage amplifier

Each type of amplifier in its ideal form has an ideal input and output resistance that is the same as that of the corresponding dependent source:[8]

Amplifier type Dependent source Input impedance Output impedance

Current CCCS 0 ∞

Transresistance CCVS 0 0

Transconductance VCCS ∞ ∞

Voltage VCVS ∞ 0

Power amplifier circuits (output stages) are classified as A, B, AB and C for analog designs—and class D and E for switching designs based on the proportion of each input cycle (conduction angle), during which an amplifying device passes current. The image of the conduction angle derives from amplifying a sinusoidal signal. If the device is always on, the conducting angle is 360°. If it is on for only half of each cycle, the angle is 180°. The angle of flow is closely related to the amplifier power efficiency. The various classes are introduced below, followed by a more detailed discussion under their individual headings further down.

In the illustrations below, a bipolar junction transistor is shown as the amplifying device. However the same attributes are found with MOSFETs or vacuum tubes.

Conduction angle classes[edit]

Class A

100% of the input signal is used (conduction angle Θ = 360°). The active element remains conducting[11] all of the time.

Class B

50% of the input signal is used (Θ = 180°); the active element carries current half of each cycle, and is turned off for the other half.

Class AB

Class AB is intermediate between class A and B, the two active elements conduct more than half of the time

Class C

Less than 50% of the input signal is used (conduction angle Θ < 180°).

A "Class D" amplifier uses some form of pulse-width modulation to control the output devices; the conduction angle of each device is no longer related directly to the input signal but instead varies in pulse width. These are sometimes called "digital" amplifiers because the output device is switched fully on or off, and not carrying current proportional to the signal amplitude.

Other types are just variations on these four.

White phosphorus, yellow phosphorus or simply tetraphosphorus (P4) exists as molecules made up of four atoms in a tetrahedral structure. The tetrahedral arrangement results in ring strain and instability. The molecule is described as consisting of six single P–P bonds. Two different crystalline forms are known. The α form, which is stable under standard conditions, has a body-centered cubic crystal structure. It transforms reversibly into the β form at 195.2 K. The β form is believed to have a hexagonal crystal structure.[1]

White phosphorus is a translucent waxy solid that quickly becomes yellow when exposed to light. For this reason it is also called yellow phosphorus. It glows greenish in the dark (when exposed to oxygen), is highly flammable and pyrophoric (self-igniting) upon contact with air as well as toxic (causing severe liver damage on ingestion and phossy jaw from chronic ingestion or inhalation). The odour of combustion of this form has a characteristic garlic smell, and samples are commonly coated with white "diphosphorus pentoxide", which consists of P4O10 tetrahedral with oxygen inserted between the phosphorus atoms and at their vertices. White phosphorus is only slightly soluble in water and it can be stored under water. Indeed, white phosphorus is only safe from self-igniting when it is submerged in water. It is soluble in benzene, oils, carbon disulfide, and disulfur dichloride.

Production and applications[edit]

The white allotrope can be produced using several different methods. In the industrial process, phosphate rock is heated in an electric or fuel-fired furnace in the presence of carbon and silica.[2] Elemental phosphorus is then liberated as a vapour and can be collected under phosphoric acid. An idealized equation for this carbothermal reaction is shown for calcium phosphate (although phosphate rock contains substantial amounts of fluoroapatite):

2 Ca3(PO4)2 + 8 C → P4 + 8 CO2 + 6 Ca

Tetraphosphorus molecule

White phosphorus has an appreciable vapour pressure at ordinary temperatures. The vapour density indicates that the vapour is composed of P4 molecules up to about 800 °C. Above that temperature, dissociation into P2 molecules occurs.

It ignites spontaneously in air at about 50 °C, and at much lower temperatures if finely divided. This combustion gives phosphorus (V) oxide:

P

4 + 5 O

2 → P

4O

10 Because of this property, white phosphorus is used as a weapon.

The typical elemental semiconductors are silicon and germanium, each atom of which has four valence electrons. The properties of semiconductors are best explained using band theory, as a consequence of a small energy gap between a valence band (which contains the valence electrons at absolute zero) and a conduction band (to which valence electrons are excited by thermal energy).Semiconductors have revolutionized technology and are one of the most important discoveries in technological history. It is no coincidence they are made up of silicon and germanium, both of which have four valence electrons, thus reflecting the quadrant image.

Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (for Latin: stannum) and atomic number 50. It is a main group metal in group 14 of the periodic table. Tin shows a chemical similarity to both neighboring group-14 elements, germanium and lead, and has two possible oxidation states, +2 and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes in the periodic table. It is a silvery, malleable other metal that is not easily oxidized in air, obtained chiefly from the mineral cassiterite where it occurs as tin dioxide, SnO2. The first alloy used on a large scale since 3000 BC was bronze, an alloy of tin and copper. After 600 BC, pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter, which is an alloy of 85–90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead, was used for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times, tin is used in many alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders, which are typically 60% or more tin. Another large application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated metal was used for food packaging as tin cans, which are now made mostly of steel,even though the name is kept in English. Tin is also another sort of miracle element although it is not considered a miracle element like carbon and silicon. But like carbon and silicon tin has four valence electrons and takes the image of a quadrant. It is no coincidence tin has been such an important metal in human history.

Lead (/lɛd/) is a chemical element in the carbon group with symbol Pb (from Latin: plumbum) and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable and heavy post-transition metal. Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, weights, as part of solders, pewters, fusible alloys, and as a radiation shield. Lead has been another extremely important metal in human history. While not considered the miracle elements silicon and carbon, it too has four valence electrons taking the form of a quadrant. Bullets and weapons have shaped history since their invention.

Also writing was done with lead, so it is in a sense a miracle element too

In determining the Avogadro constant, the preferred method has been to use one of the high-precision spheres fabricated here at the ACPO. These come in the form of a highly polished 1 kg single crystal silicon sphere, fabricated with a roundness in range of 60 nm. Silicon is used because of its well known crystal structure, stability and its relative ease of use. The volume is determined from the measurement of the silicon sphere's diameter and roundness. Accurate measurement of the mass then allows the density to be derived. This is the most ambitious project in measurement history and will be used to be the standard for measuring a kilo. Again silicon is the quadrant pattern, with four valence electrons forming a quadrant image. The reason silicon is being used for the project is because of its ordered arrangement due to its quadrant formation.

THe reasonn silicon is used is because of its four valence electrons it creates a packed substance. The measuring unit has to be created by hand, and one man in the world can create it, and he can feel the valence electrons fo the silicon because his touch is so sensitive. He is the only man in the world with such sensitive touch.

The history of copper metallurgy is thought to have followed the following sequence: 1) cold working of native copper, 2) annealing, 3) smelting, and 4) the lost wax method

Naturally occurring iron (Fe) consists of four stable isotopes: 5.845% of 54Fe, 91.754% of 56Fe, 2.119% of 57Fe and 0.282% of 58Fe.

Iron is a very important metal. There are at least four allotropic forms of iron, known as α, γ, δ, and ε; at very high pressures, some controversial experimental evidence exists for a phase β stable at very high pressures and temperatures.

The shells of the nucleus fill according to 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 84, 126. Iron 58 appears to be a point where all four inner shells are completely full (2+8+20+28=58). Iron 56 appears to be a point where the second, third and fourth shells are completely full (8+20+28=56).

There is a trend for nuclides of nucleon numbers in multiples of 4 to be particularly stable (i.e. have a high binding energy).

· Fe is the most stable nuclide.

Iron is the most stable element in the Universe.

A silicon–oxygen tetrahedron is the SiO4 anionic group, or a silicon atom with four surrounding oxygen atoms arranged to define the corners of a tetrahedron. This is a fundamental component of most silicates in the Earth's crust. A variety of silicate minerals can be identified by the way that the tetrahedra links differ, also by the cations present in the mineral.

Tetra means four.

Agni is the "fire," that drives all digestion and metabolism in the Indian medical practice of Ayurveda. The digestive and absorption process is called Pakwagni (digestive fire)

The digestive fire (aka Agni), according to Ayurveda, is such a dynamic concept, it is stated to be the main determiner of one’s energy, vitality and well being. One’s overall digestion is likely to determine the overall health of that individual.

If the fire is strong, one is able to take in various types of food and properly absorb, metabolize and eventually eliminate any unused portion. The channels of the body will remain open and the energies of the body can flow freely. If the fire is weak or imbalanced, even the healthiest of food that is taken in will not go through this process and therefore remain in the body causing a toxic sludge known as ama. This ama then fills the channels of the body, causing stagnation and blockage which eventually will lead to the pathway of disease.

There are four types of Agni (digestive fire) in Ayurveda. Each one correlates to a specific dosha type. Whichever dosha is imbalanced in the body tends to reveal the current agni type of an individual. These agni types are known as:

1. Vishama Agni: This agni type is related to Vata dosha and typically shows an imbalance of wind in the body. Common symptoms would be gas, bloating and gurgling after food intake. The appetite and metabolism tends to fluctuate and be irregular. Constipation is common, and the digestion is variable. When ama accumulates in these individuals, a brownish-black coating will form on the tongue. Emotional imbalances that relate to Vishama agni tend to be anxiety, fear, insecurity, restless mind, spacey mind, and quickly fluctuating emotions.

If this sounds like your digestion type, find relief with Vata Honey Infusion.

2. Tikshna Agni: This agni type is in relation with Pitta dosha and will reveal an imbalance of fire in the body, caused by the hot, sharp, and penetrating qualities that this dosha possesses. Common symptoms include an over-active metabolism and hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). These individuals tend to have a sharp appetite that will lead to extreme crankiness if this hunger is not fulfilled. Once food is taken in, a person with Tikshna agni may experience heartburn, acid indigestion, dry mouth, hot flashes, and inflammation. Elimination tends to be over-active and typically is soft, loose, and at times even liquid. Ama accumulation will show as a yellowish, orange coating on the tongue. Emotional imbalance that are related will be anger, frustration, a quick temper, envy, jealousy, and judgmental tendencies.

If this sounds like your digestion type, find relief with Pitta Honey Infusion. 3. Manda Agni: This metabolic imbalance is linked to Kapha dosha and reveals a disruption of the water and earth element in the body. These individuals show symptoms of slow metabolism, excessive weight, allergies and an overall feeling of heaviness both physically and mentally. The appetite is typically quite low and skipping meals is never a problem. Although their food intake may be minimal, weight gain is consistent and losing weight is a difficult battle. After food intake, a feeling of heaviness and lethargy remains and nausea and congestion may occur. Elimination tends to be regular although may sometimes contain mucus or oil. The presence of ama in the system will show a thick, white coating on the tongue. Emotional imbalance will tend towards sadness, depression, dullness, foggy headed, overly emotional, greed and attachment. If this sounds like your digestion type, find relief with Kapha Honey Infusion. 4. Sama Agni: This agni type occurs when one is in complete balance and all three doshas remain in harmony. Digestive power is at full capacity and there are no unwanted symptoms after food intake. In fact, when one has Sama agni there is a feeling of vitality, energy, and fulfillment after a meal. These individuals can eat practically any type of food without any ill effect. Metabolism is balanced and elimination is regular. There is an overall state of Svastha (perfect health) and the emotions are in equilibrium. No ama is present in the system and the tongue will be clean of any coating. The mental state remains balanced and there is complete compassion, patience, calmness and clarity in the heart. Unfortunately it is quite rare to find an individual of this statute, although it is an obtainable goal with the proper guidance and discipline.

Types of Air are continental air - c maritime air - m Tropical air - T Polar air - P When each of the 4 properties above are combined, there are 4 possible choices for the types of air masses. maritime tropical (mT) continental tropical (cT) maritime polar (mP) maritime tropical (cP)

4 general air mass classifications categorized according to the source region. polar latitudes P - located poleward of 60 degrees north and south tropical latitudes T - located within about 25 degrees of the equator continental c - located over large land masses--dry marine m - located over the oceans----moist We can then make combinations of the above to describe various types of air masses. cP continental polar cold, dry, stable cT continental tropical hot, dry, stable air aloft--unstable surface air mP maritime polar cool, moist, and unstable mT maritime tropical warm, moist, usually unstable

There are four types of fronts Cold fronts, warm fronts, stationary fronts, and occluded fronts. Cold fronts replace warm air with colder air. They produce thunderstorms and then high pressure follows it and brings clearer weather. Warm fronts replace colder air with warmer air. They usually just bring clouds and a drizzle. Stationary front is a boundary between two "stationary" (not moving) air masses. They bring precipitation which can lasts a few days. Occluded front is when a cold front overtakes a warm front. It brings heavy precipitation and sometimes a thunderstorm.

Order in nature was also sought in the classification of the rocks. Robert Jameson (1774 – 1854), geologist and professor of natural history at the University of Edinburgh, gave in his book ‘Elements of Geognosy’ (1808; SWEET, 1976) four main groups:

————– 1. Primitive

————– 2. Transition/Floetz

————– 3. Alluvial

————– 4. Volcanic

The then-known (23) minerals were grouped according to age:

1. the oldest primitieve formations (molybdena, menachine, tin, scheele, cerium, tantalium, uran, chrome, bismuth);

2. old, primitive formations and newer mountains (arsenic, cobalt, nickel, silver, copper);

3. middle period (newer primitive, transition and old floetz (sedimentairy) rocks (gold, sylvan, antimony, manganese);

4. later period (lead, zinc, mercury). Iron is finally found in every rock (and therefore very young).

The name ‘geology’ was – just like ‘biology’ – invented in the first years of the nineteenth century, and won supremacy over the simultaneously introduced word ‘geognosy‘.

Phosphorus exists as several forms (allotropes) that exhibit strikingly different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus. Another form, scarlet phosphorus, is obtained by allowing a solution of white phosphorus in carbon disulfide to evaporate in sunlight. Black phosphorus is obtained by heating white phosphorus under high pressures (about 12,000 standard atmospheres or 1.2 gigapascals). The kinds of phosphorous are Square 1: White Square 2: Red (the duality) Square 3: Scarlet (violet) Square 4:Black- the different fourth Phosophorous is highly flammable and used in matches. Phosphorous was considered the morning star. P4 itself, White Phosphorous, has a tetrahedral shape. Boyle discovered Phosphorous while trying to discover how to turn metals to gold Phosphorous became a lucrative business because it was used for matches. Boyle set the stage for future chemistry and the pursuit of other important elements.

The Collège des Quatre-Nations ("College of the Four Nations"), also known as the Collège Mazarin after its founder, was one of the colleges of the historic University of Paris. It was founded through a bequest by the Cardinal Mazarin. At his death in 1661, he also bequeathed his library, the Bibliothèque Mazarine, which he had opened to scholars since 1643, to the Collège des Quatre-Nations. The name of the college alludes to the four nations of students at the medieval Parisian university. It was not intended for students of the historical university nations, but for those coming from territories which had recently come under French rule through the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659).[1] According to the Cardinal's will it was to have the following composition: Flanders, Artois, Hainaut, and Luxembourg (20 students); Alsace and other Germanic territories (15); Roussillon, Conflent, and Cerdagne (10); Pignerol and the Papal states Notable students of the college include the encyclopedist Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), the actor Henri Louis Cain (1728–1778), the painter Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825), the critic Julien Louis Geoffroy (1743–1814) and the chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794).,[3] the mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre

Lavoisier is considered the "Father of chemistry". He was the first chemist to recognize that the air earth fire and water model of the four elements was not suitable for describing the elements of nature (although we know that metaphorically it did describe reality). He is the first person to isolate oxygen and other elements and recognize that the four elements themselves were made of otherelements. He classified the known elements into four groups: Elastic fluids Lavoisier included light, heat, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in this group. Nonmetals This group includes "oxidizable and acidifiable nonmetallic elements". Lavoisier lists sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, and boric acid. Metals These elements are "metallic, oxidizable, and capable of neutralizing an acid to form a salt." They include antimony and arsenic (which are not considered metals today), silver, bismuth, cobalt, copper, tin, iron, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, gold, platinum, lead, tungsten, and zinc. Earths Lavoisier's salt-forming earthy solid "elements" included lime, magnesia (magnesium oxide), baryta (barium oxides), alumina (aluminum oxide), and silica (silicon dioxide). This was a huge leap forward in chemistry and a realization that there was order to the elements and grand pattern to the building blocks of reality. Although the way he classified them is now considered incorrect. This was the first modern classification of elements from which modern chemistry evolved. It fit the quadrant model pattern.

John Daltons four principles of atomic theory were

1. All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.

2. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

3. Atoms of different elements combine in whole number ratios, and more than one ratio is possible for a given combination of elements.

4. Each element is made of a different kind of atom, and the atoms of different elements have different masses.

Together with caesium and gold (both yellow), and osmium (bluish), copper is one of only four elemental metals with a natural color other than gray or silver.

The four founders of chemistry are considered to be Robert Boyle, John Dalton, Antoine Lavoisier, and Jöns Jacob Berzelius Berzelius is credited with identifying in his life four chemical elements silicon, selenium, thorium, and cerium. Berzelius worked all his life to do this. Silicon was the last element that he discovered. Silicon as I discussed is shaped as a quadrant with four valence electrons and is responsible for computers and computer chips and thus all technology.

Every chemistry student in the first year of chemistry has to learn to the periodic trends. They are Square 1: Electronegativity Square 2: Atomic radius Square 3: Ionization energy Square 4: Electron affinity- the fourth is different and it is not learned as much as the other three and you can infer it from the other three. The nature of the fourth.

There are certain phenomena that cause the periodic trends to occur. You must understand them before learning the trends.

Effective Nuclear Charge[edit]

The effective nuclear charge is the amount of positive charge acting on an electron. It is the number of protons in the nucleus minus the number of electrons in between the nucleus and the electron in question. Basically, the nucleus attracts an electron, but other electrons in lower shells repel it (opposites attract, likes repel).

Shielding Effect[edit]

The shielding (or screening) effect is similar to effective nuclear charge. The core electrons repel the valence electrons to some degree. The more electron shells there are (a new shell for each row in the periodic table), the greater the shielding effect is. Essentially, the core electrons shield the valence electrons from the positive charge of the nucleus.

Electron-Electron Repulsions[edit]

When two electrons are in the same shell, they will repel each other slightly. This effect is mostly canceled out due to the strong attraction to the nucleus, but it does cause electrons in the same shell to spread out a little bit. Lower shells experience this effect more because they are smaller and allow the electrons to interact more.

Coulomb's Law[edit]

Coulomb's law is an equation that determines the amount of force with which two charged particles attract or repel each other. It is F = \frac{k Q_1 Q_2}{r^2}, where Q is the amount of charge (+1e for protons, -1e for electrons), r is the distance between them, and k is a constant. You can see that doubling the distance would quarter the force. Also, a large number of protons would attract an electron with much more force than just a few protons would.

William Jensen reports, below, that Grimm and Dehlinger developed an early form of tetrahedron in the nineteen thirties. However, this knowledge appears to have been forgotten. The Grimm Tetrahedron symbolically reflects with the four vertices of a tetrahedron the four main types of bonding in solid chemical compounds: metallic (metallisch), ionic (heteropolar), van der Waals (molecular) & network (homopolar).

There are four basic types of bonds that can be formed between two or more (otherwise non-associated) molecules, ions or atoms. Intermolecular forces cause molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of the physical characteristics (such as the melting point) of a substance. A large difference in electronegativity between two bonded atoms will cause a permanent charge separation, or dipole, in a molecule or ion. Two or more molecules or ions with permanent dipoles can interact within dipole-dipole interactions. The bonding electrons in a molecule or ion will, on average, be closer to the more electronegative atom more frequently than the less electronegative one, giving rise to partial charges on each atom, and causing electrostatic forces between molecules or ions. A hydrogen bond is effectively a strong example of an interaction between two permanent dipoles. The large difference in electronegativities between hydrogen and any of fluorine, nitrogen and oxygen, coupled with their lone pairs of electrons cause strong electrostatic forces between molecules. Hydrogen bonds are responsible for the high boiling points of water and ammonia with respect to their heavier analogues. The London dispersion force arises due to instantaneous dipoles in neighbouring atoms. As the negative charge of the electron is not uniform around the whole atom, there is always a charge imbalance. This small charge will induce a corresponding dipole in a nearby molecule; causing an attraction between the two. The electron then moves to another part of the electron cloud and the attraction is broken. A cation–pi interaction occurs between a pi bond and a cation.

Laing's 1993 Tetrahedron of Bonding In 1993 Michael Laing published an expansion of the two dimensional van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle of bonding into a tetrahedron by dividing covalent materials into two types, Covalent Network and van der Waals Molecular: M. Laing, A Tetrahedron of Bonding, Education in Chemistry, November, pp160-163

Arthur M Young is an example of a physicist who dedicated works just to the fourfold. His works are literally permeated with fourfold that he has discovered.

Magnum opus Edit Main article: Magnum opus (alchemy) The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. nigredo, a blackening or melanosis albedo, a whitening or leucosis citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis[90]

Empedocles, a fifth-century BC Greek philosopher, identified Fire, Earth, Air, and Water as elements. He explained the nature of the universe as an interaction of two opposing principles called love and strife manipulating the four elements, and stated that these four elements were all equal, of the same age, that each rules its own province, and each possesses its own individual character. Different mixtures of these elements produced the different natures of things. Empedocles said that those who were born with near equal proportions of the four elements are more intelligent and have the most exact perceptions.[6] Each sign is associated with one of the classical elements,[7] and these can also be grouped according to polarity: Fire and Air signs are considered positive or extrovert, masculine signs; while Water and Earth signs are considered negative or introvert, feminine signs. The four astrological elements are also considered as a direct equivalent to Hippocrates' personality types (sanguine = air; choleric = fire; melancholic = water; phlegmatic = earth). A modern approach looks at elements as "the energy substance of experience"[8] and the next table tries to summarize their description through keywords.[9][10] Polarity Element Symbol[11] Keywords Signs Positive (self-expressive) Fire Alchemy fire symbol.svg Enthusiasm; drive to express self; faith Aries; Leo; Sagittarius Air Alchemy air symbol.svg Communication; socialization; conceptualization Gemini; Libra; Aquarius Negative (self-containing) Earth Alchemy earth symbol.svg Practicality; caution; material world Taurus; Virgo; Capricorn Water Alchemy water symbol.svg Emotion; empathy; sensitivity

Moseley showed that there were four gaps in the atomic number sequence at numbers 43, 61, 72, and 75. These spaces are now known, respectively, to be the places of the radioactive synthetic elements technetium and promethium, and also the last two quite rare naturally occurring stable elements hafnium (discovered 1923) and rhenium (discovered 1925). Nothing about these four elements was known of in Moseley's lifetime, not even their very existence. Based on the intuition of a very experienced chemist, Dmitri Mendeleev had predicted the existence of a missing element in the Periodic Table, which was later found to be filled by technetium, and Bohuslav Brauner had predicted the existence of another missing element in this Table, which was later found to be filled by promethium. Henry Moseley's experiments confirmed these predictions, by showing exactly what the missing atomic numbers were, 43 and 61. In addition, Moseley predicted the two more undiscovered elements, those with the atomic numbers 72 and 75, and gave very strong evidence that there were no other gaps in the Periodic Table between the elements aluminium (atomic number 13) and gold (atomic number 79). Moseley discovered atomic number determined the number of electrons and his findings were revolutionary in the periodic table.

The four predicted elements lighter than the rare earth elements, ekaboron (Eb), ekaaluminium (Ea), ekamanganese (Em), and ekasilicon (Es), proved to be good predictors of the properties of scandium, gallium, technetium and germanium respectively, which each fill the spot in the periodic table assigned by Mendeleev. Initial versions of the periodic table did not give the rare earth elements the treatment now given them, helping to explain both why Mendeleev’s predictions for heavier unknown elements did not fare as well as those for the lighter ones and why they are not as well known or documented

The LZ 129 Hindenburg rigid airship was powered by four Daimler-Benz DB 602 16-cylinder diesel engines, each with 1,200 hp (890 kW) available in bursts and 850 horsepower (630 kW) available for cruising. This airship is arguably the most famous airship in the world. four is the number of the quadrant and 16 is the number of the whole quadrant. It went up in flames, one of the most famous catastrophes ever. It fit the quadrant pattern.

The titanic was a four funneled liner or four stacker. It is one of the most famous ships in history. Its catastrophe is one of the most famous in history as well and a movie was made out of it. I do not think its a coincidence it was a four fuel liner ship, reflecting the quadrant four. A four funnel liner, four funnelled liner or four stacker is an ocean liner with four funnels. The SS Great Eastern, launched on 31 January 1858 (a full 40 years ahead of any comparable ships), was the only ocean liner to sport five funnels. As one funnel was later removed,[1] the Great Eastern, by default, became the first ocean liner to have four funnels. The SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, launched on 4 May 1897, was the next ocean liner to have four funnels and was one of the first of the golden era of ocean liners that became prominent in the early- to mid-20th century.[2] The most famous[citation needed] four funnel liners are the RMS Titanic, which sank after striking an iceberg on her maiden voyage on 14 April 1912, and the RMS Lusitania, which was torpedoed on 7 May 1915 during the First World War. In all, fifteen four funnel liners were built (five were built and owned by Germany, nine by the UK, and one by France): the Great Eastern in 1858 and the remaining fourteen between 1897 and 1922. Four of these were sunk during the World Wars, and apart from the Titanic, the remainder were scrapped.[3] RMS Mauretania was the fastest of all four funnelled liners. The last four funnelled liner ever built was the SS Windsor Castle but two funnels were removed making RMS Aquitania the last four funnel liner in service and the only one to survive service during both World Wars. HMHS Britannic was one of the largest of all the four funnel liners. Really 16 fuel liners have been thought to have been built. The 16th was supposed to have been built in Italy but it is a mystery if it was ever built. 16 is the fourth square of the fourth quadrant. 16 is always different.

Mihail Roco, one of the architects of the USA's National Nanotechnology Initiative, has proposed four states of nanotechnology that seem to parallel the technical progress of the Industrial Revolution, progressing from passive nanostructures to active nanodevices to complex nanomachines and ultimately to productive nanosystems

Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BC and had long been thought to be extinct.

Measurements by the COSAC and Ptolemy instruments on the Philae 's lander revealed sixteen organic compounds, four of which were seen for the first time on a comet, including acetamide, acetone, methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde

The first serious attempts to formulate a geological time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth were made in the late 18th century. The most influential of those early attempts (championed by Abraham Werner, among others) divided the rocks of Earth’s crust into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each type of rock, according to the theory, formed during a specific period in Earth history. It was thus possible to speak of a "Tertiary Period" as well as of "Tertiary Rocks." Indeed, "Tertiary" (now Paleogene and Neogene) and "Quaternary" (now Pleistocene and Holocene) remained in use as names of geological periods well into the 20th century.

Geologists generally group volcanoes into four main kinds--cinder cones, composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes, and lava domes. Shield volcanoes are distinguished from the three other major volcanic archetypes—stratovolcanoes, lava domes, and cinder cones—by their structural form, a consequence of their unique magmatic composition. Of these four forms shield volcanoes erupt the least viscous lavas

In geology or geography, the word "quadrangle" usually refers to a United States Geological Survey (USGS) 7.5-minute quadrangle map, which are usually named after a local physiographic feature. The shorthand "quad" is also used, especially with the name of the map; for example, "the Ranger Creek, Texas quad map". These maps are one-quarter of the older 15-minute series. On a quadrangle map, the north and south limits of the quadrangle are not straight lines, but are actually curved to match Earth's lines of latitude on the standard projection. The east and west limits are usually not parallel as they match Earth's lines of longitude. In the United States, a 7.5 minute quadrangle map covers an area of 49 to 70 square miles (130 to 180 km2). The surfaces of other planets have also been divided into quadrangles by the USGS. Martian quadrangles are also named after local features. Quadrangles that lie on the pole of a body are also sometimes called "areas" instead, since they are circular rather than four-sided.

Quadraphonic (or Quadrophonic and sometimes Quadrasonic) sound – similar to what is now called 4.0 surround sound – uses four channels in which speakers are positioned at the four corners of the listening space, reproducing signals that are (wholly or in part) independent of one another. Quadraphonic audio was the earliest consumer product in surround sound and thousands of quadraphonic recordings were made during the 1970s. It was a commercial failure due to many technical problems and format incompatibilities. Quadraphonic audio formats were more expensive to produce than standard two-channel stereo. Playback required additional speakers and specially designed decoders and amplifiers.

Biology Chapter

An outline of the logic world view of Lull as described in his ‘Tractatus de Astronomia‘ and interpreted by YATES (1954). The four elements are figured in the ‘elementa‘ in the figures of a square and a circle. The square figure (ABCD) has the sequence air – fire – earth and water. This sequence is dissimilar from the Tetrasomia (Doctrine of the Four Elements) of Empedocles: air (Zeus), earth (Hera), fire (Hades) and water (Nestis, Persephone). It is also differing from the ‘Aristotelian’ sequence of fire – air – water – earth and from the ‘quadralectic’ succession of fire – air – earth – water. The latter is the only one in which the sequence is connected with forms of visibility.

Troxler’s tetradic division of the organism as an expression of its main functions, is as follows (HEUSSER, 1984): SYSTEM of Spiration (Geist) SYSTEM of Reflexion SYSTEM of Circulation SYSTEM of Digestion (Seele) (Gemüt) (Leib) SYSTEM of Existence (Körper) Translated to the area of illnesses (pathology), the scheme – and subsequent the different types of illnesses – are as follows: Vitalpathologie (Geist) Virtualpathologie Humoralpathologie (Seele) (Leib) Solidarpathologie (Körper) The influence of von Schelling, who reached his creative zenith in the period between 1798 and 1803 (BROWN, 1977), was evident. The tetradic movement, with its geographic expressions of direction, became a contemporary philosophical tool. The four categories of nature: ——————————– Minerals (Inanimate matter) ——————————– Plants ——————————– Animals ——————————– Humans

The global language system is the "ingenious pattern of connections between language groups". Dutch sociologist Abram de Swaan developed this theory in 2001 in his book Words of the World: the global language system and according to him, "the multilingual connections between language groups do not occur haphazardly, but, on the contrary, they constitute a surprisingly strong and efficient network that ties together - directly or indirectly - the six billion inhabitants of the earth." The global language system draws upon the world system theory to account for the relationships between the world's languages and divides the world's languages into a hierarchy consisting of four levels, namely the

Square 1: peripheral,

Square 2: central,

Square 3: supercentral and

Square 4: hypercentral languages.

According to de Swaan, the global language system has been constantly evolving since the time period of the early 'military-agrarian' regimes.[1] Under these regimes, the rulers imposed their own language and so the first 'central' languages emerged, linking the peripheral languages of the agrarian communities via bilingual speakers to the language of the conquerors. Then was the formation of empires, which resulted in the next stage of integration of the world language system.

Firstly, Latin emerged from Rome. Under the rule of the Roman Empire, under which an extensive group of states were ruled by, the usage of Latin stretched along the Mediterranean coast, the southern half of Europe, and more sparsely to the North and then into the Germanic and Celtic lands. Thus, Latin evolved to become a central language in Europe from 27 BC to 476 AD.

Secondly, there was the widespread usage of the pre-classical version of Han Chinese in contemporary China due to the unification of China in 221 BC by Qin Shi Huang.

Thirdly, Sanskrit started to become widely spoken in South Asia from the widespread teaching of Hinduism and Buddhism in South Asian countries.

Fourthly, the expansion of the Arabic empire also lead to the increased usage of Arabic as a language in the Afro-Eurasian land mass.

Heilbron's version of the global system of language in translations has four levels:

Level 1: Hypercentral position — English currently holds the largest market share of the global market for translations; 55-60% of all book translations are from English. It strongly dominates the hierarchical nature of book translation system. Level 2: Central position — German and French each hold 10% of the global translation market. Level 3: Semi-central position — There are 7 or 8 languages "neither very central on a global level nor very peripheral", making up 1 to 3% of the world market (like Spanish, Italian and Russian). Level 4: Peripheral position — Languages from which" less than 1% of the book translations worldwide are made", including Chinese, Japanese and Arabic. Despite having large populations of speakers, "their role in the translation economy is peripheral as compared to more central languages". The fourth square is always different from the previous three

According to David Graddol (1997), in his book titled The Future of English, the languages of the world comprise a "hierarchical pyramid", as follows:[4] Square 1: The big languages: English, French. Square 2: Regional languages (languages of the United Nations are marked with asterisk): Arabic*, Chinese*, English*, French*, German, Russian*, Spanish*. Square 3: National languages: around 80 languages serving over 180 nation states. Square 4: Official languages within nation states (and other "safe" languages): around 600 languages worldwide (e.g. Marathi). The fourth is transcendent and different. Square 5: Local vernacular languages: the remainder of the world's 6,000+ languages. The fifth is ultra transcendent This model however has been replaced by the global language system model that I already mentioned which has four levles.

Charles FOURIER (1772 – 1837), developed his ‘Theorie des quatre mouvements et des destinées generales‘ (1808/ 1841). There is an analogy between four types of movements, according to Fourier: 1. Material (materiel); 2. Organic (organique); 3. Animal (animal) and 4. Social (social) or, like he called it, an ‘analogie des modifications de la matière avec la théorie mathematique des passions de l’homme et des animaux.’ His ‘ordre des creations‘ (order of creation) comprised four phases, which were regarded as ‘universal’

Fourier envisaged a quadruple method of division, which was applicable to all forms of creation:

1. Youth (Enfance ou incoherence ascendante).

This phase was subdivided in seven periods and lasted 1/16th of the human history, i.e. 5000 years. It ended with a sudden jump from chaos into harmony (‘saut de chaos en harmonie‘).

2. Gradual growing (Accroissement ou combinaison ascendante).

This phase consisted of nine periods with seven ‘creations harmoniques‘ lasting 4000 years. The total duration is 7/16th of the duration of (human) history or 35.000 years.

Halfway (because Fourier was still tied in the bonds of dualistic thinking) is an ‘apogée du bonheur’, which he called a ‘periode pivotale ou amphiharmonique‘ with a duration of about 8000 years.

3. Decline (Declin ou combinaison descente).

This phase also consisted of nine periods, with seven ‘creations harmoniques‘ (of 4000 years). Total duration is 7/16th of the human history or 35.000 years. The phase ended with a ‘saut d’harmonie en chaos‘.

4. Decay (Caducite ou incoherence descendante).

This last phase comprised seven periods, showing a ‘creation subversive posterieure‘. They are a mirror image of the first phase, but now there is a jump into chaos, agony and savagery, closing in a ‘series confusés‘. The duration of this period is 1/16th of the human history or 5000 years.

The ‘fin du monde animal et vegetal‘ takes place, according to Fourier, ‘apres une duree de 80.000 ans‘. In this case, he has not included the duration of 8000 years of his ‘periode pivotale‘. The main line of thinking in Fourier’s book about the ‘Theorie des Quatre Mouvements‘ (composed in 1807) was an ascending (‘vibration ascendante‘) and a descending movement (‘vibration descendante‘) in the ‘Ordre des creations’ (Order of Creation). This formal two-sided symmetry pointed to a dualistic rather then a tetradic mind of Fourier as a creative social inventor.

The French naturalist and zoologist Georges Cuvier (1769 – 1832) embodied another delegate of the new era. He arrived in Paris in 1795 and was eager to find a solution for the evolutionary problems of animals. He proposed, that the four main groups in nature –

Square 1: vertebrates,

Square 2: molluscs,

Square 3: articulata (insects) and

square 4: ‘radiata‘ (radial-symmetric animals) – developed themselves every time anew after a major catastrophe. The fourfold division was, according to Cuvier, the ‘ideal specification’ of nature (TOULMIN & GOODFIELD, 1965).

Cuvier’s rival, Lamarck (1744 – 1829), suggested – in a lecture in the year 1800 – a different solution. Not the catastrophes caused the changes, but the species changed themselves. He pointed to the four classes in the animal kingdom (mammals, birds, reptiles and fish) and their decreasing complexity. They could adapt themselves (within the classes) to changing circumstances. It is curious to note, that the term ‘biology’ was first used in the year 1800 to describe the science of plant- and animal kingdom (JORDANOVA, 1984). Apparently, the need for such a word arose at the time that the study of nature became a serious matter.

Cuvier is noted for his division of animals, not into vertebrates and invertebrates, but into four great embranchements: Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata (insects and crustaceans), and Radiata. Foucault (1966) considered this the real revolution in biology, by breaking the Great Chain of Being into four embranchements, and he felt that Darwin's subsequent revolution was minor in comparison.

Cuvier showed that animals possess so many diverse anatomical traits that they could not be arranged in a single linear system. Instead, he arranged animals into four large groups—vertebrates, mollusks, articulates, and radiates—each of which had a special type of anatomical organization. All animals within the same group were classified together, as he believed they were all modifications of one particular anatomical type. Although his classification is no longer used, Cuvier broke away from the 18th-century idea that all living things were arranged in a continuous series from the simplest up to man. The increasing theoretical differences between Geoffroy and Cuvier culminated in 1830 in a public debate in the Academy of Sciences over the degree to which the animal kingdom shared a uniform type of anatomical organization—in particular, whether vertebrates and mollusks belonged to the same type. Geoffroy thought that they did and that all animals, in fact, were representatives of only one type, whereas Cuvier insisted that his four types were completely distinct. At issue in their controversy was how to explain similarity and diversity in animals. Darwin’s doctrine of evolution eventually clarified this question by showing that similar animals were descended from common ancestors and that diversity meant that hereditary changes had occurred. Cuvier’s lifework may be considered as marking a transition between the 18th-century view of nature and the view that emerged in the last half of the 19th century as a result of the doctrine of evolution. By rejecting the 18th-century method of arranging animals in a continuous series in favour of classifying them in four separate groups, he raised the key question of why animals are anatomically different. Although Cuvier’s doctrine of catastrophism did not last, he did set the science of paleontology on a firm empirical foundation. He did this by introducing fossils into zoological classification, showing the progressive relation between rock strata and their fossil remains, and by demonstrating, in his comparative anatomy and his reconstructions of fossil skeletons, the importance of functional and anatomical relationships.

Many people, especially practitioners of Parkour and Freerunning and Georges Hébert's Natural Method,[3] find benefit in using quadrupedal movement in order to build full body strength. For added difficulty this can be done faster or slower, or more exaggerated and to the effect of a push-up, or down stairs. Moving quadrupedally exercises the entire anterior: thighs, core, shoulders, and triceps.

Kenichi Ito is a Japanese man who is famous for speed running on four limbs.

The superclass Tetrapoda (Ancient Greek τετραπόδηs tetrapodēs, "four-footed"), or the tetrapods /ˈtɛtrəpɒd/, comprises the first four-limbed vertebrates and their descendants, including the living and extinct amphibians, reptiles, mammals, birds, and some extinct fish Tetrapoda includes four classes: amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds.

JBS Haldane said when asked by a theologian "what can we infer from the mind of he creator by his creation". Haldane is a very famous biologist. He said "he has an inordinate fondness of beatles" because beatles are the most diverse species. However there are four orders of beatles so Aldane was correct, the quadrant model can be seen through them. There was a fifth order but it went extinct. The fifth is always questionable. They are Adephaga Archostemata Myxophaga Polyphaga † Protocoleoptera Many beetles were prominent in ancient cultures.[78] Of these, the most prominent might be the dung beetle in Ancient Egypt. Several species of dung beetle, most notably the species Scarabaeus sacer (often referred to as the sacred scarab), enjoyed a sacred status among the ancient Egyptians.[79] Popular interpretation in modern academia theorizes the hieroglyphic image of the beetle represents a triliteral phonetic that Egyptologists transliterate as xpr or ḫpr and translate as "to come into being", "to become", or "to transform". And the fourth order is different from the other three. The scarab was linked to Khepri ("he who has come into being"), the god of the rising sun. The ancients believed the dung beetle was only male in gender, and reproduced by depositing semen into a dung ball. The supposed self-creation of the beetle resembles that of Khepri, who created himself out of nothing. Moreover, the dung ball rolled by a dung beetle resembles the sun. It is no coincidence the group representing becoming (the 19th square) reflects the quadrant pattern

C4 carbon fixation is one of three biochemical processes, along with C3 and CAM photosynthesis, used to fix carbon. It is named for the 4-carbon molecule present in the first product of carbon fixation in the small subset of plants that use that process, in contrast to the 3-carbon molecule products in C3 plants.

C4 fixation is an elaboration of the more common C3 carbon fixation and is believed to have evolved more recently. C4 and CAM overcome the tendency of the enzyme RuBisCO to wastefully fix oxygen rather than carbon dioxide in the process of photorespiration. This is achieved in a more efficient environment for RubisCo by shuttling CO2 via malate or aspartate from mesophyll cells to bundle-sheath cells. In these bundle-sheath cells, RuBisCO is isolated from atmospheric oxygen and saturated with the CO2 released by decarboxylation of the malate or oxaloacetate. These additional steps, however, require more energy in the form of ATP. Because of this extra energy requirement, C4 plants are able to more efficiently fix carbon in only certain conditions, with the more common C3 pathway being more efficient in other conditions.

The four field approach in anthropology sees the discipline as composed of the four subfields of Archaeology, Linguistics, Physical Anthropology and Cultural anthropology. The approach is conventionally understood as having been developed by Franz Boas who developed the discipline of anthropology in the United States.[1][2] A recent[when?] re-assessment of the evidence has indicated that the idea of four-field anthropology has a more complex 19th-century history in Europe and North America.[3] For Boas the four field approach was motivated by his holistic approach to the study of human behavior which included integrated analytical attention to culture history, material culture, anatomy and population history, customs and social organization, folklore, grammar and language use.

The four-α-helix bundle family: member cytokines have three-dimensional structures with four bundles of α-helices. This family, in turn, is divided into three sub-families:

the IL-2 subfamily

the interferon (IFN) subfamily

the IL-10 subfamily.

The first of these three, the IL-2 subfamily, is the largest. It contains several non-immunological cytokines including erythropoietin (EPO) and thrombopoietin (TPO). Furthermore, four-α-helix bundle cytokines can be grouped into long-chain and short-chain cytokines.

Theodor Boveri’s major intellectual contribution was his focus on the causality of nuclear chromosomal determinants for embryological development. His initial experimental attempt to demonstrate that the character of the developing embryo is determined by nuclear rather than cytoplasmic factors was launched in 1889. The experimental design was to fertilize enucleate sea urchin eggs with sperm of another species that produces a distinguishably different embryonic morphology. Boveri’s “hybrid merogone” experiment provided what he initially thought was empirical evidence for the nuclear control of development. The reason he used sea urchins was because they very readily give up sperm. Regular sea urchins have five gonads, lying underneath the interambulacral regions of the test, while the irregular forms have only four, with the hindmost gonad being absent. There is the four with the questionable fifth gonad Each gonad has a single duct rising from the upper pole to open at a gonopore lying in one of the genital plates surrounding the anus. The gonads are lined with muscles underneath the peritoneum, and these allow the animal to squeeze its gametes through the duct and into the surrounding sea water where fertilization takes place. This is a legendary experiment in biology that lead to the discovery of chromosomes and genes

Griffith's experiment, reported in 1928 by Frederick Griffith, was the first experiment suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation. This experiment was revolutionary to the discovery of DNA and gene transference. The experiment fit the quadrant model pattern. Griffith tried four things. Square 1: He injected a mouse with a non virulent bacteria and it lived Square 2: He injected a mouse with a virulent bacteria and it died Square 3: He injected the mouse with the virulent bacteria and heated it thinking it would kill the virulent part of the bacteria and the mouse lived Square 4: This was the transcendent square and was the shock of the experiment which lead to the revelation. The fourth square is always transcendent. Griffith then injected the mouse with the heated virulent bacteria and the non virulent bacteria. Since both of them had not killed the mouse he thought the mouse would survive. But he found that the mouse died and he found deadly bacteria in their blood. This means that the genes of the bacteria must have carried the DNA although Griffith did not know this and it took until the discovery of genes for this to be understood. He discovered something in the heated bacteria survived and transformed into killer cells. He had discovered genes and gene transfer. This experiment is one of the most legendary experiments in biology history. It is no coincidence that the quadrant model is reflected.

Sponges have also been very important in the study of biology and cells. Sponges were traditionally distributed in three classes: calcareous sponges (Calcarea), glass sponges (Hexactinellida) and demosponges (Demospongiae). However, studies have shown that the Homoscleromorpha, a group thought to belong to the Demospongiae, is actually phylogenetically well separated. Therefore, they have recently been recognized as the fourth class of sponges. The fourth is always different. Sponges are divided into classes mainly according to the composition of their skeletons: Type of cells[10] Spicules[10] Spongin fibers[10] Massive exoskeleton[20] Body form[10] Calcarea Single nucleus, single external membrane Calcite May be individual or large masses Never Common. Made of calcite if present. Asconoid, syconoid, leuconoid or solenoid[21] Hexactinellida Mostly syncytia in all species Silica May be individual or fused Never Never Leuconoid Demospongiae Single nucleus, single external membrane Silica In many species In some species. Made of aragonite if present.[8][20] Leuconoid Homoscleromorpha Single nucleus, single external membrane Silica In many species Never Sylleibid or leuconoid

As the major defining characteristic of the eukaryotic cell, the nucleus' evolutionary origin has been the subject of much speculation. Four major hypotheses have been proposed to explain the existence of the nucleus, although none have yet earned widespread support.[67]

The first model known as the "syntrophic model" proposes that a symbiotic relationship between the archaea and bacteria created the nucleus-containing eukaryotic cell. (Organisms of the Archaea and Bacteria domain have no cell nucleus.[68]) It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea, similar to modern methanogenic archaea, invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria, eventually forming the early nucleus. This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto-eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria.[69] The archaeal origin of the nucleus is supported by observations that archaea and eukarya have similar genes for certain proteins, including histones. Observations that myxobacteria are motile, can form multicellular complexes, and possess kinases and G proteins similar to eukarya, support a bacterial origin for the eukaryotic cell.[70]

A second model proposes that proto-eukaryotic cells evolved from bacteria without an endosymbiotic stage. This model is based on the existence of modern planctomycetes bacteria that possess a nuclear structure with primitive pores and other compartmentalized membrane structures.[71] A similar proposal states that a eukaryote-like cell, the chronocyte, evolved first and phagocytosed archaea and bacteria to generate the nucleus and the eukaryotic cell.[72]

The most controversial model, known as viral eukaryogenesis, posits that the membrane-bound nucleus, along with other eukaryotic features, originated from the infection of a prokaryote by a virus. The suggestion is based on similarities between eukaryotes and viruses such as linear DNA strands, mRNA capping, and tight binding to proteins (analogizing histones to viral envelopes). One version of the proposal suggests that the nucleus evolved in concert with phagocytosis to form an early cellular "predator".[73] Another variant proposes that eukaryotes originated from early archaea infected by poxviruses, on the basis of observed similarity between the DNA polymerases in modern poxviruses and eukaryotes.[74][75] It has been suggested that the unresolved question of the evolution of sex could be related to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis.[76] A more recent proposal, the exomembrane hypothesis, suggests that the nucleus instead originated from a single ancestral cell that evolved a second exterior cell membrane; the interior membrane enclosing the original cell then became the nuclear membrane and evolved increasingly elaborate pore structures for passage of internally synthesized cellular components such as ribosomal subunits.

Ideas about heredity and evolution are undergoing a revolutionary change. New findings in molecular biology challenge the gene-centered version of Darwinian theory according to which adaptation occurs only through natural selection of chance DNA variations. In Evolution in Four Dimensions, Eva Jablonka and Marion Lamb argue that there is more to heredity than genes. They trace four "dimensions" in evolution -- four inheritance systems that play a role in evolution: genetic, epigenetic (or non-DNA cellular transmission of traits), behavioral, and symbolic (transmission through language and other forms of symbolic communication). These systems, they argue, can all provide variations on which natural selection can act.

JBS Haldane was a famous biologist. He said about his idea that life could form without a creator "I suppose the process of acceptance will pass through the usual four stages: i) This is worthless nonsense, ii) This is an interesting, but perverse, point of view, iii) This is true, but quite unimportant, iv) I always said so."

Like the cells within plants and animals, these protocells have four stages in their division process, Sugawara says. The real living cells and the protocells both have a replication stage and division stage. But instead of two growth phases, these protocells have an “ingestion” stage, in which they take in substances from their surroundings, and a “maturity” stage. Scientists think that protocells can prove that life evolved from a single common ancestor

Tetrahymena are free-living ciliate protozoa that can also switch from commensalistic to pathogenic modes of survival. They are common in freshwater ponds. Tetrahymena species used as model organisms in biomedical research are T. thermophila and T. pyriformis. tetra hymena means four membrane. Tetrahymena possess hundreds of cilia and has complicated microtubule structures, making it an optimal model to illustrate the diversity and functions of microtubule arrays. Tetra means four. They have four nuclei. Studies on Tetrahymena have contributed to several scientific milestones including: First cell which showed synchronized division, which led to the first insights into the existence of mechanisms which control the cell cycle.[3] Identification and purification of the first cytoskeleton based motor protein such as dynein.[3] Aid in the discovery of lysosomes and peroxisomes.[3] Early molecular identification of somatic genome rearrangement.[3] Discovery of the molecular structure of telomeres, telomerase enzyme, the templating role of telomerase RNA and their roles in cellular senescence and chromosome healing (for which a Nobel Prize was won).[3] Nobel Prize–winning co-discovery (1989, in Chemistry) of catalytic ribonucleic acid (ribozyme).[3] Discovery of the function of histone acetylation.[3] Demonstration of the roles of posttranslational modification such as acetylation and glycylation on tubulins and discovery of the enzymes responsible for some of these modifications (glutamylation) Crystal structure of 40S ribosome in complex with its initiation factor eIF1 First demonstration that two of the "universal" stop codons, UAA and UAG, will code for the amino acid glutamine in some eukaryotes, leaving UGA as the only termination codon in these organisms. [4] Discovery of self-splicing RNA. [5]

In molecular biology and genetics, translation is the process in which cellular ribosomes create proteins. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA)—produced by transcription from DNA—is decoded by a ribosome to produce a specific amino acid chain, or polypeptide. The polypeptide later folds into an active protein and performs its functions in the cell. The ribosome facilitates decoding by inducing the binding of complementary tRNA anticodon sequences to mRNA codons. The tRNAs carry specific amino acids that are chained together into a polypeptide as the mRNA passes through and is "read" by the ribosome. The entire process is a part of gene expression. In brief, translation proceeds in four phases: Square 1: Initiation: The ribosome assembles around the target mRNA. The first tRNA is attached at the start codon. Square 2: Elongation: The tRNA transfers an amino acid to the tRNA corresponding to the next codon. Square 3: Translocation: The ribosome then moves (translocates) to the next mRNA codon to continue the process, creating an amino acid chain. Square 4: Termination: When a stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the polypeptide.

The genetic code is traditionally represented as an RNA codon table which reflects the quadrant model image with 16 defined squares and amino acids within these squares.

The codon table reflects the quadrant model with the 16 squares.

Penicillin, which is an antibiotic transformed the world because it made it possible to fight bacterial infections. Bacteria constantly remodel their peptidoglycan cell walls, simultaneously building and breaking down portions of the cell wall as they grow and divide. β-Lactam antibiotics inhibit the formation of peptidoglycan cross-links in the bacterial cell wall; this is achieved through binding of the four-membered β-lactam ring of penicillin to the enzyme DD-transpeptidase. As a consequence, DD-transpeptidase cannot catalyze formation of these cross-links, and an imbalance between cell wall production and degradation develops, causing the cell to rapidly die. The four-membered ring makes one think of the quadrant. The key structural feature of the penicillins is the four-membered β-lactam ring; this structural moiety is essential for penicillin's antibacterial activity In 1945 the chemical structure of penicillin was determined using X-ray crystallography by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, who was also working at Oxford. She later received the Nobel prize for this and other structure determinations.

Professionals use the 4 quadrant model as a diagnostic tool to help determine correct treatment recommendations. As the name would indicate, the tool is based on a 4 box model, and every person with a co-occurring disorder will fall into one of the 4 quadrants. Once you identify your quadrant you can narrow your focus onto treatment options that make the most sense for you. The 4 Quadrants Are:1 Quadrant 1 – Less severe substance use disorder and less severe mental health disorder Quadrant 2 – More serious mental health disorder and less severe substance use disorder Quadrant 3 – More serious substance use disorder and less severe mental health disorder Quadrant 4 – Severe mental health disorder and severe substance use disorder

The four major rivers in Africa are:

- The Nile River

- The Niger River

- The Congo River

- The Zambezi River

Giraffes have four stomachs Ruminants are animals that have a 4 chambered stomach, meaning they have one stomach with four divisions. Ruminants include some large animals that chew grass or leaves, such as cows and sheep. It is sometimes believed that almost any animal that chews grass or leaves is a ruminant with four stomachs but this is certainly not the case. Herbivorous marsupials are not ruminants; nor are rabbits and hares, or camels, ll

A tetra is one of several species of small freshwater fish from Africa, Central America and South America belonging to the biological family Characidae and to its former subfamilies Alestidae (the "African tetras") and Lebiasinidae. The Characidae are distinguished from other fish by the presence of a small adipose fin between the dorsal and caudal fins. Many of these, such as the neon tetra (Paracheirodon innesi), are brightly colored and easy to keep in captivity. Consequently, they are extremely popular for home aquaria. Tetra is no longer a taxonomic, phylogenetic term. It is short for Tetragonopterus, a genius name formerly applied to many of these fish, which is Greek for "square-finned" (literally, four-sided-wing). Because of the popularity of tetras in the fishkeeping hobby, many unrelated fish are commonly known as tetras, including species from different families. Even vastly different fish may be called tetras. For example, payara (Hydrolycus scomberoides) is occasionally known as the "sabretooth tetra" or "vampire tetra". Tetras generally have compressed (sometimes deep), fusiform bodies and are typically identifiable by their fins. They ordinarily possess a homocercal caudal fin (a twin-lobbed, or forked, tail fin whose upper and lower lobes are of equal size) and a tall dorsal fin characterized by a short connection to the fish’s body.[2] Additionally, tetras possess a long anal fin stretching from a position just posterior of the dorsal fin and ending on the ventral caudal peduncle, and a small, fleshy adipose fin located dorsally between the dorsal and caudal fins. This adipose fin represents the fourth unpaired fin on the fish (the four unpaired fins include the caudal fin, dorsal fin, anal fin, and adipose fin), lending to the name tetra, which is Greek for four.[2] While this adipose fin is generally considered the distinguishing feature, some tetras (such as the emperor tetras, Nematobrycon palmeri) lack this appendage. Ichthyologists debate the function of the adipose fin, doubting its role in swimming due to its small size and lack of stiffening rays or spines.[3]

rainbow tetra, Nematobrycon lacortei rainbow tetra, Nematobrycon palmeri red eye tetra, Moenkhausia sanctaefilomenae Red Phantom Tetra, Hyphessobrycon sweglesi red tetra, Hyphessobrycon flammeus redspotted tetra, Copeina guttata rosy tetra, Hyphessobrycon bentosi rosy tetra, Hyphessobrycon rosaceus royal tetra, Inpaichthys kerri ruby tetra, Axelrodia riesei rummy-nose tetra, Hemigrammus rhodostomus (bleheri) sailfin tetra, Crenuchus spilurus savage tetra, Hyphessobrycon savagei savanna tetra, Hyphessobrycon stegemanni semaphore tetra, Pterobrycon myrnae serpae tetra, Hyphessobrycon eques sharptooth tetra, Micralestes acutidens silver tetra, Ctenobrycon spilurus silver tetra, Gymnocorymbus thayeri silver tetra, Micralestes acutidens silvertip tetra, Hasemania melanura

Tetra species: A–D

Adonis tetra, Lepidarchus adonis

African long-finned tetra, Brycinus longipinnis

African moon tetra, Bathyaethiops caudomaculatus

Arnold's tetra, Arnoldichthys spilopterus

banded tetra, Astyanax fasciatus

bandtail tetra, Moenkhausia dichroura

barred glass tetra, Phenagoniates macrolepis

beacon tetra, Hemigrammus ocellifer

Belgian flag tetra, Hyphessobrycon heterorhabdus

black darter tetra, Poecilocharax weitzmani

black morpho tetra, Poecilocharax weitzmani

black neon tetra, Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi

black phantom tetra, Hyphessobrycon megalopterus

black tetra or butterfly tetra, Gymnocorymbus ternetzi

black tetra, Gymnocorymbus thayer

black wedge tetra, Hemigrammus pulcher

blackband tetra, Hyphessobrycon scholzei

blackedge tetra, Tyttocharax madeirae

black-flag tetra, Hyphessobrycon rosaceus

black-jacket tetra, Moenkhausia takasei

blackline tetra, Hyphessobrycon scholzei

bleeding heart tetra, Hyphessobrycon erythrostigma

bleeding heart tetra, Hyphessobrycon socolofi

blind tetra, Stygichthys typhlops

goldencrown tetra, Aphyocharax alburnus

bloodfin tetra, Aphyocharax anisitsi

blue tetra, Boehlkea fredcochui

blue tetra, Mimagoniates microlepis

blue tetra, Tyttocharax madeirae

brass tetra, Hemigrammus rodwayi

brilliant rummynose tetra, Hemigrammus bleheri

bucktooth tetra, Exodon paradoxus

Buenos Aires tetra, Hyphessobrycon anisitsi

Callistus tetra, Hyphessobrycon eques

calypso tetra, Hyphessobrycon axelrodi

cardinal tetra, Paracheirodon axelrodi

Carlana tetra, Carlana eigenmanni

Cochu's blue tetra, Knodus borki

central tetra, Astyanax aeneus

coffee-bean tetra, Hyphessobrycon takasei

Colcibolca tetra, Astyanax nasutus

Congo tetra, Phenacogrammus interruptus

copper tetra, Hasemania melanura

Costello tetra, Hemigrammus hyanuary

creek tetra, Bryconamericus scleroparius

creek tetra, Bryconamericus terrabensis

croaking tetra, Mimagoniates inequalis

croaking tetra, Mimagoniates lateralis

dawn tetra, Aphyocharax paraguayensis

dawn tetra, Hyphessobrycon eos

diamond tetra, Moenkhausia pittieri

discus tetra, Brachychalcinus orbicularis

disk tetra, Myleus schomburgkii

dragonfin tetra, Pseudocorynopoma doriae

E–Q

ember tetra, Hyphessobrycon amandae

emperor tetra, Nematobrycon palmeri

false black tetra, Gymnocorymbus thayeri

false neon tetra, Paracheirodon simulans

false red nose tetra, Petitella georgiae

false rummynose tetra, Petitella georgiae

featherfin tetra, Hemigrammus unilineatus

firehead tetra, Hemigrammus bleheri

flag tetra, Hyphessobrycon heterorhabdus

flame tail tetra, Aphyocharax erythrurus

flame tetra, Hyphessobrycon flammeus

garnet tetra, Hemigrammus pulcher

glass tetra, Moenkhausia oligolepis

glass bloodfin tetra, Prionobrama filigera

glossy tetra, Moenkhausia oligolepis

glowlight tetra, Hemigrammus erythrozonus

gold tetra, Hemigrammus rodwayi

golden tetra, Hemigrammus rodwayi

goldencrown tetra, Aphyocharax alburnus

goldspotted tetra, Hyphessobrycon griemi

gold-tailed tetra, Carlastyanax aurocaudatus

green dwarf tetra, Odontocharacidium aphanes

green neon tetra, Paracheirodon simulans

green tetra, Paracheirodon simulans

Griem's tetra, Hyphessobrycon griemi

Head & Taillight tetra, Hemigrammus ocellifer

Hy511 tetra, Hyphessobrycon sp.

January tetra, Hemigrammus hyanuary

Jellybean tetra, Lepidarchus adonis

jewel tetra, Hyphessobrycon eques jumping tetra, Hemibrycon tridens largespot tetra, Astyanax orthodus lemon tetra, Hyphessobrycon pulchripinnis longfin tetra, Brycinus longipinnis

Gene control regions Start site. A start site for transcription. A promoter. A region a few hundred nucleotides 'upstream' of the gene (toward the 5' end). It is not transcribed into mRNA, but plays a role in controlling the transcription of the gene. Transcription factors bind to specific nucleotide sequences in the promoter region and assist in the binding of RNA polymerases. Enhancers. Some transcription factors (called activators) bind to regions called 'enhancers' that increase the rate of transcription. These sites may be thousands of nucleotides from the coding sequences or within an intron. Some enhancers are conditional and only work in the presence of other factors as well as transcription factors. Silencers. Some transcription factors (called repressors) bind to regions called 'silencers' that depress the rate of transcription.

Calvin cycle four steps 1. Grab: A five-carbon carbon catcher catches one molecule of carbon dioxide and forms a six-carbon molecule. 2. Split: the enzyme RuBisCO (with the energy of ATP and NADPH molecules) breaks the six-carbon molecule into two equal parts. 3. Leave: A trio of three carbons leave and become sugar. The other trio moves on to the next step. 4. Switch: Using ATP and NADPH, the three carbon molecule is changed into a five carbon molecule.

There are three stop codons and one start codon among the amino acids. The fourth is always different

Translation In translation the mature mRNA molecule is used as a template to assemble a series of amino acids to produce a polypeptide with a specific amino acid sequence. The complex in the cytoplasm at which this occurs is called a ribosome. Ribosomes are a mixture of ribosomal proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and consist of a large subunit and a small subunit. Translation involves four steps: Initiation. The small subunit of the ribosome binds at the 5' end of the mRNA molecule and moves in a 3' direction until it meets a start codon (AUG). It then forms a complex with the large unit of the ribosome complex and an initiation tRNA molecule. Elongation. Subsequent codons on the mRNA molecule determine which tRNA molecule linked to an amino acid binds to the mRNA. An enzyme peptidyl transferase links the amino acids together using peptide bonds. The process continues, producing a chain of amino acids as the ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule. Termination. Translation in terminated when the ribosomal complex reached one or more stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA). The ribosomal complex in eukaryotes is larger and more complicated than in prokaryotes. In addition, the processes of transcription and translation are divided in eukaryotes between the nucleus (transcription) and the cytoplasm (translation), which provides more opportunities for the regulation of gene expression. Post-translation processing of the protein

Transcription involves four steps: Initiation. The DNA molecule unwinds and separates to form a small open complex. RNA polymerase binds to the promoter of the template strand. Elongation. RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, synthesising an mRNA molecule. In prokaryotes RNA polymerase is a holoenzyme consisting of a number of subunits, including a sigma factor (transcription factor) that recognises the promoter. In eukaryotes there are three RNA polymerases: I, II and III. The process includes a proofreading mechanism. Termination. In prokaryotes there are two ways in which transcription is terminated. In Rho-dependent termination, a protein factor called "Rho" is responsible for disrupting the complex involving the template strand, RNA polymerase and RNA molecule. In Rho-independent termination, a loop forms at the end of the RNA molecule, causing it to detach itself. Termination in eukaryotes is more complicated, involving the addition of additional adenine nucleotides at the 3' of the RNA transcript (a process referred to as polyadenylation). Processing. After transcription the RNA molecule is processed in a number of ways: introns are removed and the exons are spliced together to form a mature mRNA molecule consisting of a single protein-coding sequence. RNA synthesis involves the normal base pairing rules, but the base thymine is replaced with the base uracil.

Dragonflies are known for their amazing flying abilities. More than any creature in the world, their capacities when flying are seen as incredible. They have four wings. They have four different styles of flight: A number of flying modes are used that include counter-stroking, with forewings beating 180° out of phase with the hindwings, is used for hovering and slow flight. This style is efficient and generates a large amount of lift; phased-stroking, with the hindwings beating 90° ahead of the forewings, is used for fast flight. This style creates more thrust, but less lift than counter-stroking; synchronised-stroking, with forewings and hindwings beating together, is used when changing direction rapidly, as it maximises thrust; and gliding, with the wings held out, is used in three situations: free gliding, for a few seconds in between bursts of powered flight; gliding in the updraft at the crest of a hill, effectively hovering by falling at the same speed as the updraft; and in certain dragonflies such as darters, when "in cop" with a male, the female sometimes simply glides while the male pulls the pair along by beating his wings. Southern hawker, Aeshna cyanea: its wings at this instant are synchronised for agile flight. The wings are powered directly, with the flight muscles attached to the wing bases. Dragonflies have a high power/weight ratio, and have been documented accelerating at 4 G linearly and 9 G in sharp turns while pursuing prey. Dragonflies generate lift in at least four ways at different times, including classical lift like an aircraft wing; supercritical lift with the wing above the critical angle, generating high lift and using very short strokes to avoid stalling; creating vortices; and vortex shedding. Some families appear to use special mechanisms, as for example the Libellulidae which take off rapidly, their wings beginning pointed far forward and twisted almost vertically. Dragonfly wings behave highly dynamically during flight, flexing and twisting during each beat. Among the variables are wing curvature, length and speed of stroke, angle of attack, forward/back position of wing, and phase relative to the other wings. Dragonflies' flight capabilities are prodigious. They dash, they dart, they manoeuvre, they cross oceans. At least four distinct flight styles are recognised in Odonata: counter-stroking (where fore- and hind-wings move up and down about 180 degrees out of phase), phased-stroking (where the hind-wings cycle about 90 degrees - a quarter cycle - before the fore-wings), synchronised-stroking (where fore- and hind-wings move in unison), and gliding (the fourth is different). Counter-stroking is the normal mode for Zygoptera except some Calopterygidae, and for Anisoptera when they are hovering or flying very slowly. This is a very powerful and efficient way of flying and generates a lot of lift. Phased-stroking is used by Anisoptera when flying about. This method generates more thrust but less lift than counter-stroking. Synchronised-stroking is used by Anisoptera when maximising thrust to change direction quickly. It is also used by calopterygid Zygoptera as a display flight, showing off the coloured wings. Gliding is used by some Anisoptera and a few of the very largest Zygoptera (mostly in the family Pseudostigmatidae). Three kinds of gliding can be recognised: free gliding, where an animal just stops stroking with its wings and glides slowly down for a few seconds; updraft gliding at hill crests, where the animal adjusts its wing positioning to float in the air without the need to beat its wings; and gliding in towed females, where a female in the wheel position holds her wings out and glides while the male provides the motive force. The reason dragonflies are such great fliers is because they need to catch their pray on the wing, one of the only insects that does that. Their flight fits the quadrant model pattern.

The four-spotted chaser (Libellula quadrimaculata), known in North America as the four-spotted skimmer, is a dragonfly of the family Libellulidae found frequently throughout Europe, Asia, and North America.

The adult stage is found between April to early September in the United Kingdom, and from mid-May to mid-August in Ireland. Larvae have a two year developmental cycle. Adults feed predominantly on mosquitoes, gnats and midges;[1] the larvae feed primarily on other aquatic insect larvae and on tadpoles.

There is a variant form, praenubila Newman, which has exaggerated wing spots. This is believed to be related to water temperatures during larval development, and appears to be more common in Europe than in the Americas.

The four-spotted skimmer is the state insect of Alaska.

Both sexes are prolific fliers and mating takes place in the air, rather than on perches or amongst the vegetation. The female lays her eggs on floating vegetation. They tend to be easier to approach than Broad-bodied Chasers.

Butterfly adults are characterized by their four scale-covered wings, which give the Lepidoptera their name (Ancient Greek λεπίς lepís, scale + πτερόν pterón, wing). These scales give butterfly wings their colour: they are pigmented with melanins that give them blacks and browns, as well as uric acid derivatives and flavones that give them yellows, but many of the blues, greens, reds and iridescent colours are created by structural coloration produced by the micro-structures of the scales and hairs. Butterflies tend to walk on four legs

Wine tasting is a huge thing for a lot of people There are four recognized stages to wine tasting: appearance "in glass" the aroma of the wine "in mouth" sensations "finish" (aftertaste)

Psychology Chapter

Charles Fourier distinguished four main types of feelings in his analysis of the human mind: 1. Feelings of unity; this type was called (with a neologism) the unityisme. It was presented as a tree trunk, with three main branches: 2. Feelings of luxury; linked with the desires of the five senses. 3. Feelings of the group or ‘affective passions’ consisting of four groups: —————- 3.1. need for respect (honor) —————- 3.2. need for friendship —————- 3.3. need for love —————- 3.4. need for parenthood 4. Feelings of continuity, also called the serial or distributive, consisting of three groups: ————— 4.1. need to arrange (concordant) ————— 4.2. need to intrigue (discordant) ————— 4.3. need for variety

The Hermann grid illusion is probably the most famous perceptual illusions. I discussed that perception is the first quadrant of the quadrant model (the second square of the first quadrant) and therefore it is kind of weird and should not be entirely trusted. A grid illusion is any kind of grid that deceives a person's vision. The two most common types of grid illusions are the Hermann grid illusion and the scintillating grid illusion. A grid illusion is any kind of grid that deceives a person's vision. The two most common types of grid illusions are the Hermann grid illusion and the scintillating grid illusion. Some patterns to prove, that a new visibility (induced brightness) appears on the junctions of a grid – if the dimensions are chosen properly: A) Grey squares at the intersections of the white lines; B) The same effect against a grey background. C) The effect is lost due to distance; D) A reversal of A) with the same effect. ‘Such effects induced by the grids – often called Hermann grids – are not completely understood’ stated MURCH (1973, p. 225), ‘although the mechanism of lateral inhibition certainly plays a part The grids in the grid illusion represent quadrants. The scintillating grid illusion is an optical illusion, discovered by E. Lingelbach in 1994, that is usually considered a variation of the Hermann grid illusion. It is constructed by superimposing white discs on the intersections of orthogonal gray bars on a black background. Dark dots seem to appear and disappear rapidly at random intersections, hence the label "scintillating". When a person keeps his or her eyes directly on a single intersection, the dark dot does not appear. The dark dots disappear if one is too close to or too far from the image.

Stuart Anstis was my professor at a "sensation and perception" class at UCSD. He invented an illusion involving two quadrants that he moves in circular fashion that nobody quite understands why it works. The same goes for the Hermann grid illusion. Anstis has invented a variety of illusions around the quadrant pattern and strange phenomena that occur with the perception of sight in relation to quadrants. I do not think it is a coincidence that the quadrant pattern evokes intriguing illusions. That is because the quadrant is the form of existence. In one of Anstis's illusions you look directly at the red dots and yellow dots as they move; you'll see that they really are moving horizontally, back and forth across the pattern that resembles a quadrant image. Next, look away from the dots - you may have to look quite far away depending on the size of the movie - you really want to watch the clip out of the corner of your eye. When you do that, you now should see that the dots don't seem to be moving horizontally at all! Instead they seem to move diagonally around the screen, following the path of the black and white lines. Presumably, the difference in percept is related to the fact that we have much larger receptive fields in the periphery, and, as such, the precision of our motion tracking systems would be reduced there. In that case, the visual system seems to rely on other, more clearly defined information for guidance - here the high contrast black and white lines, the orientation of which remains easy to see even in the periphery.

Dr. Bob Rhondell Gibson, author of Notes on Personal Integration and Health and often recognized as a psychic healer, hypothesized the existence of four tiers of extrasensory awareness. Beyond being more applicable to internal states rather than reactions to the external environment, these stages contrast markedly with the previously mentioned modern theories through their emphasis on humankind's immediate interactions.[21] Gibson does not focus on life progression or individual power to move between levels, but rather on momentary instances of personal experience. State Description Sleep Unaware of all surroundings; dreams may or may not occur Waking Sleep Sleepwalking; normal tasks can be performed but the individual is not receptive to what is taking place Self-awareness Able to identify surroundings and observe what is taking place Objective awareness Identify surrounding events without opinions or input

Similar to Dr. Rondell Gibson's view of a simplified hierarchy of conscious states, Alain Morin describes a four-tiered integration of nine past awareness models, focusing explicitly on the two common aspects underlying each belief structure: the perception of the self in time and the complexity of those self-representations.[23] Level Description Alternative titles in past theories Unconsciousness Non-responsive to self and environment Consciousness, non-consciousness, arousal, limbic stage, sensorimotor cognition Consciousness Focusing attention on environment; processing incoming external stimuli Non-conscious mind, ecological and interpersonal self, neocortical level, consciousness, sensorimotor awareness; core, peripheral, primary and minimal consciousness Self-awareness Focusing attention on self; processing private and public self-information Consciousness, extended and private self, symbolic level, meta-representational self-consciousness, conceptual self-consciousness, self-concept; reflective, recursive, self and meta-consciousness Meta-self-awareness Aware that one is self-aware Consciousness, extended self

The Power of Full Engagement by Jim Loehr and Tony Schwartz is a self-improvement book that is based on the premise that managing energy is more important than managing time, and that we should do so the way top athletes do: by balancing training and performance. It is an energy dynamic diagram. The book demonstrates this quadrant diagram: Square 1: High negative energy Square 2: Low negative energy Square 3: High positive energy Square 4: Low positive energy

According to the Ancient Chinese the Yin and Yang symbol is actually a quadrant divided into four parts but a sort of circular quadrant. You can see the the Black line part of the quadrant, but there is an invisible line that you can envision on the top White part and a line on the bottom black part that would make a quadrant if the Yin and Yang was not in circular form. The Yin and Yang was seen as a central symbol of reality, and it is no coincidence it is in reality a quadrant in a circular form

David Allen’s Making It All Work is a book with a quadrant diagram that he calls the self management matrix in which he has two axis. One is perspective, the other is control. The types that he ultimately presents are Square 1: High perspective low control- the visionary crazy- maker Square 2: Low perspective low control- the victim- responder Square 3: High perspective high control- master and commander Square 4: High perspective high control- implementer

For a night sleep a person goes through four REM sleep cycles. Five is questionable a person never really goes past four REM cycles

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological Review. Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. Maslow used the terms "physiological", "safety", "belongingness" and "love", "esteem", "self-actualization", and "self-transcendence" to describe the pattern that human motivations generally move through. This is considered one of the most renowned models in psychology. It fits the quadrant model pattern

Square 1:Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. Physiological needs are thought to be the most important; they should be met first.

Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing and shelter provide necessary protection from the elements. While maintaining an adequate birth rate shapes the intensity of the human sexual instinct, sexual competition may also shape said instinct. This is the sensation perception, response

and awareness quadrant of the quadrant model of reality. This square is the sensation square

Square 2: Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, etc. – people may (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder or transgenerational trauma. In the absence of economic safety – due to economic crisis and lack of work opportunities – these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, reasonable disability accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to be found in children because they generally have a greater need to feel safe.

Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security

Financial security

Health and well-being

Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

The second square is homeostasis. This is the belief, faith behavior belonging square, or perception square of the quadrant model

Square:Love and belonging

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. This need is especially strong in childhood and can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies within this level of Maslow's hierarchy – due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. – can impact the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general, such as:

Friendship

Intimacy

Family

According to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among their social groups, regardless whether these groups are large or small. For example, some large social groups may include clubs, co-workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, and gangs. Some examples of small social connections include family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans need to love and be loved – both sexually and non-sexually – by others.[2] Many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. This need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure.

The third quadrant of the quadrant model is rational interpersonal thinking emotion doing and dreaming. Here the person is beyond just belonging and feeling safe and now is doing things.

Square 4:Esteem

All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person a sense of contribution or value. Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy. People with low self-esteem often need respect from others; they may feel the need to seek fame or glory. However, fame or glory will not help the person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can hinder the person from obtaining a higher level of self-esteem or self-respect.

Most people have a need for stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs: a "lower" version and a "higher" version. The "lower" version of esteem is the need for respect from others. This may include a need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The "higher" version manifests itself as the need for self-respect. For example, the person may have a need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence, and freedom. This "higher" version takes precedence over the "lower" version because it relies on an inner competence established through experience. Deprivation of these needs may lead to an inferiority complex, weakness, and helplessness. Maslow states that while he originally thought the needs of humans had strict guidelines, the "hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated".[5] This means that esteem and the subsequent levels are not strictly separated; instead, the levels are closely related. The fourth quadrant is the transpersonal consciousness. In Maslows model Maslow explicitly says that Esteem really is kind of an amalgamation of the previous three squares. He claimed that if the previous three squares are sufficient this helps to improve esteem. Esteem is also how you stack up in a social environment. In Wilber's model the fourth square is the social square. The fourth square always puts you in a larger context. The nature of the quadrant model is the fourth square is separate yet contains the previous three. Maslow's model reflects the quadrant model of reality Square 5:Self-actualization Main article: Self-actualization "What a man can be, he must be." This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential. Maslow describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or inventions.[12] As previously mentioned, Maslow believed that to understand this level of need, the person must not only achieve the previous needs, but master them. The fifth square is being. Being is God in the quadrant model. Maslow specifically states that this square is being. Self esteem points to self actualization. Notice how the fourth indicates the nature of the fifth. That is the quadrant model nature revealed in the most acclaimed model in psychology history.

The two personality dimensions, extraversion and neuroticism, were described in his 1967 book Dimensions of Personality. It is common practice in personality psychology to refer to the dimensions by the first letters, E and N. E and N provided a two-dimensional space to describe individual differences in behaviour. An analogy can be made to how latitude and longitude describe a point on the face of the earth. Also, Eysenck noted how these two dimensions were similar to the four personality types first proposed by the Greek physician Hippocrates. High N and high E = Choleric type High N and low E = Melancholic type Low N and high E = Sanguine type Low N and low E = Phlegmatic type

The four temperaments on a German calendarium, around 1480, as given in Guido Majno’s book ‘The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World’ (1991). The subtitles interrelate the temperaments with elements and character: (1) phlegmatic with water and subtility, (2) sanguinistic with air and pride, (3) melancholic with earth and depressiveness and (4) choleric with fire and adventure. In: HOES (1994).

The four characteristics of wine expressed in the four temperaments of man. Top left: the sanguine temperament is drinking in style. It is a picture of peace, with a lamb to accentuate the rural nature. Top right: the choleric character is tempted to quarrel and swords are drawn. A dog meddled in with the fight. Bottom left: The phlegmatic temperament is a noisy drinker, lacking in style. He is ill-mannered and foolish, associated with a pig. Bottom right: The melancholic drinker is not much better and makes a fool of himself by doing odd things. He is characterized by a monkey. The picture by Erhard Schön, dated around 1530, was also a parody on the worldly exuberance of the pope. In: KUNZLE (1973). The influence of wine was demonstrated with the four temperaments and psychological types: 1. The sanguine character is often a drinker, who remained a lamb, if he has too much (top left); 2. The choleric drinker becomes nasty and violent and behaves like a dog (top right); 3. The phlegmatic drinker looses decorum and acts like a pig (bottom left); and finally 4. The melancholic drinker makes a fool of himself and is portrayed as an ape (bottom right).