Quadrant Model of Reality: Quadrant Model of Reality Book 30 Science and Religion

QMR

The quadrant theory is a theory of intelligent design describing that reality is organized around a pattern called the quadrant model pattern. Previous books discuss the nature of this pattern.

March 21 Facebook-11:00

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

QMrIn the theory of relativity, four-acceleration is a four-vector (vector in four-dimensional spacetime) that is analogous to classical acceleration (a three-dimensional vector). Four-acceleration has applications in areas such as the annihilation of antiprotons, resonance of strange particles and radiation of an accelerated charge.[1]

QMRAura carries four instruments for studies of atmospheric chemistry:

HIRDLS — High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder — measures infrared radiation from ozone, water vapor, CFCs, methane and nitrogen compounds. Developed jointly with the United Kingdom Natural Environment Research Council. The HIRDLS chopper shutdown on March 17, 2008, and has not produced science since.

MLS — Microwave Limb Sounder — measures emissions from ozone, chlorine and other trace gases, and clarifies the role of water vapor in global warming.

OMI — Ozone Monitoring Instrument — uses ultraviolet and visible radiation to produce daily high-resolution maps. Developed by the Finnish Meteorological Institute and the Netherlands Agency for Aerospace Programmes.

TES — Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer — measures tropospheric ozone in infrared wavelengths, also carbon monoxide, methane and nitrogen oxides.

QMRIn December 2013 it was announced by Kevin Andrews, Minister for Social Services, that McClure would chair a Reference Group on Welfare Reform.

The interim report was released on June 29, 2014.[2] This was followed by a process of roundtables with 175 key stakeholders in all states and territories, consultations with 55 people on income support, 271 formal submissions and 231 online comments.

The final report "A New System for Better Employment and Social Outcomes" was launched in Canberra on February 23, 2015 by Patrick McClure and the Minister for Social Services, Scott Morrison.[3]

The final report proposes an integrated approach to welfare reform across four pillars of reform with an employment focus. The four pillars are: simpler and sustainable income support system; building individual and family capability; engaging with employers; and building community capacity.[3]

Key recommendations include reducing the current complex and inefficient system of 20 payments and 55 supplements to 5 payments and 4 categories of supplements; a passport to work enabling people to move easily between employment and the income support system; a new ICT system to drive efficiencies in the new income support system; an investment approach with early intervention services focusing on groups most at risk of long term welfare dependence; a jobs plan for people with disability and mental health conditions; and the use of social impact bonds to attract private investment to address social problems in disadvantaged communities.[3]

QMRAn early document which is silent concerning Patrick is the letter of Columbanus to Pope Boniface IV of about 613. Columbanus writes that Ireland's Christianity "was first handed to us by you, the successors of the holy apostles", apparently referring to Palladius only, and ignoring Patrick.[57] Writing on the Easter controversy in 632 or 633, Cummian—it is uncertain whether this is the Cummianassociated with Clonfert or Cumméne of Iona—does refer to Patrick, calling him our papa, that is pope or primate.[58]

Two works by late seventh-century hagiographers of Patrick have survived. These are the writings of Tírechán, and Vita sancti Patricii of Muirchu moccu Machtheni.[59] Both writers relied upon an earlier work, now lost, the Book of Ultán.[60] This Ultán, probably the same person as Ultan of Ardbraccan, was Tírechán's foster-father. His obituary is given in the Annals of Ulster under the year 657.[61] These works thus date from a century and a half after Patrick's death.

Tírechán writes

I found four names for Patrick written in the book of Ultán, bishop of the tribe of Conchobar: holy Magonus (that is, "famous"); Succetus (that is, the god of war); Patricius (that is, father of the citizens); Cothirtiacus (because he served four houses of druids).[62]

QMR A quote about St Patrick-I found four names for Patrick written in the book of Ultán, bishop of the tribe of Conchobar: holy Magonus (that is, "famous"); Succetus (that is, the god of war); Patricius (that is, father of the citizens); Cothirtiacus (because he served four houses of druids).[62]

QMRDillinger Four is an American punk rock band formed in 1994 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. They have released four full-length studio albums. Since 1996,[1] the band's lineup has been Patrick Costello on bass guitar and vocals, Erik Funk and Bill Morrisette[2] on guitars and vocals, and Lane Pederson on drums.[3]

QMR

The Titanic was a four funnel liner

A four funnel liner, four funnelled liner or four stacker is an ocean liner with four funnels. The SS Great Eastern, launched on 31 January 1858 (a full 40 years ahead of any comparable ships), was the only ocean liner to sport five funnels. As one funnel was later removed,[1] the Great Eastern, by default, became the first ocean liner to have four funnels. The SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, launched on 4 May 1897, was the next ocean liner to have four funnels and was one of the first of the golden era of ocean liners that became prominent in the early- to mid-20th century.[2] The most famous[citation needed] four funnel liners are the RMS Titanic, which sank after striking an iceberg on her maiden voyage on 14 April 1912, and the RMS Lusitania, which was torpedoed on 7 May 1915 during the First World War.

In all, fifteen four funnel liners were built (five were built and owned by Germany, nine by the UK, and one by France): the Great Eastern in 1858 and the remaining fourteen between 1897 and 1922. Four of these were sunk during the World Wars, and apart from the Titanic, the remainder were scrapped.[3] RMS Mauretania was the fastest of all four funnelled liners. The last four funnelled liner ever built was the SS Windsor Castle but two funnels were removed making RMS Aquitania the last four funnel liner in service and the only one to survive service during both World Wars. HMHS Britannic was one of the largest of all the four funnel liners.

The primary purpose of funnels on steamships were to allow smoke, heat and excess steam to escape from the boiler rooms. As liners became larger, more boilers were used. The number of funnels became symbolic of speed and safety,[2] so shipping companies sometimes added false funnels (like the one sported by the Olympic-class ocean liner) to give an impression of power.[4]

The trend of competing shipping lines building four funnel liners encompassed a very short time span ranging from the SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse in 1897 to the SS Windsor Castle in 1922. As for the number of funnels in some cases the reason for sporting four was a matter of necessity in other cases it was more symbolic. The Cunard Line record holders Lusitania and Mauretania were both laid out with four boiler rooms with one funnel to each room, other slower ships such as the Olympic, Titanic and Britannic only had three operational funnels. However sporting four funnels represented power, safety and prestige, in keeping with the style and fashion of the early 20th century the White Star Line opted to fit the three Olympic-class ships with 'dummy' fourth funnels in order to rival the two Cunard ships. The ideology of four funnels representing size and power rapidly diminished soon after the First World War, later larger flagships including the SS Imperator, SS Normandie and the RMS Queen Mary all sported three funnels to conserve deck space, later still as shipbuilding became more efficient the RMS Queen Elizabeth, RMS Mauretania and the SS America reduced this further down to two funnels, today's modern cruise ships are all built with only a single funnel and many military vessels no longer sport them at all.

List of four funnel liners[edit]

Picture Liner[a] Owner Launched Fate

Aquitania 06.jpg RMS Aquitania[3] Cunard Line 21 April 1913 scrapped 1950

SS Arundel Castle.jpg RMS Arundel Castle[b][3] Union-Castle Line 11 September 1919 scrapped 1959

RMS Britannic (crop).jpg RMS Britannic[c][d][3] White Star Line 26 February 1914 sunk 21 November 1916

SS Deutschland (1900).jpg SS Deutschland[b][3] Hamburg-Amerika Line 1900 scrapped 1925

France 1912.jpg SS France[3] Compagnie Générale Transatlantique 1910 scrapped 1935

Great Eastern.jpg SS Great Eastern[e][1] Great Ship Company 31 January 1858 scrapped 1889–90

Kaiser wilhelm 2.jpg SS Kaiser Wilhelm II[f][3] North German Lloyd Line 12 August 1902 scrapped 1940

Kaiser wilhelm der grosse 01.jpg SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse[f][3] North German Lloyd Line 4 May 1897 sunk 6 August 1914; wreck dismantled on site in 1952

KronprinzWilhelmPostcard.jpg SS Kronprinz Wilhelm[f][3] North German Lloyd Line 30 March 1901 scrapped 1923

Kronprinzessin Cecilie at Bar Harbor, Maine with black funnel tops.jpg SS Kronprinzessin Cecilie[f][3] North German Lloyd Line 1 December 1906 scrapped 1940

Lusitania 1907.jpg RMS Lusitania[3] Cunard Line 7 June 1906 sunk 7 May 1915

RMS Mauretania.jpg RMS Mauretania[3] Cunard Line 20 September 1906 scrapped 1935

Olympic sea trials.jpg RMS Olympic[d][3] White Star Line 20 October 1910 scrapped 1935–37

RMS Titanic 3.jpg RMS Titanic[d][3] White Star Line 31 May 1911 sunk 15 April 1912

SS Windsor Castle.jpg SS Windsor Castle[b][3] Union-Castle Line 9 March 1921 sunk 23 March 1943

Notes:

[a] SS denotes Steamship, RMS denotes Royal Mail Ship, HMHS denotes His/Her Majesty's Hospital Ship

[b] Originally constructed with four funnels, two were removed during later modernization.[3]

[c] The Britannic was originally called Gigantic but she was renamed after the Titanic's tragedy.[5]

[d] The aft funnel on each of the White Star Olympic-class liners were dummies.[6]

[e] Originally constructed with five funnels, her No. 4 funnel was later removed after she was sold for cable laying[1]

[f] The group Kaiser-class[2] four funnel liners owned by North German Lloyd Lines were called the Four Flyers.[7]

Other four funnel passenger ships[edit]

City of Dublin Steam Packet Company[edit]

These four sister ships were unusual in having four funnels owned by City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, the Ulster, Munster, Leinster, and Connaught were all built to have high speed and to be far ahead of anything afloat at the time. These four ships all had the same design, 1700 gross tons, 337 ft long, and had two-cylinder oscillating engines of about 750 nhp, and had four powerful paddle steamers. The last of the quartet, Connaught, was the first steamer in the world to exceed 18 knots.[8]

RMS Connaught (1860)

RMS Leinster (1860)

RMS Munster (1860)

RMS Ulster (1860)

Isle of Man Steam Packet Company[edit]

Ben-my-Chree (1875) - a four funnel paddle liner owned by Isle of Man Steam Packet Company.[9]

Unfinished four-funnel liners[edit]

In 1914, Italy was supposed to have a four-funnelled liner of their own, named the Andrea Doria (not to be confused with the liner that sank in 1956), but there is no evidence to indicate that she was even built.[10][not in citation given]

The Lusitania and the Mauretania pass in Liverpool's River Mersey.

In the late 1920s the worlds main shipping lines were Britain's Cunard Line and White Star Line and France's Compagnie Générale Transatlantique. Each of these three were operating ageing vessels and required new larger and more modern 1000 ft long superliners to remain competitive. CGT began construction of the SS Normandie while Cunard placed an order for the RMS Queen Mary. White Star, placed an order to their shipbuilders Harland and Wolff for the Oceanic, a successor to the line's inaugural 1870 liner, the RMS Oceanic. The exact intended design of the Oceanic III is unknown, although company concept renderings show it to be a three-funnelled 1000-foot liner. However, early plans from Harland and Wolff's archives show a design drawn in 1927 for a four funnelled liner almost identical to the Olympic-class design except sporting a more modern cruiser stern.[11]

With the onset of the great depression the shipping lines were crippled. The completion of Cunard's Queen Mary was delayed for four years and in order to raise the funds to complete her the British government gave Cunard a loan on the condition that Cunard merge with White Star into a single British shipping line. Upon the merger into the Cunard-White Star Line the Oceanic, with only her keel laid, was abandoned. Had this 1927 design been realized she would have been the White Star Line's crowning achievement, a fourth Olympic-class liner over 1000 ft long and the last ocean liner to date to sport four funnels.[12]

Possible Future Four-funnel Liners[edit]

The Australian billionaire Clive Palmer is planning to make Titanic II, a replica of the famed RMS Titanic.[13] If this goes ahead as planned it will be a "four stacker" like the original. However, at least two of the funnels will actually house observation decks and not serve any function.

Fictional four-funned liners[edit]

In the movie The Legend of 1900, the SS Virginian is a Victorian era four-funneled passenger liner.

In the American television series "The Twilight Zone", there is an episode titled "Passage on the Lady Anne"(Season 4, Episode 119, May 19, 1963), depicting an outdated, once magnificent four-funneled ocean liner, the RMS Lady Anne.

QMRThe First Four Ships refers to the four sailing vessels chartered by the Canterbury Association which left Plymouth, England, in September 1850 to transport the first English settlers to new homes in Canterbury, New Zealand.

QMRThe idea of the compound lever is attributed to the Birmingham inventor John Wyatt in 1743,[4] when he designed a weighing machine that used four compound levers to transfer a load from a weighing platform to a central lever from which the weight could be measured.[5]

Chemistry Chapter

QMRThere are four groups of clay: layer silicates; crystalline chain silicates; metal oxides and hydroxides and oxy-oxides; and amorphous and allophanes. Most clays are crystalline and most are made up of three or four planes of oxygen held together by planes of aluminium and silicon by way of ionic bonds that together form a single layer of clay. The spatial arrangement of the oxygen atoms determines clay's structure. Half of the weight of clay is oxygen, but on a volume basis oxygen is ninety percent.[112] The layers of clay are sometimes held together through hydrogen bonds or potassium bridges and as a result will swell less in the presence of water. Other clays, such as montmorillonite, have layers that are loosely attached and will swell greatly when water intervenes between the layers.[113]

There are four groups of clays:

Layer Crystalline alumino-silica clays: montmorillonite, illite, vermiculite, chlorite, kaolinite.

Crystalline Chain carbonate and sulfate minerals: calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) and gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O).

Amorphous clays: young mixtures of silica (SiO2-OH) and alumina (Al(OH)3) which have not had time to form regular crystals.

Sesquioxide clays: old, highly leached clays which result in oxides of iron, aluminium and titanium.[114]

QMRPore space is that part of the bulk volume of soil that is not occupied by either mineral or organic matter but is open space occupied by either gases or water. Ideally, the total pore space should be 50% of the soil volume. The gas space is needed to supply oxygen to organisms decomposing organic matter, humus, and plant roots. Pore space also allows the movement and storage of water and dissolved nutrients. This property of soils effectively compartmentalizes the soil pore space such that many organisms are not in direct competition with one another, which may explain not only the large number of species present, but the fact that functionally redundant organisms (organisms with the same ecological niche) can co-exist within the same soil.[55]

There are four categories of pores:

Very fine pores: < 2 µm

Fine pores: 2-20 µm

Medium pores: 20-200 µm

Coarse pores: 200 µm-0.2 mm

MQRDowner is the New Jersey state soil. The Downer has four soil horizons:

Surface Layer: dark grayish brown loamy sand

Subsurface layer: grayish brown sandy loam

Subsoil - upper: yellowish brown gravelly sandy loam

Subsoil - lower: yellowish brown sand and coarse sand

The Downer Series was established in 1960 in Gloucester County.

QMRBacteria are unicellular organisms. The cells are described as prokaryotic because they lack a nucleus. They exist in four major shapes: bacillus (rod shape), coccus (spherical shape), spirilla (spiral shape), and vibrio (curved shape). Most bacteria have a peptidoglycan cell wall; they divide by binary fission; and they may possess flagella for motility. The difference in their cell wall structure is a major feature used in classifying these organisms.

Biology Chapter

QMr

Table 1: Hamilton's classification of the four types of social behaviors.[1]

Effect on recipient

+ −

Effect

on actor + Mutual benefit Selfishness

− Altruism Spite

From an evolutionary point of view, a behavior is social if it has fitness consequences for both the individual that performs that behavior (the actor) and another individual (the recipient). Hamilton first categorized social behaviors according to whether the consequences they entail for the actor and recipient are beneficial (increase direct fitness) or costly (decrease direct fitness).[2] Based on Hamilton's definition, there are four unique types of social interactions: mutualism (+/+), selfishness (+/−), altruism (−/+), and spite (−/−) (Table 1). Mutualism and altruism are considered cooperative interactions because they are beneficial to the recipient, and will be the focus of this article.

QMRIn autecological studies, the growth of bacteria (or other microorganisms, as protozoa, microalgae or yeasts) in batch culture can be modeled with four different phases: lag phase (A), log phase or exponential phase (B), stationary phase (C), and death phase (D).[3]

During lag phase, bacteria adapt themselves to growth conditions. It is the period where the individual bacteria are maturing and not yet able to divide. During the lag phase of the bacterial growth cycle, synthesis of RNA, enzymes and other molecules occurs.

The log phase (sometimes called the logarithmic phase or the exponential phase) is a period characterized by cell doubling.[4] The number of new bacteria appearing per unit time is proportional to the present population. If growth is not limited, doubling will continue at a constant rate so both the number of cells and the rate of population increase doubles with each consecutive time period. For this type of exponential growth, plotting the natural logarithm of cell number against time produces a straight line. The slope of this line is the specific growth rate of the organism, which is a measure of the number of divisions per cell per unit time.[4] The actual rate of this growth (i.e. the slope of the line in the figure) depends upon the growth conditions, which affect the frequency of cell division events and the probability of both daughter cells surviving. Under controlled conditions, cyanobacteria can double their population four times a day.[5] Exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely, however, because the medium is soon depleted of nutrients and enriched with wastes.

The stationary phase is often due to a growth-limiting factor such as the depletion of an essential nutrient, and/or the formation of an inhibitory product such as an organic acid. Stationary phase results from a situation in which growth rate and death rate are equal. The number of new cells created is limited by the growth factor and as a result the rate of cell growth matches the rate of cell death. The result is a “smooth,” horizontal linear part of the curve during the stationary phase.

At death phase (decline phase), bacteria die. This could be caused by lack of nutrients, environmental temperature above or below the tolerance band for the species, or other injurious conditions.

QMRIn psychology, novelty seeking (NS) is a personality trait associated with exploratory activity in response to novel stimulation, impulsive decision making, extravagance in approach to reward cues, and quick loss of temper and avoidance of frustration.[1] It is measured in the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire as well as the later version Temperament and Character Inventory and is considered one of the temperament dimensions of personality. Like the other temperament dimensions, it has been found to be highly heritable. High NS has been suggested to be related to low dopaminergic activity.[2]

In the revised version of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI-R) novelty seeking consists of the following four subscales:

Exploratory excitability (NS1)

Impulsiveness (NS2)

Extravagance (NS3)[3]

Disorderliness (NS4)

QMRIn medicine and anatomy, the special senses are the senses that have specialized organs devoted to them. There are four-

vision (the eye)

hearing and balance (the ear, which includes the auditory system and vestibular system)

smell (the nose)

taste (the tongue)

The distinction between special and general senses is used to classify nerve fibres running to and from the central nervous system – information from special senses is carried in special somatic afferents and special visceral afferents. In contrast, the other sense, touch, is a somatic sense which does not have a specialized organ but comes from all over the body, most noticeably the skin but also the internal organs (viscera). Touch includes mechanoreception (pressure, vibration and proprioception), pain (nociception) and heat (thermoception), and such information is carried in general somatic afferents and general visceral afferents.[1]

QMrAristotle himself, in De Sensu et Sensibilibus defined four senses: sight (associated with water because the eye contains water), sound (corresponding to air), smell (corresponding to fire), and touch (corresponding to earth). Aristotle viewed taste as merely a specialized form of touch, which he in turn viewed as the primary sense (because all life-forms possess it). He rejected the earlier view by Democritus that there was in fact only one sense, touch.[16]

Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food is a 2010 nonfiction book by author Paul Greenberg. This work explores the state of commercial fishing and aquaculture. Greenberg frames his observations by commenting on the status of four specific fish: cod, salmon, bass, and tuna. Choosing four fish was a decision influenced by author Michael Pollan's selection of four plants in his book, The Botany of Desire. [1]

QMRPaul Greenberg is an American author and essayist. Since 2005 Greenberg has written regularly for the New York Times in the Magazine, Book Review and Opinion sections, focusing on fish, aquaculture and the future of the ocean.[1]

His book, Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food, was published in 2010 by Penguin Press on July 15,[2] and has entered the New York Times Best Selling Hard Cover List as of August 13.[3] In addition to its commercial success the book received wide critical acclaim, most notably on the cover of the New York Times Book Review by the Times' restaurant critic Sam Sifton[4] "a necessary book," Sifton wrote, "for anyone truly interested in what we take from the sea to eat, and how". Four Fish also formed the basis of a 2011 cover story of Time magazine.[5] "Fish are the last wild food" wrote the Time editors, echoing Four Fish's subtitle, "but our oceans are being picked clean. Can farming fish take the place of catching them?"

In 2014 Greenberg followed up Four Fish with American Catch: The Fight for Our Local Seafood,[6] a book that examined the odd fact that while the US controls more ocean than any country on earth it imports more than 85% of its seafood from other countries.

Greenberg has been both a National Endowment for the Arts Literature Fellow[7] and a W.K. Kellogg Foundation Food and Society Policy Fellow.[8] He currently lives in New York City

In 2011 Greenberg won the James Beard Award for Writing and Literature for Four Fish and he now lectures[9] widely throughout North America.

In addition to his nonfiction work, Greenberg is also a novelist. His 2002 novel Leaving Katya about the collapse of a Russian-American marriage was a Barnes & Noble Discover Great New Writers selection.[10]

QMRPaul Greenberg (essayist) (born 1967), author of "Four Fish"

QMRThe 4-Hour Workweek: Escape 9-5, Live Anywhere, and Join the New Rich (2007) is a self-help book by Timothy Ferriss, an American writer, educational activist, and entrepreneur.[1] The book has spent more than four years on The New York Times Best Seller List, has been translated into 35 languages and has sold more than 1,350,000 copies worldwide.[2][3][4] It focuses on what Ferriss refers to as "lifestyle design" and a repudiation of the traditional "deferred" life plan in which people work grueling hours and take few vacations for decades and save money in order to relax after retirement.

In the book, Ferriss uses the acronym "DEAL" for the four main chapters.[9] It stands for Definition, Elimination, Automation, and Liberation.[10]

QMRA soil horizon is a layer generally parallel to the soil crust, whose physical characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath. Each soil type usually has three or four horizons. The fourth is always different. The fourth is different

QMRThe cation exchange, that takes place between colloids and soil water, buffers (moderates) soil pH, alters soil structure, and purifies percolating water by adsorbing cations of all types, both useful and harmful.

The negative or positive charges on colloid particles make them able to hold cations or anions, respectively, to their surfaces. The charges result from four sources.[136]

Isomorphous substitution occurs in clay when lower-valence cations substitute for higher-valence cations in the crystal structure. Substitutions in the outermost layers are more effective than for the innermost layers, as the charge strength drops off as the square of the distance. The net result is a negative charge.

Edge-of-clay oxygen atoms are not in balance ionically as the tetrahedral and octahedral structures are incomplete.

Hydroxyls may substitute for oxygens of the silica layers. When the hydrogens of the clay hydroxyls are ionised into solution, they leave the oxygen with a negative charge.

Hydrogens of humus hydroxyl groups may be ionised into solution, leaving an oxygen with a negative charge.

QMRThere are four language systems that children use to process, understand, and use language. While each system is distinct, they are all equally important. In fact, the degree to which these systems function in synergy determines, to some extent, the child’s facility with language-based tasks. These systems are often called cueing systems, because they cue the reader as to the meaning of text when the reading process becomes difficult.

The Phonological System

The phonological system is often called the sound system of language. This system is responsible for recognizing the distinct speech sounds heard in language. For example, when one hears the word dog, he or she is actually hearing the blending of three separate sounds: /d/ /aw/ /g/. Because pronunciation of these sounds varies according to culture and geography, children learn specific pronunciations of such sounds as voiced by their families and older peers.

The phonological system is important as children learn to read and write. Skill in the phonetic system allows young readers to decode phonetically regular words. Of course, English is not a strictly phonetic language. Before children become aware of these exceptions to phonetic rules, they often rely on invented spelling when writing. A child who spells the word butterfly as butrfli demonstrates a strictly phonetic understanding of spelling because each sound in the word is represented by a single letter. While such spelling should not replace lessons in conventional spelling, it is useful in that it gives the teacher insight into the child’s development and use of the phonological system.

The Syntactic System

The syntactic system of language relates to the structure of language. This involves word order, sentence structure, and grammar usage. This system controls the way in which words are used in sentences. The syntactic system is unique to the language upon which it is based. For example, in Standard English, adjectives precede vowels. However, in Spanish, the opposite is true. For this reason, the following sentences are syntactically correct in each language respectively:

English: Edward gave the princess a red rose.

Spanish: Edward dio a princesa a se levantó el rojo

(Edward gave the princess a rose red.)

Because the syntactic system is based upon the use and order of words, instruction about word parts is processed by this language system. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme, and morphemes can be added to a word to change its meaning, as in adding un to unlikely.

The syntactic system is important to novice readers who often rely on this system to predict the words that will come next in a sentence. Often, such readers will use the context of the sentence to guess an unfamiliar word. Even when he or she guesses incorrectly, the reader will often come up with a word that makes sense and fits the same part of speech as the unfamiliar word. For example:

Actual Text: The student will board the school bus.

Reader Guess: The student will ride the school bus.

Because the word ride does not begin with the same phoneme as the word board, the student clearly did not apply the phonological system of language to guess the word. Instead, he or she may have used the syntactic system to guess that the word had to be a verb. It is also likely that he or she used the semantic system in tandem with the syntactic system.

The Semantic System

The semantic system is sometimes referred to as the meaning system because it emphasizes the meaning of speech. As children accumulate increasing stores of vocabulary, their semantic systems increase in utility and flexibility. This is particularly true as children learn multiple meanings for certain words. The greatest rate of vocabulary accumulation occurs between the ages of two and five. This is often called the vocabulary explosion (Berk, 2004). At the beginning of this explosion, children frequently ask the question, “What’s that?” Attentive adults usually answer the question with a simple answer which emphasizes a subject. This means that most words learned during the vocabulary explosion are nouns. As children progress to school age, they learn a greater number of words, though not at the same rate. Even so, the sheer number of words they learn is staggering. Studies have concluded that by the time children enter school, they possess a vocabulary of 5,000 words. This is the result of the language explosion. During the school years, children learn an average of 3,000 words each year. This means that during the elementary school years, children learn between 7 to 10 new words each day (Nagy, 1988). Most of these words come from textbooks and subject specific lessons.

The semantic system is an important aspect of language because it allows an individual to understand or express nuances of meaning by using specific words. For example, a child may express degrees of hunger by using the terms hungry, starving, or famished. In order to support the development of the semantic system and to assist with an increase in vocabulary, teachers should teach synonyms and antonyms for the words that a child already knows. Teachers should also engage in wordplay with children by introducing idioms and clichés.

The Pragmatic System

The pragmatic system deals with the practical use of language. This use is often directed by the culture of the individual or the context in which he or she is using language. For example, eleven year-old Max may use slang with his friends, but a more formal speech pattern with his teacher. Linguists call these different patterns speech codes. Most people switch between speech codes effortlessly and without much thought. Young children, however, are less likely to have a variety of speech codes as they generally do not recognize differences in social contexts.

There is some disagreement among experts in the reading field about the extent to which children use these systems. While some claim that the phonological system contains the least useful information, others contend that this system is most frequently used by novice readers. In fact, some researchers argue that the semantic and syntactic systems are rarely, if ever, used by good readers.

Learning disabilities associated with reading may manifest in the inability to access one or more of these systems. For example, dyslexic readers rarely use the phonological system while reading. Instead, they tend to rely more on their visual memory for words and the context of the sentence to determine what the word might be.

While the debate continues, it is important to note that an understanding of these systems supports focused reading instruction because those same systems are the basis for the strategies readers use when they struggle to identify unfamiliar words and maintain comprehension. Look at the examples of these teacher prompts and their correlation to one of the cueing systems in the table below:

- See more at: http://www.elearnportal.com/courses/education/methods-of-teaching-language-arts-in-public-schools/methods-of-teaching-language-arts-in-public-schools-four-language-systems#sthash.uK5cTFPZ.dpuf

QMRCommunication can be defined as the exchange and negotiation of information between two or more individuals through verbal and nonverbal symbols, oral and written (or visual) modes, and the production and comprehension processes of communication.[59] According to First International Congress for the Study of Child Language, “the general hypothesis [is that] access to social interaction is a prerequisite to normal language acquisition”.[60] Principles of conversation include two or more people focusing on one topic. All questions in a conversation should be answered, comments should be understood or acknowledged and any form of direction should, in theory, be followed. In the case of young, undeveloped children, these conversations are expected to be basic or redundant. The role of a guardians during developing stages is to convey that conversation is meant to have a purpose, as well as teaching them to recognize the other speaker’s emotions.[60] Communicative language is nonverbal and/or verbal, and to achieve communication competence, four components must be met. These four components of communication competence include: grammatical competence (vocabulary knowledge, rules of word sentence formation, etc.), sociolinguistic competence (appropriateness of meanings and grammatical forms in different social contexts), discourse competence (knowledge required to combine forms and meanings), and strategic competence (knowledge of verbal and nonverbal communication strategies).[59] The attainment of communicative competence is an essential part of actual communication.[61]

QMRLanguage serves the purpose of communication to express oneself though a systematic and traditional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols.[40] There are four subcomponents in which the child must attain in order to acquire language competence. They include phonology, lexicon, morphology and syntax, and pragmatics.[41] These subcomponents of language development are combined to form the components of language, which are sociolinguistics and literacy.[40] Currently, there is no single accepted theory of language acquisition but various explanations of language development have been accumulated.

Components of child language development[edit]

The four components of language development include:

Phonology is concerned with the sounds of language.[42] It is the function, behavior, and organization of sounds as linguistic items.[43] Phonology considers what the sounds of language are and what the rules are for combining sounds. Phonological acquisition in children can be measured by accuracy and frequency of production of various vowels and consonants, the acquisition of phonemic contrasts and distinctive features, or by viewing development in regular stages in their own speech sound systems and to characterize systematic strategies they adopt.[44]

Lexicon is a complex dictionary of words that enables language speakers to use these words in speech production and comprehension.[45] Lexicon is the inventory of a language's morphemes. Morphemes act as minimal meaning-bearing elements or building blocks of something in language that makes sense. For example, in the word "cat", the component "cat" makes sense as does "at", but "at" does not mean the same thing as "cat". In this example, "ca" does not mean anything.

Morphology is the study of form or forms. It is the mental system involved in word formation or to the branch of linguistics that deals with words, their internal structure and how they are formed.[46]

Pragmatics is the study of relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.[47] It also incorporates the use of utterance to serve different functions and can be defined as the ability to communicate one's feelings and desires to others.[48]

Psychology Chapter

QMrJean Piaget was a Swiss scholar who began his studies in intellectual development in the 1920s. Piaget’s first interests were those that dealt with the ways in which animals adapt to their environments and his first scientific article about this subject was published when he was 10 years old. This eventually led him to pursue a Ph.D. in Zoology, which then led him to his second interest in epistemology.[7] Epistemology branches off from philosophy and deals with the origin of knowledge. Piaget believed the origin of knowledge came from Psychology, so he traveled to Paris and began working on the first “standardized intelligence test” at Alfred Binet laboratories; this influenced his career greatly. As he carried out this intelligence testing he began developing a profound interest in the way children’s intellectualism works. As a result, he developed his own laboratory and spent years recording children’s intellectual growth and attempted to find out how children develop through various stages of thinking. This led to Piaget develop four important stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), preoperational stage (age 2 to 7), concrete-operational stage (ages 7 to 12), and formal-operational stage (ages 11 to 12, and thereafter).[7]

Piaget stages[edit]

Sensorimotor: (birth to about age 2)

According to Piaget, when an infant reaches about 7–9 months of age they begin to develop what he called object permanence, this means the child now has the ability to understand that objects keep existing even when they cannot be seen. An example of this would be hiding the child’s favorite toy under a blanket, although the child cannot physically see it they still know to look under the blanket.

Preoperational: (begins about the time the child starts to talk to about age 7)

During this stage of development, young children begin analyzing their environment using mental symbols. These symbols often include words and images and the child will begin to apply these various symbols in their everyday lives as they come across different objects, events, and situations.[7] However, Piaget’s main focus on this stage and the reason why he named it “preoperational” is because children at this point are not able to apply specific cognitive operations, such as mental math. In addition to symbolism, children start to engage in pretend play in which they pretend to be people they are not (teachers, superheroes). In addition, they sometimes use different props to make this pretend play more real.[7] Some deficiencies in this stage of development are that children who are about 3–4 years old often display what is called egocentrism, which means the child is not able to see someone else’s point of view, they feel as if every other person is experiencing the same events and feelings that they are experiencing. However, at about at 7 thought processes of children are no longer egocentric and are more intuitive, meaning they now think about the way something looks instead of rational thinking.[7]

Concrete: (about first grade to early adolescence)

During this stage, children begin developing cognitive operations and begin applying this new thinking to different events they may encounter.[7] Unlike the preoperational stage, children can now change and rearrange mental images and symbols to form a logical thought, an example of this is reversibility in which the child now has the ability to reverse an action just by doing the opposite.[7]

Formal operations: (about early adolescence to mid/late adolescence)

The final stage of Piaget’s cognitive development defines a child as now having the ability to “think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and hypothetical events”.[7] Some positive aspects during this time is that child or adolescent begins forming their identity and begin understanding why people behave the way they behave. However, there are also some negative aspects which include the child or adolescent developing some egocentric thoughts which include the imaginary audience and the personal fable.[7] An imaginary audience is when an adolescent feels that the world is just as concerned and judgemental of anything the adolescent does as they are, an adolescent may feel as is they are “on stage” and everyone is a critique and they are the ones being critiqued.[7] A personal fable is when the adolescent feels that he or she is a unique person and everything they do is unique. They feel as if they are the only ones that have ever experienced what they are experiencing and that they are invincible and nothing bad will happen to them it will only happen to others.[7]

QMRAlso called "development in context" or "human ecology" theory, ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development[5] has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this influential conceptualization of development, these environments — from the family to economic and political structures — have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through adulthood.[6]

QMRCommunication for Development is built around four axes:

The four axis of Communication for Development

Com4Prom: Communication for Promotion promotes development aid in donor countries to justify how and why development aid resources are spent.

Com4Imple: Communication for Implementation facilitates the implementation of development aid on developing countries by explaining development programmes to local populations.

Com4Power: Communication for Empowerment gives power to local population to report on the implementation of the development aid they receive from donor countries.

Com4Coord: Communication for Coordination allows donor entities to coordinates their activities on a global scale through a series of coordination tools and rules.

QMrSelf-regulation theory (SRT) is a system of conscious personal management that involves the process of guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors, and feelings to reach goals. Self-regulation consists of several stages, and individuals must function as contributors to their own motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences. Roy Baumeister, one of the leading social psychologists who have studied self-regulation, claims it has four components: standards of desirable behavior, motivation to meet standards, monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards, and lastly, willpower.[1] Baumeister along with other colleagues developed three models of self-regulation designed to explain its cognitive accessibility: self-regulation as a knowledge structure, strength, or skill. Studies have been done to determine that the strength model is generally supported, because it is a limited resource in the brain and only a given amount of self-regulation can occur until that resource is depleted.[2] SRT can be applied to impulse control, management of short-term desires, cognitive bias of illusion of control, pain, goal attainment and motivation, or illness behavior, and failure can be explained by either under- or mis-regulation. Self-regulation has gained a lot of attention from researchers, psychologists, and educators, which has allowed it to grow and supplement many other components. It has been through the help of the several contributors to make it a relatable concept that has the ability to improve emotional well-being, achievement, initiative, and optimism.

Sociology Chapter

QMRHippias - of the Peisistratid family - established a dictatorship in 514 BC, which proved very unpopular, although it established stability and prosperity, and was eventually overthrown with the help of an army from Sparta, in 511/510 BC. The radical politician of aristocratic background (the Alcmaeonid family), Cleisthenes, then took charge and established democracy in Athens. The reforms of Cleisthenes replaced the traditional four Ionic "tribes" (phyle) with ten new ones

QMrIn Athens, the population was divided into four social classes based on wealth. People could change classes if they made more money. In Sparta, all male citizens were given the title of equal if they finished their education

QMR

QMrHarvey had a history of mental illness,[36] but police had to investigate his claim that he was part of a four-man operation to assassinate the president.[37] According to Harvey, he fired seven blank rounds from the starter pistol on the hotel roof on the night of May 4, to test how much noise it would make. He claimed to have been with one of the plotters that night, whom he knew as "Julio." (This man was later identified as a 21-year-old illegal immigrant from Mexico, who gave the name Osvaldo Espinoza Ortiz.)[36] At the time of his arrest, Harvey had eight spent rounds in his pocket, as well as 70 unspent blank rounds for the gun.[38]

QMRHistorically four major business enterprises shaped the Texas economy prior to World War II: cattle and bison, cotton, timber, and oil.[18] The first enterprise to enjoy major success in Texas was cattle and bison. In the early days of Anglo-American settlement furs and hides were the major products derived from cattle. Beef was not particularly popular in the United States. However soon Texas entrepreneurs pioneered the beef industry and demand steadily increased. The cattle industry enjoyed its greatest financial success in the later 1870s and 1880s.

QMR

16 is the squares of the quadrant model

The United States Intelligence Community (I.C.) is a federation of 16 separate United States government agencies that work separately and together to conduct intelligence activities considered necessary for the conduct of foreign relations and national security of the United States. Member organizations of the I.C. include intelligence agencies, military intelligence, and civilian intelligence and analysis offices within federal executive departments. The I.C. is headed by the Director of National Intelligence (DNI), who reports to the President of the United States.

QMRNorthern Virginia–commonly referred to as NOVA–comprises several counties and independent cities in the Commonwealth of Virginia, in a widespread region generally radiating southerly and westward from Washington, D.C. With 2.8 million residents (about a third of the state), it is the most populous region of Virginia and the Washington metropolitan area.[2][3][4] As the term is most often used, it excludes such areas as Warren County and Winchester; "Northeastern Virginia" more closely approximates the area usually meant.

The region is home to three of the four largest U.S. intelligence agencies by budget.

QMRFour Square is a historic home and farm located near Smithfield, Isle of Wight County, Virginia. The original structure was built in 1807, and is a two-story, five bay, "L"-shaped frame dwelling. Also on the property are eight contributing domestic outbuildings, and a variety of barns and other farm buildings.[3]

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.[1]

QMRFour Acres is a historic home located at Charlottesville, Virginia. It was built in 1910, and is a 2 1⁄2-story, three-bay, Colonial Revival-style brick dwelling. It sits in a raised basement and has a slate hipped roof. The front facade features a four-columned, Ionic order portico.[3]

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.[1]

Sacramento-City neighborhoods[edit]

The city groups most of its neighborhoods into four areas:

Area one (central/eastern)[edit]

Alkali Flat, Boulevard Park, Campus Commons, Sacramento State, Dos Rios Triangle, Downtown, East Sacramento, Fab Forties, Mansion Flats, Marshall School, Midtown, New Era Park, Newton Booth, Old Sacramento, Poverty Ridge, Richards, Richmond Grove, River Park, Elmhurst, Sierra Oaks, Southside Park.[29]

Area two (southwestern)[edit]

Airport, Carleton Tract, Freeport Manor, Golf Course Terrace, Greenhaven, Curtis Park, Hollywood Park, Land Park, Little Pocket, Mangan Park, Meadowview, Parkway, Pocket, Sacramento City College, South Land Park, Valley Hi / North Laguna, Z'Berg Park.[30]

Area three (southeastern)[edit]

Alhambra Triangle, Avondale, Brentwood, Carleton Tract, Colonial Heights, Colonial Village, Colonial Village North, Curtis Park, Elmhurst, Fairgrounds, Florin, Industrial Park, Fruitridge Manor, Glen Elder, Glenbrook, Granite Regional Park, Lawrence Park, Med Center, North City Farms, Oak Park, Packard Bell, South City Farms, Southeast Village, Tahoe Park, Tahoe Park East, Tahoe Park South, Tallac Village, Vintage Park, Churchill Downs, and Woodbine.[31]

Area four (north of the American River)[edit]

Ben Ali, Del Paso Heights, Gardenland, Hagginwood, McClellan Heights West, Natomas (north, south, west), North Sacramento, Northgate, Robla, Swanston Estates, Terrace Manor, Valley View Acres, and Woodlake.[32]

QMrWith its new status and strategic location, Sacramento quickly prospered and became the western end of the Pony Express. Later it became a terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad, which began construction in Sacramento in 1863 and was financed by "The Big Four"—Mark Hopkins, Charles Crocker, Collis P. Huntington, and Leland Stanford.

QMR"The Big Four" was the name popularly given to the famous and influential businessmen, philanthropists and railroad tycoons who built the Central Pacific Railroad, (C.P.R.R.), which formed the western portion through the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains of the First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States, built from the mid-continent at the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean during the middle and late 1860s.[1] Composed of Leland Stanford, (1824–1893), Collis Potter Huntington, (1821–1900), Mark Hopkins, (1813–1878), and Charles Crocker, (1822–1888), the four themselves however, personally preferred to be known as "The Associates."[2]

QMRWhile it is true that much of the traveling public would have been unable to make the trip to California's sunny climate were it not for the fleet, relatively safe, and affordable trains of the western railroads, it is also true that those companies in effect preyed on those same settlers once they arrived at the end of the line. For instance, while the railroads provided much-needed transportation routes to out-of-state markets for locally produced raw materials and avenues of the import for eastern goods, there were numerous instances of rate fixing schemes among the various carriers, the Santa Fe and Southern Pacific included.[33] Opposition to the railroads began early in Southern California's history due to the questionable practices of The Big Four in conducting the business of the Central (later Southern) Pacific. The Central Pacific Railroad (and later the Southern Pacific) maintained and operated whole fleets of ferry boats that connected Oakland with San Francisco by water. Early on, the Central Pacific gained control of the existing ferry lines for the purpose of linking the northern rail lines with those from the south and east; during the late 1860s the company purchased nearly every bayside plot in Oakland, creating what author and historian Oscar Lewis described as a "wall around the waterfront" that put the town’s fate squarely in the hands of the corporation.[34] Competitors for ferry passengers or dock space were ruthlessly run out of business, and not even stage coach lines could escape the group's notice, or wrath.

QMRAlthough international relations and international trade have existed for many hundreds of years, it is only in the past century that international development theory emerged as a separate body of ideas.[3] More specifically, it has been suggested that 'the theory and practice of development is inherently technocratic, and remains rooted in the high modernist period of political thought that existed in the immediate aftermath of the Second World War'.[4] Throughout the 20th century, before the concept of international development became a common word, four aspects were used to describe the idea:

political and economic liberalism, and the significance of "free markets"

social evolution in extremely hierarchized environment

Marxist critiques of class and imperialism

anti-colonial take on cultural differences and national self-determination[2]

QMrSolon introduced the ideas of timokratia as a graded oligarchy in his Solonian Constitution for Athens in the early 6th century BCE. His was the first known deliberately implemented form of timocracy, allocating political rights and economic responsibility depending on membership of one of four tiers of the population. Solon defined these tiers by measuring how many bushels of produce each man could produce in a year, namely:

Pentacosiomedimni – "Men of the 500 bushel", those who produced 500 bushels of produce per year, could serve as generals in the army

Hippeis – Knights, those who could equip themselves and one cavalry horse for war, valued at 300 bushels per year

Zeugitae – Tillers, owners of at least one pair of beasts of burden, valued at 200 bushels per year, could serve as Hoplites

Thetes – Manual laborers

N. G. L. Hammond supposes that Solon instituted a graduated tax upon the upper classes, levied in a ratio of 6:3:1, with the lowest class of thetes paying nothing in taxes but remaining ineligible for elected office.

Aristotle later wrote in his Nicomachean Ethics (Book 8, Chapter 10) about three "true political forms" for a state, each of which could appear in corrupt form, becoming one of three negative forms. Aristotle describes timocracy in the sense of rule by property-owners: it comprised one of his true political forms. Aristotelian timocracy approximated to the constitution of Athens, although Athens exemplified the corrupted version of this form, described as democracy.

QMrThe four boxes of liberty is an idea that proposes: "There are four boxes to be used in the defense of liberty: soap, ballot, jury and ammo. Please use in that order."

QMRBy the 1970s, four main types of carnival groups developed in Bahia: Afoxês, Trios Elétricos, "Amerindian" groups, and Blocos Afros. Afoxês use the rhythms of the African inspired religion, Candomblé. They also worship the gods of Candomblé, called orixás. An Electric Trio is characterized by a truck equipped with giant speakers and a platform where musicians play songs of local genres such as axé. People follow the trucks singing and dancing. The "Amerindian" groups were inspired by Western movies from the United States. The groups dress up as Native Americans and take on Native American names. Blocos Afros, or Afro groups, were influenced by the Black Pride Movement in the United States, independence movements in Africa, and reggae music that denounced racism and oppression. The groups inspired a renewed pride in African heritage.

QMRBakhtin's Four Categories[edit]

Mikhail Bakhtin's four categories of the carnivalistic sense of the world: 1. Familiar and free interaction between people: carnival often brought the unlikely of people together and encouraged the interaction and free expression of themselves in unity. 2. Eccentric behaviour: unacceptable behaviour is welcomed and accepted in carnival, and one's natural behaviour can be revealed without the consequences. 3.Carnivalistic misalliances: familiar and free format of carnival allows everything that may normally be separated to reunite- Heaven and Hell, the young and the old, etc. 4. Sacrilegious: Bakhtin believed that carnival allowed for Sacrilegious events to occur without the need for punishment. Bakhtin believed that these kinds of categories are creative theatrical expressions of manifested life experiences in the form of sensual ritualistic performances.

Through the carnival and carnivalesque literature, a "world upside-down" (WUD)[2] is created, ideas and truths are endlessly tested and contested, and all demand equal dialogic status. The “jolly relativity” of all things is proclaimed by alternative voices within the carnivalized literary text that de-privileged the authoritative voice of the hegemony through their mingling of “high culture” with the profane. For Bakhtin it is within literary forms like the novel that one finds the site of resistance to authority and the place where cultural, and potentially political, change can take place.

For Bakhtin, carnivalization has a long and rich historical foundation in the genre of the ancient Menippean satire. In Menippean satire, the three planes of Heaven (Olympus), the Underworld, and Earth are all treated with the logic and activity of Carnival. For example, in the underworld earthly inequalities are dissolved; emperors lose their crowns and meet on equal terms with beggars. This intentional ambiguity allows for the seeds of the “polyphonic” novel, in which narratologic and character voices are set free to speak subversively or shockingly, but without the writer of the text stepping between character and reader.

The carnivalesque was employed in the 1970 film Aranyer Din Ratri (Days and Nights in the Forest), directed by Satyajit Ray.[3]

QMRThe Carnival of French Guiana has roots in Creole culture. Everyone participates – mainland French, Brazilians (Guiana has a frontier with Brazil) and Chinese as well as Creoles.

Its duration is variable, determined by movable religious festivals: Carnival begins at Epiphany and ends on Ash Wednesday, and so typically lasts through most of January and February. During this period, from Friday evening until Monday morning the entire country throbs to the rhythm of masked balls and street parades.

Friday afternoons are for eating galette des rois (the cake of kings) and drinking champagne. The cake may be flavoured with frangipani, guava, or coconut.

On Sunday afternoons major parades fill the streets of Cayenne, Kourou and Saint-Laurent du Maroni. Competing groups prepare for months. Dressed to follow the year's agreed theme, they march with Carnival floats, drums and brass bands.

Brazilian groups are appreciated for their elaborate feathered and sequined costumes. However, they are not eligible for competition since the costumes do not change over time.

Mythical characters appear regularly in the parades:

Karolin − a small person dressed in a magpie tail and top hat, riding on a shrew.

Les Nèg'marrons − groups of men dressed in red loincloths, bearing ripe tomatoes in their mouths while their bodies are smeared with grease or molasses. They deliberately try to come in contact with spectators, soiling their clothes.

Les makoumés − Cross-dressing men (out of the Carnival context, makoumé is a pejorative term for a homosexual).

Soussouris (the bat) − a character dressed in a winged leotard from head to foot, usually black in colour. Traditionally malevolent, this character is liable to chase spectators and "sting" them.

Four touloulous

A uniquely Creole tradition is the touloulous. These women wear decorative gowns, gloves, masks and headdresses that cover them completely, making them unrecognisable, even to the colour of their skin. On Friday and Saturday nights of Carnival, touloulou balls are held in so-called universities; in reality, large dance halls that open only at Carnival time. Touloulous get in free, and are even given condoms in the interest of the sexual health of the community. Men attend the balls, but they pay admittance and are not disguised. The touloulous pick their dance partners, who may not refuse. The setup is designed to make it easy for a woman to create a temporary liaison with a man in total anonymity. Undisguised women are not welcomed. By tradition, if such a woman gets up to dance, the orchestra stops playing. Alcohol is served at bars – the disguised women whisper to the men "touloulou thirsty", at which a round of drinks is expected, to be drunk through a straw protect their anonymity.

In more modern times, Guyanais men have attempted to turn the tables by staging soirées tololo, in which it's the men who, in disguise, seek partners from undisguised women bystanders.

The final four days of Carnival follow a rigid schedule, and no work is done:

Sunday − The Grand Parade, in which the groups compete.

Monday − Marriage burlesque, with men dressed as brides and women as grooms.

Tuesday − Red Devil Day in which everyone wears red or black.

(Ash) Wednesday − Dress is black and white only, for the grand ceremony of burning the effigy of Vaval, King Carnival.

QMRWriters of Sporting News described hitting four home runs in a single Major League Baseball (MLB) game as "baseball's greatest single-game accomplishment".[1] 16 players have accomplished the feat to date, the most recent being Josh Hamilton of the Texas Rangers on May 8, 2012. No player has done this more than once in his career and no player has ever hit more than four in a game. Bobby Lowe was the first to hit four home runs in a single game, doing so on May 30, 1894. Fans were reportedly so excited that they threw $160 in silver coins ($4,400 today) onto the field after his fourth home run.[1][2][3]

16 is the squares of the quadrant model

QMRThe Four King Cousins are an American female harmonizing pop singing group.

Born into a show business family, the cousins are daughters of the members of the singing group The King Sisters. Sisters Tina Cole & Cathy Cole Green are the daughters of King Sister Yvonne King, and musician Buddy Cole; cousin Candy Conkling Brand is the daughter of King Sister Donna King and music executive Jim Conkling, and cousin Carolyn Cameron is the daughter of original King Sister Maxine Thomas and King Family performer LaVarn Thomas.

The members of the Four King Cousins made their individual professional television debuts, along with their mothers, as part of the extended family of musical performers known as the King Family. The King Family starred in two network musical variety television series titled The King Family Show, in addition to seventeen syndicated television specials which aired for over a decade.

QMRThe Four King Cousins are an American female harmonizing pop singing group.

QMrDonald Kagan (/ˈkeɪɡən/; born May 1, 1932) is an American historian and classicist at Yale University specializing in ancient Greece, notable for his four-volume history of the Peloponnesian War. He formerly taught in the Department of History at Cornell University. At present, Kagan is considered among the foremost American scholars of Greek history.

QMrThe Four Lords of the Diamond is a series of four science fiction novels by author Jack L. Chalker. Each volume of the series primarily follows a duplicate of a government agent as he lands on his prison planet and begins to both investigate the menace to the civilized worlds and find his position in his new society. The duplicates realize the stagnancy and corruption of the Confederacy, the intergalactic government in the series, and question their position as tools of the hierarchy. As the series progresses, the primary agent experiences each of his counterparts' divergent experiences and begins to question his beliefs as well. Like much of Chalker's work, the series deals with the effects physical transformations have on a character's personality.

Plot[edit]

The Warden Diamond is a system of four planets, ruled by their own lords, collectively called "The Four Lords of the Diamond". Each planet of the Diamond has its own special "Warden Organism", a symbiotic microorganism that lives within the inhabitants of the planets. However, the organisms destroy their host when he or she leaves the Warden Diamond, making the planet system the ideal prison colony for the Confederacy, a massive space empire.

An android clone that successfully infiltrated a government facility on a central world and downloaded vital defense information, transmits the information to a source and is destroyed in the process. The Confederacy discovers and tracks the clone towards the Warden Diamond, whose four lords are cooperating with an alien race to plan a mutiny against the Confederacy.

The government sends its best agent to investigate. Through technological advances, the government duplicates the personality of the agent (who remains unnamed throughout the series) and implants "him" into four brain-dead host bodies. The four hosts are then sent to four different planets in the Warden system and have no choice but to fulfill their assignment of locating and defeating each of the Four Lords, delaying the expected alien invasion and finding out vital information on the infiltrators.

Style[edit]

Jack L. Chalker's style in the writing of this four book series is that of formula fiction of itself, in that it extensively copies its narrative from book to book, even word for word. Each book opens with a short story about some way the aliens are disrupting the Confederacy, then shifts to the background story of the Confederacy learning of the aliens and of the agent being recruited, briefed and awakening on the prison ship. The story of that is identical in each book. From there, it is, in the first three books, purely an adventure story involving the copied agent trying to assassinate the local Lord, getting a girlfriend and learning a lot about himself in the process. Each of the first three books then close with a discussion between the Agent in the picket ship and his computer partner/overseer. Only the concluding book, Medusa: A Tiger by the Tail, departs a bit from this.

QMR

Beginning around 3000 BC, nomadic pastoralism, with societies focused on the care of livestock for subsistence, appeared independently in four areas in Europe and Asia. The main region was the steppes stretching from the Great Hungarian Plain to the Northeast China Plain, where cattle, sheep, horses, and to a lesser extent yaks and bactrian camels provided sustenance. The second was in Arabia,where one-humped camels were the main animal, with sheep, goats and horses also seen. The third area was a band of societies in areas of eastern and central Africa with a tropical savannah climate. Cattle and goats were found most often in this area, with smaller numbers of sheep, horses and camels. A fourth area, more minor than the others, was found in northern Europe and Asia and was focused on reindeer herding.[25]

The fourth is always different

QMrCenturiation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Centuriation is based on quadrants

Centuriation (in Latin centuriatio or, more usually, limitatio[1]) was a method of land measurement used by the Romans. In many cases land divisions based on the survey formed a field system, often referred to in modern times by the same name. According to O. A. W. Dilke,[2] centuriation combined and developed features of land surveying present in Egypt, Etruria, Greek towns and Greek countryside.

Centuriation is characterised by the regular layout of a square grid traced using surveyors' instruments. It may appear in the form of roads, canals and agricultural plots. In some cases these plots, when formed, were allocated to Roman army veterans in a new colony, but they might also be returned to the indigenous inhabitants, as at Orange (France).[3]

The study of centuriation is very important for reconstructing landscape history in many former areas of the Roman empire.

History[edit]

The Romans began to use centuriation for the foundation, in the fourth century BCE, of new colonies in the ager Sabinus, northeast of Rome. The development of the geometric and operational characteristics that were to become standard came with the founding of the Roman colonies in the Po valley, starting with Ariminum (Rimini) in 268 BCE.[4]

The agrarian law introduced by Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BCE, which included the privatisation of the ager publicus, gave a great impetus to land division through centuriation.[5]

Centuriation was used later for land reclamation and the foundation of new colonies as well as for the allocation of land to veterans of the many civil wars of the late Republic and early Empire, including the battle of Philippi in 42 BCE. This is mentioned by Virgil, in his Eclogues, when he complains explicitly about the allocation of his lands near Mantua to the soldiers who had participated in that battle.

Centuriation was widely used throughout Italy and also in some provinces. For example, careful analysis has identified, in the area between Rome and Salerno, 80 different centuriation systems created at different times.[6]

System and procedure[edit]

Various land division systems were used, but the most common was known as the ager centuriatus system.

The surveyor first identified a central viewpoint, the umbilicus agri or umbilicus soli. He then took up his position there and, looking towards the west, defined the territory with the four following names:

ultra, the land he saw in front of him;

citra, the land behind him;

dextera, the land to his right;

sinistra, the land to his left.

He then traced the grid using an instrument known as a groma, tracing two road axes perpendicular to each other:

the first, generally oriented east-west, was called decumanus maximus, which was traced taking as reference the place where the sun rose in order to know exactly where east was;[7]

the second, with a north-south orientation, was called cardo maximus.

It has been suggested that the Roman centuriation system inspired Thomas Jefferson's proposal to create a grid of townships for survey purposes, which ultimately led to the United States Public Land Survey System. The similarity of the two systems is empirically obvious in certain parts of Italy, for example, where traces of centuriation have remained.[8]

However, Thrower points out that, unlike the later US system, "not all Roman centuriation displays consistent orientation".[9]

This is because, for practical reasons, the orientation of the axes did not always coincide with the four cardinal points and followed instead the orographic features of the area, also taking into account the slope of the land and the flow of rainwater along the drainage channels that were traced (centuriation of Florentia (Florence). In other cases, it was based on the orientation of existing lines of communication (centuriation along the Via Emilia) or other geomorphological features.

Centuriation is typical of flat land, but centuriation systems have also been documented in hilly country.

Centuriation of the surrounding territory[edit]

Sometimes the umbilicus agri was located in a city or a castrum. This central point was generally referred to as groma, from the name of the instrument used by the gromatici (surveyors).

In such cases, the grid was traced by extending the urban cardo maximus and the decumanus maximus through the gates of the city into the surrounding agricultural land.

Parallel secondary roads (limites quintarii) were then traced on both sides of the initial axes at intervals of 100 actus (about 3.5 km). The territory was thus divided into square areas.

The road network density was then increased with other roads parallel to those already traced at a distance from each other of 20 actus (710.40 m). Each of the square areas – 20 × 20 actus – resulting from this further division was called a centuria or century.

This dimension of the centuria became prevalent in the period when the large areas of the Po Valley were delimited, while smaller centuries of 10 × 10 actus, as the name centuria suggests, had formerly been used.[10]

Four--------

Road widths in Roman feet (29.6 cm)

Width Equivalent Name

40 Roman feet 11.84 m decumanus maximus

20 Roman feet 5.92 m cardo maximus

12 Roman feet 3.55 m limites quintarii

8 Roman feet 2.37 m Other roads

The land was divided after the completion of the roads.

Each century was divided into 10 strips, lying parallel to the cardo and the decumanus, with a distance between them of 2 actus (71.04 m), thus forming 100 squares (heredia) of about 0.5 hectares each: 100 heredia = 1 centuria.

Each heredium was divided in half along the north-south axis thus creating two jugera: one jugerum, from jugum (yoke), measured 2523 square metres, which was the amount of land that could be ploughed in one day by a pair of oxen.

Regions where centuriation was used[edit]

Even today, in some parts of Italy, the landscape of the plain is determined by the outcome of Roman centuriation, with the persistence of straight elements (roads, drainage canals, property divisions) which have survived territorial development and are often basic elements of urbanisation, at least until the twentieth century, when the human pressure of urban growth and infrastructures destroyed many of the traces scattered throughout the agricultural countryside.

Significant examples of centuriation in Italy[edit]

Road between Spirano and Stezzano, Province of Bergamo, Italy, following line of Roman centuriation

Cesena, and in particular the country to the north-east and north-west of the city;

Central Romagna;

Padua, eastern area of the province; in this area of Venetia, the geometrical layout of the landscape is known as the Graticolato Romano;

Ager Campanus (Acerra, Capua, Nola, Atella);

Florence (Florentia), first century CE, in the plain to the west to Prato and beyond.

Province of Bergamo: There are still several easily identifiable traces, from the low plain almost to the foot of the hills, for example, the straight road of about ten kilometres between Spirano and Stezzano, through Comun Nuovo; there are also traces of agricultural centuriation identifiable in the street network of Treviglio.[11]

Traces of centuriation in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis (southern France)[edit]

Cadastre of Arausio (Orange)

Béziers

Valence

Orange (Orange B)

Traces of centuriation in the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis (present-day Catalonia, northeastern Spain)[edit]

Tarragona

Empúries

Girona

Barcelona

Cerdanya

Isona (Pallars Jussà)

Guissona

Lleida

els Prats de Rei (antiga Segarra romana)

la Seu d'Urgell o Castellciutat (probable)

Bages (probable)

Castell-rosselló (probable)

QMRThe grid plan, grid street plan or gridiron plan is a type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. In the context of the culture of ancient Rome, the grid plan method of land measurement was called Centuriation.

A grid is quadrants

Staten Island- In 1687 and 1688, the English divided the island into four administrative divisions based on natural features: the 5,100-acre (21 km2) manorial estate of colonial governor Thomas Dongan in the northeastern hills known as the "Lordship or Manner of Cassiltown," along with the North, South, and West divisions. These divisions later evolved into the four towns of Castleton, Northfield,Southfield, and Westfield. In 1698, the population was 727.[18]Unlike the other four boroughs of New York, but like many suburbs, Staten Island has no large, numbered grid system. New Dorp's grid has a few numbered streets but they do not intersect with any numbered avenues. Some neighborhoods, however, organize their street names alphabetically.

QMRMount Vernon is typically thought to be divided into four major sections in four square miles: Downtown, Mount Vernon Heights, North Side, and South Side.

QMRFour Hasidic men from New Square, Benjamin Berger, Jacob Elbaum, David Goldstein, and Kalmen Stern, created a nonexistent Jewish school to receive $30 million United States dollars in education grants, subsidies, and loans from the U.S. federal government.[30] The men were convicted in 1999. In October of that year all four men received prison sentences ranging from 30 months to 78 months. Two other suspects who were indicted left the United States.[31]

Hillary Clinton met with New Square-area Hasidic leaders as part of her Senate campaign. Michael Duffy and Karen Tumulty of Time magazine said that "as far as anyone knows, that was a campaign event only; no pardons were mentioned." Hillary Clinton attended another session with the men, who wanted to see the four Hasidic leaders released. After Hillary Clinton was voted in as a senator, during the morning of December 22 Twersky and an associate visited Bill Clinton in the White House Map Room in Washington, D.C., and asked him to pardon the four men. Hillary Clinton attended the meeting; she said that she did not participate in it and did not discuss the meeting with her husband.[32]

The burrough son New York remind me of the quadrant model with the fifth separate from the other four. The quadrant model is the fourth is different the fifth is ultra transcendent

QMRThe village was originally called "Swift's Landing" after founder John Swift in 1790, and was incorporated as Palmyra in 1827. By 1900, the village had become a railroad and industrial center. Palmyra was a large part of the underground railroad during times of slavery, it is reported to have helped over 2,000 fugitive slaves escape into Canada.

Palmyra claims to be the only city or village in the U.S. to have four churches at a four corner intersection facing each other.[2] It is one of ten places in the world that has four churches on the four corners of two intersecting highways. The "four corners" churches are located at the intersection of New York State Route 21 and New York State Route 31.

Religion Chapter

Qmr lecture 9 introduction religion4 characteristics indigenous religions

Monotheistic

Spirits

Animistic

Magic

Buddhism Chapter

According to Tibetan sources, Atiśa was ordained into the Mahāsāṃghika lineage at the age of twenty-eight by the Abbot Śīlarakṣita and studied almost all Buddhist and non-Buddhist schools of his time, including teachings from Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Tantric Hinduism and other practices. He also studied the sixty-four kinds of art, the art of music and the art of logic and accomplished these studies until the age of twenty-two. Among the many Buddhist lineages he studied, practiced and transmitted the three main lineages were the Lineage of the Profound Action transmitted by Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, the Lineage of Profound View transmitted by Nagarjuna and Candrakīrti, and the Lineage of Profound Experience transmitted by Tilopa and Naropa.[5] It is said that Atiśa had more than 150 teachers, but one key one was Dharmakīrtiśrī.[6]

64 is the four quadrant models

QMRThe annual Tibetan prayer festival Monlam Prayer Festival was established by Tsongkhapa. There he offered service to ten thousand monks. The establishment of the Great Prayer Festival is seen as one of his Four Great Deeds. It celebrates the miraculous deeds of Gautama Buddha.

QMRThe Halloween Gambit (also known as the Müller–Schulze Gambit or Leipzig Gambit) is an aggressive chess opening gambit in which White sacrifices a knight early-on for a single pawn. The opening is an offshoot of the normally staid Four Knights Game and is defined by the moves:

1. e4 e5

2. Nf3 Nc6

3. Nc3 Nf6

4. Nxe5

The theoretician Oskar Cordel reported in 1888 that Leipzig club players used the opening to dangerous effect, but he did not believe it was sound. Their name for it, Gambit Müller und Schulze, was not after any players by those names, but rather a jocular German equivalent of "Smith and Jones", or, "Tom, Dick, and Harry". The modern name "Halloween Gambit" was given by the German player Steffen Jakob, who explained that "Many players are shocked, the way they would be frightened by a Halloween mask, when they are mentally prepared for a boring Four Knight's, and then they are faced with Nxe5".[1]

White's objective is to seize the center with pawns and drive back Black's knights. After 4... Nxe5, White usually plays 5. d4 (5.f4 does nothing for his development), after which Black can retreat the attacked knight to either g6 or c6.

Christianity Chapter

QMR I already did this one in a previous book

John can be divided into four sections: prologue (chapter 1); the narrative of Jesus' ministry, sometimes called the "book of signs" (chapters 2-11)); the passion and resurrection narrative, or "book of glory" (chapters 12-20); and epilogue (chapter 21). The structure is highly schematic: there are seven "signs" culminating in the raising of Lazarus (foreshadowing the raising of Jesus), and seven "I am" sayings and discourses, culminating in Thomas' proclamation of Jesus as "my lord and my God" - the same title claimed by the Roman emperor Domitian. [27]

Prologue (John 1): Jesus is placed in his cosmic setting as the eternal Logos who reveals God and gives salvation to believers; John the Baptist, Andrew and Nathanael bear witness to him as Lamb of God, Son of God, and Messiah.[28]

Jesus' ministry (the "book of signs" - John 2-12): The narrative of Jesus' public ministry consists of seven miracles or "signs," interspersed with long dialogues and discourses and "I am" sayings, culminating with the raising of Lazarus from the dead. In John it is this, and not the cleansing of the temple incident, that prompts the authorities to have Jesus executed.

Passion and resurrection (the "book of glory" - John 13-20): The passion narrative opens with an account of the Last Supper that differs significantly from that found in the synoptics, with Jesus washing the disciples' feet instead of ushering in a new covenant of his body and blood.[29] This is followed by Jesus' farewell discourses, an account of his arrest, trial, death and burial, his resurrection appearances, and his final commission for his followers. The section ends with a conclusion on the purpose of the gospel, "that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name".[28]

Epilogue (John 21): Chapter 21 tells of Jesus' post-resurrection appearance to his disciples by the lake, the miraculous catch of fish, the restoration of Peter, and the fate of the "beloved disciple".[30] A large majority of scholars believes this chapter to be an addition to the gospel.[31]

QMRThe Gospel According to John (also referred to as the Gospel of John, the Fourth Gospel, or simply John; Greek: Τὸ κατὰ Ἰωάννην εὐαγγέλιον, to kata Ioannen euangelion) is one of the four canonical gospels in the Christian Bible. In the New Testament it traditionally appears fourth, after the synoptic gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. John begins with the witness and affirmation of John the Baptist and concludes with the death, burial, resurrection, and post-resurrection appearances of Jesus.

Chapter 21 states that the book derives from the testimony of the "disciple whom Jesus loved" and early church tradition identified him as John the Apostle, one of Jesus' Twelve Apostles. The gospel is closely related in style and content to the three surviving Epistles of John such that commentators treat the four books,[1] along with the Book of Revelation, as a single body of Johannine literature. According to some modern scholars, however, the apostle John was not the author of any of these books.[2]

Charles Barrett,[3] and later Raymond E. Brown,[4] proposed the development of a tradition around the "John's Community" from which the gospel arose.[5] Likewise, the discovery of a huge number of papyrus fragments with the johannine thematic has led to more scholars to recognize that the texts of this Community, called the Johannine literature, was one of the most influential mainstreams in the early times of Christianity.[6]

The discourses seem to be concerned with issues of the church-and-synagogue debate at the time when the Gospel was written.[7] It is notable that, in the gospel, the community appears to define itself primarily in contrast to Judaism, rather than as part of a wider Christian community.[8] Though Christianity started as a movement within Judaism, it gradually separated from Judaism because of Christian and Jewish opposition to each other.[9]

QMRModern criticism can be broken down into three main sections: (1) Foundations with Bauer to Braun (1934–1935), (2) Heyday with Schnackenburg to Koester (1959–60), (3) Uneasy supremacy from Hengel to Hangel (1989–2000).[64]

Walter Bauer opened the modern discussion on John with his book Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum.[65] Bauer's thesis is that "the heretics probably outnumbered the orthodox" in the early Christian world and that heresy and orthodoxy were not as narrowly defined as we now define them.[66] He was "convinced that none of the Apostolic Fathers had relied on the authority of the Fourth Gospel. It was the gnostics, the Marcionites, and the Montanists who first used it and introduced it to the Christian community."[67]

J.N. Sanders, who wrote The Fourth Gospel in the Early Church, examined "the alleged parallels with John in Ignatius, Polycarp, Barnabas, and the Epistle to Diognetus, and concluded that there was no certain traces of the Fourth Gospel's influence among any of the Apostolic Fathers."[68] Sanders argued the book originated in Alexandria.[69]

The Gospel of John states explicitly in its text that it was written by the "disciple whom Jesus loved", so a great deal of effort has been put into determining who this person might be. Traditionally he is identified as John the Apostle, since otherwise, one of the most important apostles in the other Gospels would be entirely missing in the fourth gospel. However, critical scholars have suggested some other possibilities.

Filson, Sanders, Vernard Eller, Rudolf Steiner, and Ben Witherington suggest Lazarus, since John 11:3 and 11:36 specifically indicates that Jesus "loved" him.

Parker suggested that this disciple might be John Mark; nonetheless, the Acts of the Apostles indicate that John Mark was very young and a late-comer as a disciple. J. Colson suggested that "John" was a priest in Jerusalem, explaining the alleged priestly mentality in the fourth gospel. R. Schnackenburg suggested that "John" was an otherwise unknown resident of Jerusalem who was in Jesus' circle of friends. The Gospel of Philip and the Gospel of Mary identify Mary Magdalene as the disciple whom Jesus loved, a connection that has been analyzed by Esther de Boer[70] and made notorious in the fictional The Da Vinci Code. Finally, a few authors, such as Loisy and Bultmann and Hans-Martin Schenke, see "the Beloved Disciple" as a purely symbolic creation, an idealized pseudonym for the group of authors.

QMrGospel of John[edit]

Main article: Gospel of John

While evidence regarding the author is slight, some scholars believe this gospel developed from a school or Johannine circle working at the end of the 1st century, possibly in Ephesus.[11]

Most 19th-century scholars[who?] denied historical value of the work, largely basing their conclusions on seven particular theses:[citation needed] first, that the tradition of authorship by John the Apostle was created ex post facto to support the book's authority; second, that the book does not proceed even indirectly from an eyewitness account; third, that the book was intended as an apologetic work, not a history; fourth, that the Synoptic tradition was used and adapted very freely by the author; fifth, that these deviations are not due to the application of other sources unknown to the authors of the Synoptic gospels; sixth, that the discourses in the Gospel express not Jesus' words, but those of the evangelist; and therefore, that the fourth Gospel has no value in supplementing the Synoptics. Some 19th-century scholars, however, agreed with the traditional authorship view.[12]

In favor of the historical and eyewitness character of the Gospel, a few passages are cited. John's chronology for the death of Jesus seems more realistic, because the Synoptic Gospels would have the trial before the Sanhedrin occurring on the first day of the Passover, which was a day of rest. Schonfield agrees that the Gospel was the product of the Apostle's great age, but further identifies him as the Beloved Disciple of the Last Supper, and so believes that the Gospel is based on first hand witness, though decades later and perhaps through the assistance of a younger follower and writer, which may account for the mixture of Hebraicisms (from the Disciple) and Greek idiom (from the assistant).

Fredriksen sees the Fourth Gospel's unique explanation for Jesus' arrest and crucifixion as the most historically plausible: "The priests' motivation is clear and commonsensical: 'If we let [Jesus] go on.. the Romans will come and destroy both our holy place and our nation.' Caiaphas continues, 'It is expedient that one man should die for the people, that the whole nation not perish' (John 11:48,50).[13]

QMRAssassination attempts and plots on Presidents of the United States have been numerous: more than 20 attempts to kill sitting and former presidents, as well as the Presidents-elect, are known. Four sitting presidents have been killed, all of them by gunshot: Abraham Lincoln (the 16th President), James A. Garfield (the 20th President), William McKinley (the 25th President) and John F. Kennedy (the 35th President). Two presidents were injured in attempted assassinations, also by gunshot: Theodore Roosevelt (the 26th President) and Ronald Reagan (the 40th President). With the exception of Lyndon Johnson, every president's life since John F. Kennedy has been threatened with assassination.

QMRApostasy in the Letter to the Hebrews[edit]

The Epistle to the Hebrews is the classic text on the subject of apostasy in the New Testament.[27] New Testament scholar Scot McKnight argues that the warning passages (2:1–4; 3:7–4:13; 5:11–6:12; 10:19–39; 12:1–29) should be read and interpreted "as an organic whole, each of which expresses four components of the author’s message."[28] These four components are "(1) the subjects or audience in danger of committing the sin, (2) the sin that leads to (3) the exhortation, which if not followed, leads to (4) the consequences of that sin."[29] McKnight concluded from his study that (1) the subjects of this letter were genuine "believers, persons who . . . had converted to Jesus Christ,” (2) The sin "is apostasy, a deliberate and public act of deconfessing Jesus Christ, a rejection of God's Spirit, and a refusal to submit to God and His will," (3) the exhortation is "to a persevering faithfulness to God and his revelation of the new covenant in Jesus Christ," (4) the consequences involve "eternal damnation if a person does not persevere in the faith."[30]

Imagery of Apostasy in the Bible[edit]

The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery states that "There are at least four distinct images in Scripture of the concept of apostasy. All connote an intentional defection from the faith."[31] These images are: Rebellion; Turning Away; Falling Away; Adultery.[32]

Rebellion[edit]

"In classical literature apostasia was used to denote a coup or defection. By extension the LXX[33] always uses it to portray a rebellion against God (Joshua 22:22; 2 Chronicles 29:19)."[32]

Turning away[edit]

"Apostasy is also pictured as the heart turning away from God (Jeremiah 17:5–6) and righteousness (Ezekiel 3:20). In the OT it centers on Israel's breaking covenant relationship with God through disobedience to the law (Jeremiah 2:19), especially following other gods (Judges 2:19) and practicing their immorality (Daniel 9:9–11). . . . Following the Lord or journeying with him is one of the chief images of faithfulness in the Scriptures. . . . The . . . Hebrew root (swr) is used to picture those who have turned away and ceased to follow God ('I am grieved that I have made Saul king, because he has turned away from me,' 1 Samuel 15:11). . . . The image of turning away from the Lord, who is the rightful leader, and following behind false gods is the dominant image for apostasy in the Old Testament."[32]

Falling away[edit]

"The image of falling, with the sense of going to eternal destruction, is particularly evident in the New Testament. . . . In his [Christ’s] parable of the wise and foolish builder, in which the house built on sand falls with a crash in the midst of a storm (Matthew 7:24–27) . . . he painted a highly memorable image of the dangers of falling spiritually."[34]

Adultery[edit]

One of the most common images for apostasy in the Old Testament is adultery.[35] "Apostasy is symbolized as Israel the faithless spouse turning away from Yahweh her marriage partner to pursue the advances of other gods (Jeremiah 2:1–3; Ezekiel 16). . . . 'Your children have forsaken me and sworn by god that are not gods. I supplied all their needs, yet they committed adultery and thronged to the houses of prostitutes' (Jeremiah 5:7, NIV). Adultery is used most often to graphically name the horror of the betrayal and covenant breaking involved in idolatry. Like literal adultery it does include the idea of someone blinded by infatuation, in this case for an idol: 'How I have been grieved by their adulterous hearts . . . which have lusted after their idols' (Ezekiel 6:9)."[32]

QMRThe Christian understanding of apostasy is "a willful falling away from, or rebellion against, Christian truth. Apostasy is the rejection of Christ by one who has been a Christian ...", though many believe that biblically this is impossible ('once saved, forever saved').[45] "Apostasy is the antonym of conversion; it is deconversion."[46] The Greek noun apostasia (rebellion, abandonment, state of apostasy, defection)[47] is found only twice in the New Testament (Acts 21:21; 2 Thessalonians 2:3).[48] However, "the concept of apostasy is found throughout Scripture."[49] The Dictionary of Biblical Imagery states that "There are at least four distinct images in Scripture of the concept of apostasy. All connote an intentional defection from the faith."[50] These images are: Rebellion; Turning Away; Falling Away; Adultery.[51]

Rebellion: "In classical literature apostasia was used to denote a coup or defection. By extension the Septuagint always uses it to portray a rebellion against God (Joshua 22:22; 2 Chronicles 29:19)."[51]

Turning away: "Apostasy is also pictured as the heart turning away from God (Jeremiah 17:5-6) and righteousness (Ezekiel 3:20). In the OT it centers on Israel's breaking covenant relationship with God through disobedience to the law (Jeremiah 2:19), especially following other gods (Judges 2:19) and practicing their immorality (Daniel 9:9-11) ... Following the Lord or journeying with him is one of the chief images of faithfulness in the Scriptures ... The ... Hebrew root (swr) is used to picture those who have turned away and ceased to follow God ('I am grieved that I have made Saul king, because he has turned away from me,' 1 Samuel 15:11) ... The image of turning away from the Lord, who is the rightful leader, and following behind false gods is the dominant image for apostasy in the OT."[51]

Falling away: "The image of falling, with the sense of going to eternal destruction, is particularly evident in the New Testament ... In his [Christ's] parable of the wise and foolish builder, in which the house built on sand falls with a crash in the midst of a storm (Matthew 7:24-27) ... he painted a highly memorable image of the dangers of falling spiritually."[52]

Adultery: One of the most common images for apostasy in the Old Testament is adultery.[51] "Apostasy is symbolized as Israel the faithless spouse turning away from Yahweh her marriage partner to pursue the advances of other gods (Jeremiah 2:1-3; Ezekiel 16) ... 'Your children have forsaken me and sworn by god that are not gods. I supplied all their needs, yet they committed adultery and thronged to the houses of prostitutes' (Jeremiah 5:7, NIV). Adultery is used most often to graphically name the horror of the betrayal and covenant breaking involved in idolatry. Like literal adultery it does include the idea of someone blinded by infatuation, in this case for an idol: 'How I have been grieved by their adulterous hearts ... which have lusted after their idols' (Ezekiel 6:9)."[51]

QMRKenneth Alven "Ken" Brett (September 18, 1948 – November 18, 2003) was a Major League Baseball pitcher and the second of four Brett brothers who played professional baseball, the most notable being the youngest, George Brett. Ken played for 10 teams in his 14-year MLB career.[1]

QMRRock-paper-scissors is a zero-sum hand game usually played between two people, in which each player simultaneously forms one of three shapes with an outstretched hand. These shapes are "rock" (a simple fist), "paper" (a flat hand), and "scissors" (a fist with the index and middle fingers together forming a V). The game has only three possible outcomes other than a tie: a player who decides to play rock will beat another player who has chosen scissors ("rock crushes scissors") but will lose to one who has played paper ("paper covers rock"); a play of paper will lose to a play of scissors ("scissors cut paper"). If both players throw the same shape, the game is tied and is usually immediately replayed to break the tie. Other names for the game in the English-speaking world include roshambo and other orderings of the three items, sometimes with "rock" being called "stone".[1][2][3]

The players usually count aloud to 3, or speak the name of the game (e.g. "Rock Paper Scissors!" or "Ro Sham Bo!"), each time either raising one hand in a fist and swinging it down on the count or holding it behind. On the fourth count (saying, "Shoot!" or "Sho!"), the players change their hands into one of three gestures, which they then "throw" by extending it towards their opponent. Variations include a version where players use only three counts before throwing their gesture (thus throwing on the count of "Scissors!" or "Bo!"), or a version where they shake their hands three times before "throwing."

The fourth is always different

Four Boats Stranded: Red and Yellow, Black and White was installed upon the roof of the Vancouver Art Gallery in 2001

QMRNaming conventions[edit]

What it is now commonly known as 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel are called by the Vulgate, in imitation of the Septuagint, 1 Kings and 2 Kings respectively.

To avoid confusion, the designation "First and Second Books of Samuel" is adopted by Catholic writers when referring to the Hebrew text, otherwise "First and Second Books of Kings" is commonly used. The testimony of Origen, St. Jerome, etc., confirmed by the Massoretic summary appended to the second book, as well as by the Hebrew MSS., shows that the two books originally formed but one, entitled "Samuel". This title was chosen not only because Samuel is the principal figure in the first part, but probably also because, by having been instrumental in the establishment of the kingdom and in the selection of Saul and David as kings, he may be said to have been a determining factor in the history of the whole period comprised by the book. The division into two books was first introduced into the Septuagint, to conform to the shorter and more convenient size of scrolls in vogue among the Greeks. The Book of Kings was divided at the same time, and the four books, being considered as a consecutive history of the Kingdoms of Israel and Juda, were named "Books of the Kingdoms" (Basileiôn biblía). St. Jerome retained the division into four books, which from the Septuagint had passed into the Itala, or old Latin translation, but changed the name "Books of the Kingdoms" (Libri Regnorum) into "Books of the Kings" (Libri Regum). The Hebrew text of the Books of Samuel and of the Books of Kings was first divided in Bomberg's edition of the rabbinical Bible (Venice, 1516-17), the individual books being distinguished as I B. of Samuel and II B. of Samuel, I B. of Kings and II B. of Kings. This nomenclature was adopted in the subsequent editions of the Hebrew Bible and in the Protestant translations, and thus became current among nonCatholics.[6]

qMRBefore the advent of the two platoon system with separate units for offense and defense, the player who was the team's center on offense was often, though not always, the team's linebacker on defense. Hence today one usually sees four defensive linemen to the offense's five or more. Most sources claim coach Fielding H. Yost and center Germany Schulz of the University of Michigan invented the position.[1][2][3][4][5] Schulz was Yost's first linebacker in 1904 when he stood up from his usual position on the line. Yost was horrified at first, but came to see the wisdom in Schulz's innovation.[6] William Dunn of Penn St. was another Western linebacker soon after Schulz.

QMRI Am Number Four is a young adult science fiction novel by Pittacus Lore (the pseudonym of James Frey and Jobie Hughes) and the first book in the Lorien Legacies series. The book was published by HarperCollins on August 3, 2010, and spent seven successive weeks at #1 on the children's chapter of The New York Times bestseller list.[1][2]

MQR"Four Horsemen of the Non-Apocalypse"[edit]

Clockwise from top left: Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens, Daniel Dennett, and Sam Harris.

According to Richard Dawkins, "We are all atheists about most of the gods that societies have ever believed in. Some of us just go one god further."[5]

During "The God Debate" in 2010 featuring Christopher Hitchens vs Dinesh D'Souza the group of prominent atheists (Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens, Sam Harris, and Daniel Dennett) were referred to as the "Four Horsemen of the Non-Apocalypse",[6][citation needed] a reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse mentioned in the Book of Revelation in the Bible.[original research?]

Harris is the author of the bestselling non-fiction books, The End of Faith, Letter to a Christian Nation, The Moral Landscape, and Waking Up: A Guide to Spirituality Without Religion, as well as two shorter works initially published as e-Books, Free Will[7] and Lying.[8] Harris is a co-founder of the Reason Project.

Richard Dawkins is the author of The God Delusion,[9] which was preceded by a Channel 4 television documentary titled The Root of all Evil?. He is also the founder of the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science.

Christopher Hitchens was the author of God Is Not Great[10] and was named among the "Top 100 Public Intellectuals" by Foreign Policy and Prospect magazine. In addition Hitchens served on the advisory board of the Secular Coalition for America. In 2010 Hitchens published his memoir Hitch-22 (a nickname provided by close personal friend Salman Rushdie, whom Hitchens always supported during and following The Satanic Verses controversy).[11] Shortly after its publication, Hitchens was diagnosed with esophageal cancer, which led to his death in December 2011.[12] Before his death, Hitchens published a collection of essays and articles in his book Arguably;[13] a short edition Mortality[14] was published posthumously in 2012. These publications and numerous public appearances provided Hitchens with a platform to remain an astute atheist during his illness, even speaking specifically on the culture of deathbed conversions and condemning attempts to convert the terminally ill, which he opposed as "bad taste".[15][16]

Daniel Dennett, author of Darwin's Dangerous Idea,[17] Breaking the Spell[18] and many others, has also been a vocal supporter of The Clergy Project,[19] an organization which provides support for clergy in the US who no longer believe in God, and cannot fully participate in their communities any longer.[20]

The Thunderbirds were practicing at Indian Springs Air Force Auxiliary Field, Nevada (now Creech Air Force Base) for a performance at Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona.[2] Four T-38As, Numbers 1–4, comprising the basic diamond formation, hit the desert floor almost simultaneously on Range 65, now referred to as "The Gathering of Eagles Range".[3] The pilots were practicing the four-plane line abreast loop, in which the aircraft climb in side-by-side formation several thousand feet, pull over in a slow, inside loop, and descend at more than 400 mph. The planes were meant to level off at about 100 feet (30 m); Instead, the formation struck the ground at high speed.[4]

The four pilots died instantly: Major Norm Lowry, III, leader, 37, of Radford, Virginia; Captain Willie Mays, left wing, 31, of Ripley, Tennessee; Captain Joseph "Pete" Peterson, right wing, 32, of Tuskegee, Alabama; and Captain Mark E. Melancon, slot, 31, of Dallas, Texas.

Col. Mike Wallace, of the Public Information Office at nearby Nellis AFB, home of the demonstration team, said that Major General Gerald D. Larson, the head of an Air Force investigation board, arrived at Nellis from New Hampshire at 10 p.m. that night. "Larson and a team of 10 to 15 experts are expected to spend three weeks studying the wreckage of the four T-38s – the worst [training] crash in the 28-year history of the Air Force aerial demonstration team. The jets crashed almost simultaneously with what near-by Indian Springs residents described as an earthquake-like explosion that looked like a napalm bomb. Wreckage was strewn across a 1-square-mile area of the desert 60 miles north of Las Vegas."[5]

Initial speculation was that the accident might have been due to pilot error, that the leader might have misjudged his altitude or speed and the other three pilots repeated the error.[4] However, the Air Force concluded that the crash was due to a jammed stabilizer on the lead jet. The other pilots, in accordance with their training, did not break formation.[6]

QMRThe four TI-class supertankers are the largest ships currently in service by deadweight tonnage. Two ships have been converted to floating storage and offloading (FSO) units.

QMRGenesis 2:10–14 lists four rivers in association with the garden of Eden: Pishon, Gihon, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. It also refers to the land of Cush - translated/interpreted as Ethiopia, but thought by some to equate to Cossaea, a Greek name for the land of the Kassites.[10] These lands lie north of Elam, immediately to the east of ancient Babylon, which, unlike Ethiopia, does lie within the region being described.[11] In Antiquities of the Jews, the first-century Jewish historian Josephus identifies the Pishon as what "the Greeks called Ganges" and the Geon (Gehon) as the Nile.[12]

QMRFour Bridges is a census-designated place (CDP) in Liberty Township, Butler County, Ohio, United States. The population was 2,919 at the 2010 census.[3]

QMR4 Way Street is the third album by Crosby, Stills & Nash, their second as Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, and their first live album. It was originally released as Atlantic Records SD-2-902, shipping as a gold record and peaking at #1 on the Billboard 200. A document of their tour from the previous year, the live recordings presented were taken from shows at The Fillmore East, New York on June 2 through June 7, 1970; The Forum, Los Angeles on June 26 through June 28, 1970; and The Chicago Auditorium, Chicago, on July 5, 1970.

Background[edit]

At the time this album was recorded, tensions between the band members were high, with their dressing-room fights becoming the stuff of rock legend, even being referenced by Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention in their 1971 LP Fillmore East - June 1971. The tensions led to CSNY dissolving shortly after the recording of 4 Way Street; they would reconvene for a stadium tour in the summer of 1974. The next release of new studio material by the firm proper would not be until the CSN album of 1977.

Content[edit]

The original double album LP came packaged in typical CSNY fashion, a gatefold sleeve without a track listing. On the gatefold was a black-and-white picture of the band sitting on a bench, with the heads of Graham Nash and David Crosby perfectly framed by a wire clothes hanger hanging in front of them, with recording information and credits in the lower-right-hand corner. The only track listings appear on the album's labels and on the fold-out poster that also included full lyrics.

The album contained material previously available in studio versions, from both the combined and individual work of the four principals, except four songs which had not been officially released as yet: two by Nash, "Chicago" and "Right Between The Eyes" (the former to appear one month later on Songs for Beginners), and two by Crosby, "The Lee Shore" and "Triad." His controversial ménage à trois composition, "Triad" had been released by Jefferson Airplane on their Crown of Creation album. Crosby's former band The Byrds recorded but did not release it during their The Notorious Byrd Brothers sessions.

Reception[edit]

The album went to #1 upon its release[3] and also garnered a positive review in Rolling Stone where the reviewer called it "their best album to date."[4] Other more recent reviews have also been positive.[1]

Nash produced an expanded form of 4 Way Street for compact disc, released on June 15, 1992. The expanded edition included four solo performances on acoustic guitars, one by each member. Neil Young performed a medley of three songs from his first two solo albums; Stephen Stills included "Black Queen" from his eponymous debut; Crosby contributed "Laughing" from his debut; and Nash performed "King Midas In Reverse", The Hollies' single from 1967, which although credited to Allan Clarke, Nash and Tony Hicks, was written solely by Nash.[5]

Additional tracks from the tour appeared on the CSN box set released in 1991, as well as Young's The Archives Vol. 1 1963–1972 released in 2009.

Track listing[edit]

Bonus tracks for 1992 compact disc reissue appear appended to disc one after sides one and two. Disc two contains sides three and four.

Side one[edit]

No. Title Writer(s) Length

1. "Suite: Judy Blue Eyes" Stephen Stills 0:33

2. "On the Way Home" Neil Young 3:19

3. "Teach Your Children" Graham Nash 2:46

4. "Triad" David Crosby 5:07

5. "The Lee Shore" David Crosby 4:14

6. "Chicago" Graham Nash 3:03

Side two[edit]

No. Title Writer(s) Length

1. "Right Between the Eyes" Graham Nash 2:19

2. "Cowgirl in the Sand" Neil Young 3:50

3. "Don't Let It Bring You Down" Neil Young 2:35

4. "Medley: 49 Bye-Byes/For What It's Worth/America's Children" Stephen Stills 4:07

5. "Love the One You're With" Stephen Stills 2:57

1992 bonus track listing[edit]

No. Title Writer(s) Length

12. "King Midas In Reverse" Allan Clarke, Tony Hicks, Graham Nash 3:43

13. "Laughing" David Crosby 3:36

14. "Black Queen" Stephen Stills 6:45

15. "Medley: The Loner/Cinnamon Girl/Down by the River" Neil Young 9:41

Side three[edit]

No. Title Writer(s) Length

1. "Pre-Road Downs" Graham Nash 2:48

2. "Long Time Gone" David Crosby 5:33

3. "Southern Man" Neil Young 13:15

Side four[edit]

No. Title Writer(s) Length

1. "Ohio" Neil Young 3:24

2. "Carry On" Stephen Stills 13:06

3. "Find the Cost of Freedom" Stephen Stills 2:16

Personnel[edit]

QMR"Ohio" is a protest song and counterculture anthem written and composed by Neil Young in reaction to the Kent State shootings of May 4, 1970, and performed by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young.[1] It was released as a single, backed with Stephen Stills's "Find the Cost of Freedom", peaking at number 14 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Although a live version of "Ohio" was included on the group's 1971 double album Four Way Street, the studio versions of both songs did not appear on an LP until the group's compilation So Far was released in 1974. The song also appeared on the Neil Young compilation albums Decade, released in 1977, and Greatest Hits, released in 2004.The record was mastered with the participation of the four principals, rush-released by Atlantic and heard on the radio with only a few weeks' delay. (This was despite the group already having their hit song "Teach Your Children" on the charts at the time.) In his liner notes for the song on the Decade retrospective, Young termed the Kent State incident as 'probably the biggest lesson ever learned at an American place of learning' and reported that "David Crosby cried when we finished this take."[3] Indeed, Crosby can be heard keening "Four, why? Why did they die?" and "How many more?" in the fade.The lyrics help evoke the turbulent mood of horror, outrage and shock in the wake of the shootings, especially the line "four dead in Ohio," repeated throughout the song. "Tin soldiers and Nixon coming" refers to the Kent State shootings where Ohio National Guardsmen shot and killed four students and Young's attribution of their deaths to the President of the United States, Richard Nixon, even though the National Guardsmen had not been federalized and were under orders from the Governor of Ohio. Crosby once stated that Young keeping Nixon's name in the lyrics was "the bravest thing I ever heard." The American counterculture took the group as its own after this song, giving the four a status as leaders and spokesmen they would enjoy to varying extent for the rest of the decade.

Islam Chapter

In Islam, the named archangels[29] include:

Gabriel (Jibril in Arabic). Gabriel is said to be the archangel responsible for revealing the Quran to Muhammad and inducing him to recite it. Gabriel is known as the angel who communicates with the prophets. Various hadiths (traditions) mention his role in delivering messages from "God the Almighty" to the prophets.

Michael (Mikhail in Arabic). Michael is often depicted as the archangel of mercy who is responsible for bringing rain and thunder to Earth.[30]

Raphael (Israfel or Israafiyl). According to tradition, Israfel is the angel responsible for signaling the coming of Judgment Day by blowing a horn/trumpet. It translates in Hebrew as Raphael.[31]

Azrail , in the Quran (Surah al-Sajdah 32:11) is responsible for parting the soul from the body.

QMrOccultists sometimes associate archangels in Kabbalistic fashion with various seasons or elements, or even colors. In some Kabbalah-based systems of ceremonial magic, all four of the main archangels (Gabriel, Michael, Raphael and Uriel) are invoked as guarding the four quarters, or directions, and their corresponding colors are associated with magical properties.[32] Lucifer or Sataniel in Judeo-Christian traditions, or Iblis in Islam, is considered an archangel by Satanists and many non-Satanists, but non-Satanists consider him evil and fallen from God's grace.

Hinduism Chapter

Quadrant Model of Reality

Sunday, April 10, 2016

Quadrant Model of Reality Book 30 Science and Religion

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