Quadrant Model of Reality: Quadrant Model of Reality Book 38 Science and Religion

The quadrant theory is a theory of intelligent design describing that reality is organized around a pattern called the quadrant model pattern. Previous books discuss the nature of this pattern.

March 21 Facebook-11:00

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

QMRTVS Jupiter is a variomatic scooter launched in September 2013 by TVS Motor Company.[1] The launch of the scooter marked the company's entry into the 'Male Segment.[2]

It is powered by a single cylinder, four stroke, 110 cc engine and delivers 5.88 kW (7.88 bhp) at 7500 rpm. The scooter delivers a pick-up of 0 to 60 kmph in 11.2 seconds.[3][4] The scooter has an 'Econometer' and has a fuel efficiency of 62 kmpl per the manufacturer.[5]

QMRThe planet Jupiter has a system of rings known as the rings of Jupiter or the Jovian ring system. It was the third ring system to be discovered in the Solar System, after those of Saturn and Uranus. It was first observed in 1979 by the Voyager 1 space probe[1] and thoroughly investigated in the 1990s by the Galileo orbiter.[2] It has also been observed by the Hubble Space Telescope and from Earth for the past 23 years.[3] Ground-based observations of the rings require the largest available telescopes.[4]

The Jovian ring system is faint and consists mainly of dust.[1][5] It has four main components: a thick inner torus of particles known as the "halo ring"; a relatively bright, exceptionally thin "main ring"; and two wide, thick and faint outer "gossamer rings", named for the moons of whose material they are composed: Amalthea and Thebe.[6]A schema of Jupiter's ring system showing the four main components. For simplicity, Metis and Adrastea are depicted as sharing their orbit.

Discovery and structure[edit]

Jupiter's ring system was the third to be discovered in the Solar System, after those of Saturn and Uranus. It was first observed in 1979 by the Voyager 1 space probe.[1] It comprises four main components: a thick inner torus of particles known as the "halo ring"; a relatively bright, exceptionally thin "main ring"; and two wide, thick and faint outer "gossamer rings", named after the moons of whose material they are composed: Amalthea and Thebe.[6] The principal attributes of the known Jovian Rings are listed in the table.[2][5][6][8]

Name Radius (km) Width (km) Thickness (km) Optical depth[a] (in τ) Dust fraction Mass, kg Notes

Halo ring 92000–122500 30500 12500 ~1 × 10−6 100% —

Main ring 122500–129000 6500 30–300 5.9 × 10−6 ~25% 107– 109 (dust)

1011– 1016 (large particles) Bounded by Adrastea

Amalthea gossamer ring 129000–182000 53000 2000 ~1 × 10−7 100% 107– 109 Connected with Amalthea

Thebe gossamer ring 129000–226000 97000 8400 ~3 × 10−8 100% 107– 109 Connected with Thebe. There is an extension beyond the orbit of Thebe.

Jupiter has four small inner moons and four large outer moons

QMRGroups[edit]

The orbits of Jupiter's irregular satellites, and how they cluster into groups: by semi-major axis (the horizontal axis in Gm); by orbital inclination (the vertical axis); and orbital eccentricity (the yellow lines). The relative sizes are indicated by the circles.

Regular satellites[edit]

These have prograde and nearly circular orbits of low inclination and are split into two groups:

Inner satellites or Amalthea group: Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea, and Thebe. These orbit very close to Jupiter; the innermost two orbit in less than a Jovian day. The latter two are respectively the fifth and seventh largest moons in the Jovian system. Observations suggest that at least the largest member, Amalthea, did not form on its present orbit, but farther from the planet, or that it is a captured Solar System body.[29] These moons, along with a number of as-yet-unseen inner moonlets, replenish and maintain Jupiter's faint ring system. Metis and Adrastea help to maintain Jupiter's main ring, whereas Amalthea and Thebe each maintain their own faint outer rings.[30][31]

Main group or Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. They are some of the largest objects in the Solar System outside the Sun and the eight planets in terms of mass and are larger than any known dwarf planet, Ganymede exceeding even the planet Mercury in diameter. They are respectively the fourth-, sixth-, first-, and third-largest natural satellites in the Solar System, containing approximately 99.997% of the total mass in orbit around Jupiter. Jupiter is almost 5,000 times more massive than the Galilean moons.[note 1] The inner moons are in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance. Models suggest that they formed by slow accretion in the low-density Jovian subnebula—a disc of the gas and dust that existed around Jupiter after its formation—which lasted up to 10 million years in the case of Callisto.[32] Several are suspected of having subsurface oceans.

QMRThe Jupiter (officially known as Central Pacific Railroad #60) was a 4-4-0 steam locomotive which made history as one of the two locomotives (the other being the Union Pacific No. 119) to meet at Promontory Summit during the Golden Spike ceremony commemorating the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad.

The Jupiter was built in September 1868 by the Schenectady Locomotive Works of New York, along with three other engines, numbered 61, 62, and 63, named the Storm, Whirlwind, and Leviathan, respectively. These four engines were then dismantled and sailed to San Francisco, California, where they were loaded onto a river barge and sent to the Central Pacific headquarters in Sacramento, then reassembled and commissioned into service on March 20, 1869.

QMRJupiter's association with kingship and sovereignty was reinterpreted as Rome's form of government changed. Originally, Rome was ruled by kings; after the monarchy was abolished and the Republic established, religious prerogatives were transferred to the patres, the patrician ruling class. Nostalgia for the kingship (affectatio regni) was considered treasonous. Those suspected of harbouring monarchical ambitions were punished, regardless of their service to the state. In the 5th century BC, the triumphator Camillus was sent into exile after he drove a chariot with a team of four white horses (quadriga)—an honour reserved for Jupiter himself. When Marcus Manlius, whose defense of the Capitol against the invading Gauls had earned him the name Capitolinus, was accused of regal pretensions, he was executed as a traitor by being cast from the Tarpeian Rock. His house on the Capitoline Hill was razed, and it was decreed that no patrician should ever be allowed to live there.[12] Capitoline Jupiter found himself in a delicate position: he represented a continuity of royal power from the Regal period, and conferred power on the magistrates who payed their respects to him; at the same time he embodied that which was now forbidden, abhorred, and scorned.[13]

QMRTraditional solar: Europe and East Asia[edit]

Solar timing is based on insolation in which the solstices and equinoxes are seen as the midpoints of the seasons. It was the method for reckoning seasons in medieval Europe, especially by the Celts, and is still ceremonially observed in some east Asian countries. Summer is defined as the quarter of the year with the greatest insolation and winter as the quarter with the least.

The solar seasons change at the cross-quarter days, which are about 3–4 weeks earlier than the meteorological seasons and 6–7 weeks earlier than seasons starting at equinoxes and solstices. Thus, the day of greatest insolation is designated "midsummer" as noted in William Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream, which is set on the summer solstice. On the Celtic calendar, the traditional first day of winter is 1 November (Samhain, the Celtic origin of Halloween); spring starts 1 February (Imbolc, the Celtic origin of Groundhog Day); summer begins 1 May (Beltane, the Celtic origin of May Day); the first day of autumn is 1 August (Celtic Lughnasadh). The Celtic dates corresponded to four Pagan agricultural festivals.

The traditional calendar in China forms the basis of other such systems in East Asia. Its seasons are traditionally based on 24 periods known as solar terms.[15] The four seasons chūn (春), xià (夏), qiū (秋), and dōng (冬) are universally translated as "spring", "summer", "autumn", and "winter" but actually begin much earlier, with the solstices and equinoxes forming the midday of each season rather than their start. Astronomically, the seasons are said to begin on Lichun (立春, lit. "standing spring") on 7 February, Lixia (立夏) on 10 May, Liqiu (立秋) on 10 August, and Lidong (立冬) on 10 November. These dates were not part of the traditional lunar calendar, however, and moveable holidays such as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Festival are more closely associated with the seasons.

An Empire style chariot clock depicting an allegory of the four seasons. France, c. 1822.

QMRThe four calendar seasons, depicted in an ancient Roman mosaic from Tunisia.

QMRMercury-Atlas 4 was an unmanned spaceflight of the Mercury program. It was launched on September 13, 1961 at 14:09 UTC from Launch Complex 14 at Cape Canaveral, Florida. A Crewman Simulator instrument package was aboard. The craft orbited the Earth once.

Simulator in spacecraft

At this time, NASA was getting increasingly frustrated with the Atlas's poor launch record. Of four Mercury-Atlas flights so far, two (MA-1 and MA-3) had been total failures

QMRFour spacecraft have visited Saturn; Pioneer 11, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 made flybys, while Cassini–Huygens entered orbit, and deployed a probe into the atmosphere of Titan.

QMRMercury also designed Queen's logo, called the Queen crest, shortly before the release of the band's first album.[8] The logo combines the zodiac signs of all four members: two lions for Leo (Deacon and Taylor), a crab for Cancer (May), and two fairies for Virgo (Mercury).

QMRThe 8th-century alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latinized as Geber) analyzed each classical element in terms of the four basic qualities. Fire was both hot and dry, earth cold and dry, water cold and moist, and air hot and moist. He theorized that every metal was a combination of these four principles, two of them interior and two exterior. From this premise, it was reasoned that the transmutation of one metal into another could be effected by the rearrangement of its basic qualities. This change would presumably be mediated by a substance, which came to be called al-iksir in Arabic (from which the Western term elixir is derived). It is often considered to exist as a dry red powder (also known as al-Kibrit al-Ahmar الكبريت الأحمر—red sulphur) made from a legendary stone—the philosopher's stone.[6][7] Jabir's theory was based on the concept that metals like gold and silver could be hidden in alloys and ores, from which they could be recovered by the appropriate chemical treatment. Jabir himself is believed to be the inventor of aqua regia, a mixture of muriatic (hydrochloric) and nitric acids, one of the few substances that can dissolve gold (and which is still often used for gold recovery and purification).[citation needed]

QMRThe Venus processing engine for digital cameras is an image processor developed by Panasonic, and almost all of their Lumix cameras use a version of it. It is based on the Panasonic MN103/MN103S.

Image processors operate in four steps: receive data from the CCD sensor, create the Y-color difference signal (image processing), perform JPEG compression, and save the image data. Panasonic claims that its VENUS II processing engine performs all of these simultaneously.

QMRThe Venus flytrap exhibits variations in petiole shape and length and whether the leaf lies flat on the ground or extends up at an angle of about 40–60 degrees. The four major forms are: 'typica', the most common, with broad decumbent petioles; 'erecta', with leaves at a 45-degree angle; 'linearis', with narrow petioles and leaves at 45 degrees; and 'filiformis', with extremely narrow or linearpetioles. Except for 'filiformis', all of these can be stages in leaf production of any plant depending on season (decumbent in summer versus short versus semi-erect in spring), length of photoperiod (long petioles in spring versus short in summer), and intensity of light (wide petioles in low light intensity versus narrow in brighter light).[citation needed]

QMRSaturn's magnetosphere is often divided into four regions.[18] The innermost region co-located with Saturn's planetary rings, inside approximately 3 Rs, has a strictly dipolar magnetic field. It is largely devoid of plasma, which is absorbed by ring particles, although the radiation belts of Saturn are located in this innermost region just inside and outside the rings.[18] The second region between 3 and 6 Rs contains the cold plasma torus and is called the inner magnetosphere. It contains the densest plasma in the saturnian system. The plasma in the torus originates from the inner icy moons and particularly from Enceladus.[18] The magnetic field in this region is also mostly dipolar.[19] The third region lies between 6 and 12–14 Rs and is called the dynamic and extended plasma sheet. The magnetic field in this region is stretched and non-dipolar,[18] whereas the plasma is confined to a thin equatorial plasma sheet.[19] The fourth outermost region is located beyond 15 Rs at high latitudes and continues up to magnetopause boundary. It is characterized by a low plasma density and a variable, non-dipolar magnetic field strongly influenced by the Solar wind.[18]

QMROuter large moons[edit]

These moons all orbit beyond the E Ring. They are:

A spherical body is almost fully illuminated. Its grayish surface is covered by numerous circular craters. The terminator is located near the upper-right limb. A large crater can be seen near the limb in the upper-left part of the body. Another smaller bright crater can be seen in the center. It is surrounded by a large bright patch having the shape of a five-pointed star.

Inktomi or "The Splat", a relatively young crater with prominent butterfly-shaped ejecta on Rhea's leading hemisphere

Rhea is the second-largest of Saturn's moons.[44] In 2005 Cassini detected a depletion of electrons in the plasma wake of Rhea, which forms when the co-rotating plasma of Saturn's magnetosphere is absorbed by the moon.[22] The depletion was hypothesized to be caused by the presence of dust-sized particles concentrated in a few faint equatorial rings.[22] Such a ring system would make Rhea the only moon in the Solar System known to have rings.[22] However, subsequent targeted observations of the putative ring plane from several angles by Cassini's narrow-angle camera turned up no evidence of the expected ring material, leaving the origin of the plasma observations unresolved.[53] Otherwise Rhea has rather a typical heavily cratered surface,[45] with the exceptions of a few large Dione-type fractures (wispy terrain) on the trailing hemisphere[54] and a very faint "line" of material at the equator that may have been deposited by material deorbiting from present or former rings.[55] Rhea also has two very large impact basins on its anti-Saturnian hemisphere, which are about 400 and 500 km across.[54] The first, Tirawa, is roughly comparable to the Odysseus basin on Tethys.[45] There is also a 48 km-diameter impact crater called Inktomi[56][b] at 112°W that is prominent because of an extended system of bright rays,[57] which may be one of the youngest craters on the inner moons of Saturn.[54] No evidence of any endogenic activity has been discovered on the surface of Rhea.[54]

Three crescent moons of Saturn: Titan, Mimas and Rhea

Titan, at 5,150 km diameter, is the second largest moon in the Solar System and Saturn's largest.[34] Out of all the large moons, Titan is the only one with a dense (surface pressure of 1.5 atm), cold atmosphere, primarily made of nitrogen with a small fraction of methane.[58] The dense atmosphere frequently produces bright white convective clouds, especially over the south pole region.[58] On June 6, 2013, scientists at the IAA-CSIC reported the detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the upper atmosphere of Titan.[59] On June 23, 2014, NASA claimed to have strong evidence that nitrogen in the atmosphere of Titan came from materials in the Oort cloud, associated with comets, and not from the materials that formed Saturn in earlier times.[60] The surface of Titan, which is difficult to observe due to persistent atmospheric haze, shows only a few impact craters and is probably very young.[58] It contains a pattern of light and dark regions, flow channels and possibly cryovolcanos.[58][61] Some dark regions are covered by longitudinal dune fields shaped by tidal winds, where sand is made of frozen water or hydrocarbons.[62] Titan is the only body in the Solar System beside Earth with bodies of liquid on its surface, in the form of methane–ethane lakes in Titan's north and south polar regions.[63] The largest lake, Kraken Mare, is larger than the Caspian Sea.[64] Like Europa and Ganymede, it is believed that Titan has a subsurface ocean made of water mixed with ammonia, which can erupt to the surface of the moon and lead to cryovolcanism.[61] On July 2, 2014, NASA reported the ocean inside Titan may be "as salty as the Earth's Dead Sea".[65][66]

Hyperion is Titan's nearest neighbor in the Saturn system. The two moons are locked in a 4:3 mean-motion resonance with each other, meaning that while Titan makes four revolutions around Saturn, Hyperion makes exactly three.[34] With an average diameter of about 270 km, Hyperion is smaller and lighter than Mimas.[67] It has an extremely irregular shape, and a very odd, tan-colored icy surface resembling a sponge, though its interior may be partially porous as well.[67] The average density of about 0.55 g/cm3[67] indicates that the porosity exceeds 40% even assuming it has a purely icy composition. The surface of Hyperion is covered with numerous impact craters—those with diameters 2–10 km are especially abundant.[67] It is the only moon besides the small moons of Pluto known to have a chaotic rotation, which means Hyperion has no well-defined poles or equator. While on short timescales the satellite approximately rotates around its long axis at a rate of 72–75° per day, on longer timescales its axis of rotation (spin vector) wanders chaotically across the sky.[67] This makes the rotational behavior of Hyperion essentially unpredictable.[68]

A part of a spherical body illuminated from the above and behind. The convex limb runs from the lower-left to the upper-right corner. The black outer space is in the upper-left corner. The terminator is near the bottom. The surface of the body is covered with numerous craters. A large ridge runs in the center from the top to bottom.

Equatorial ridge on Iapetus

Iapetus is the third-largest of Saturn's moons.[44] Orbiting the planet at 3.5 million km, it is by far the most distant of Saturn's large moons, and also has the largest orbital inclination, at 15.47°.[35] Iapetus has long been known for its unusual two-toned surface; its leading hemisphere is pitch-black and its trailing hemisphere is almost as bright as fresh snow.[69] Cassini images showed that the dark material is confined to a large near-equatorial area on the leading hemisphere called Cassini Regio, which extends approximately from 40°N to 40°S.[69] The pole regions of Iapetus are as bright as its trailing hemisphere. Cassini also discovered a 20 km tall equatorial ridge, which spans nearly the moon's entire equator.[69] Otherwise both dark and bright surfaces of Iapetus are old and heavily cratered. The images revealed at least four large impact basins with diameters from 380 to 550 km and numerous smaller impact craters.[69] No evidence of any endogenic activity has been discovered.[69] A clue to the origin of the dark material covering part of Iapetus's starkly dichromatic surface may have been found in 2009, when NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope discovered a vast, nearly invisible disk around Saturn, just inside the orbit of the moon Phoebe—the Phoebe ring.[70] Scientists believe that the disk originates from dust and ice particles kicked up by impacts on Phoebe. Because the disk particles, like Phoebe itself, orbit in the opposite direction to Iapetus, Iapetus collides with them as they drift in the direction of Saturn, darkening its leading hemisphere slightly.[70] Once a difference in albedo, and hence in average temperature, was established between different regions of Iapetus, a thermal runaway process of water ice sublimation from warmer regions and deposition of water vapor onto colder regions ensued. Iapetus's present two-toned appearance results from the contrast between the bright, primarily ice-coated areas and regions of dark lag, the residue left behind after the loss of surface ice.[71][72]

They are four

QMRInner large moons[edit]

A circular part of a grayish surface, which is intersected from the top-left to the bottom-right by four wide sinuous groves. Smaller and shorter grooves can be seen between them running either parallel to the large grooves or criss-crossing them. There is a rough terrain in the top-left corner.

Tiger stripes on Enceladus

Saturn's rings and moons

Tethys, Hyperion and Prometheus

Tethys and Janus

The innermost large moons of Saturn orbit within its tenuous E Ring. They are four

Mimas is the smallest and least massive of the inner round moons,[34] although its mass is sufficient to alter the orbit of Methone.[43] It is noticeably ovoid-shaped, having been made shorter at the poles and longer at the equator (by about 20 km) by the effects of Saturn's gravity.[44] Mimas has a large impact crater one-third its diameter, Herschel, situated on its leading hemisphere.[45] Mimas has no known past or present geologic activity, and its surface is dominated by impact craters. The only tectonic features known are a few arcuate and linear troughs, which probably formed when Mimas was shattered by the Herschel impact.[45]

Enceladus is one of the smallest of Saturn's moons that is spherical in shape—only Mimas is smaller[44]—yet is the only small Saturnian moon that is currently endogenously active, and the smallest known body in the Solar System that is geologically active today.[46] Its surface is morphologically diverse; it includes ancient heavily cratered terrain as well as younger smooth areas with few impact craters. Many plains on Enceladus are fractured and intersected by systems of lineaments.[46] The area around its south pole was found by Cassini to be unusually warm and cut by a system of fractures about 130 km long called "tiger stripes", some of which emit jets of water vapor and dust.[46] These jets form a large plume off its south pole, which replenishes Saturn's E ring[46] and serves as the main source of ions in the magnetosphere of Saturn.[47] The gas and dust are released with a rate of more than 100 kg/s. Enceladus may have liquid water underneath the south-polar surface.[46] The source of the energy for this cryovolcanism is thought to be a 2:1 mean-motion resonance with Dione.[46] The pure ice on the surface makes Enceladus one of the brightest known objects in the Solar System—its geometrical albedo is more than 140%.[46]

Tethys is the third largest of Saturn's inner moons.[34] Its most prominent features are a large (400 km diameter) impact crater named Odysseus on its leading hemisphere and a vast canyon system named Ithaca Chasma extending at least 270° around Tethys.[45] The Ithaca Chasma is concentric with Odysseus, and these two features may be related. Tethys appears to have no current geological activity. A heavily cratered hilly terrain occupies the majority of its surface, while a smaller and smoother plains region lies on the hemisphere opposite to that of Odysseus.[45] The plains contain fewer craters and are apparently younger. A sharp boundary separates them from the cratered terrain. There is also a system of extensional troughs radiating away from Odysseus.[45] The density of Tethys (0.985 g/cm3) is less than that of water, indicating that it is made mainly of water ice with only a small fraction of rock.[33]

Dione is the second-largest inner moon of Saturn. It has a higher density than the geologically dead Rhea, the largest inner moon, but lower than that of active Enceladus.[44] While the majority of Dione's surface is heavily cratered old terrain, this moon is also covered with an extensive network of troughs and lineaments, indicating that in the past it had global tectonic activity.[48] The troughs and lineaments are especially prominent on the trailing hemisphere, where several intersecting sets of fractures form what is called "wispy terrain".[48] The cratered plains have a few large impact craters reaching 250 km in diameter.[45] Smooth plains with low impact-crater counts are present as well on a small fraction its surface.[49] They were probably tectonically resurfaced relatively later in the geological history of Dione. At two locations within smooth plains strange landforms (depressions) resembling oblong impact craters have been identified, both of which lie at the centers of radiating networks of cracks and troughs;[49] these features may be cryovolcanic in origin. Dione may be geologically active even now, although on a scale much smaller than the cryovolcanism of Enceladus. This follows from Cassini magnetic measurements that show Dione is a net source of plasma in the magnetosphere of Saturn, much like Enceladus.[49]

rin

QMRThe two Viking landers each carried four types of biological experiments to the surface of Mars in the late 1970s. These were the first Mars landers to carry out experiments to look for biosignatures of microbial life on Mars. The landers used a robotic arm to put soil samples into sealed test containers on the craft. The two landers were identical, so the same tests were carried out at two places on Mars' surface, Viking 1 near the equator and Viking 2 further north.[1]

mars science laboratory wiki

QMRThe Martin JRM Mars is a large, four-engined cargo transport seaplane originally designed and built in limited numbers for the U.S. Navy during the World War II era. It was the largest Allied flying boat to enter production, although only seven were built. The United States Navy contracted the development of the XPB2M-1 Mars in 1938 as a long range ocean patrol flying boat, which later entered production as the JRM Mars long range transport.

QMRThere have been four successful robotically operated Mars rovers. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed the Mars Pathfinder mission and its now inactive Sojourner rover. It currently manages the Mars Exploration Rover mission's active Opportunity rover and inactive Spirit, and, as part of the Mars Science Laboratory mission, the Curiosity rover.

QMRHistory[edit]

Titania was discovered by William Herschel on January 11, 1787, the same day he discovered Uranus's second largest moon, Oberon.[1][9] He later reported the discoveries of four more satellites,[10] although they were subsequently revealed as spurious.[11] For nearly fifty years following their discovery, Titania and Oberon would not be observed by any instrument other than WilliamHerschel's,[12] although the moon can be seen from Earth with a present-day high-end amateur telescope.[8]

Size comparison of Earth, the Moon, and Titania.

All of Uranus's moons are named after characters created by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. The name Titania was taken from the Queen of the Fairies in A Midsummer Night's Dream.[13] The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by Herschel's son John in 1852, at the request of William Lassell,[14] who had discovered the other two moons, Ariel and Umbriel, the year before.[15]

Titania was initially referred to as "the first satellite of Uranus", and in 1848 was given the designation Uranus I by William Lassell,[16] although he sometimes used William Herschel's numbering (where Titania and Oberon are II and IV).[17] In 1851 Lassell eventually numbered all four known satellites in order of their distance from the planet by Roman numerals, and since then Titania has been designated Uranus III.[18]

Shakespeare's character's name is pronounced /tᵻˈtɑːnjə/, but the moon is often pronounced /taɪˈteɪniə/, by analogy with the familiar chemical element titanium.[2] The adjectival form, Titanian, is homonymous with that of Saturn's moon Titan. The name Titania is ancient Greek in origin, meaning "Daughter of the Titans."

QMROberon was discovered by William Herschel on January 11, 1787; on the same day he discovered Uranus's largest moon, Titania.[1][10] He later reported the discoveries of four more satellites,[11] although they were subsequently revealed as spurious.[12] For nearly fifty years following their discovery, Titania and Oberon would not be observed by any instrument other than William Herschel's,[13] although the moon can be seen from Earth with a present-day high-end amateur telescope.[9]

All of the moons of Uranus are named after characters created by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. The name Oberon was derived from Oberon, the King of the Fairies in A Midsummer Night's Dream.[14] The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by Herschel's son John in 1852, at the request of William Lassell,[15] who had discovered the other two moons, Ariel and Umbriel, the year before.[16] The adjectival form of the name is Oberonian, /ˌɒbəˈroʊniən/.[2]

Oberon was initially referred to as "the second satellite of Uranus", and in 1848 was given the designation Uranus II by William Lassell,[17] although he sometimes used William Herschel's numbering (where Titania and Oberon are II and IV).[18] In 1851 Lassell eventually numbered all four known satellites in order of their distance from the planet by Roman numerals, and since then Oberon has been designated Uranus IV.[19]

QMRMiranda was discovered on 16 February 1948 by planetary astronomer Gerard Kuiper using the McDonald Observatory's 82-inch (2,080 mm) Otto Struve Telescope.[5][6] Its motion around Uranus was confirmed on 1 March 1948.[5] It was the first satellite of Uranus discovered in nearly 100 years. Kuiper elected to name the object "Miranda" after the character in Shakespeare's The Tempest, because the four previously discovered moons of Uranus, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon, had all been named after characters of Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. However, the previous moons had been named specifically after fairies,[7] whereas Miranda was a human. Subsequently discovered satellites of Uranus were named after Shakespearean characters, whether fairies or not.

QMRA giant planet is any massive planet. They are usually primarily composed of low-boiling-point materials (gases or ices), rather than rock or other solid matter, but massive solid planets can also exist. There are four giant planets in the Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Many extrasolar giant planets have been identified orbiting other stars.

QMRDiscovered on 24 October 1851 by William Lassell, it is named for a sky spirit in Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock and Shakespeare's The Tempest.

Both Ariel and the slightly larger Uranian satellite Umbriel were discovered by William Lassell on 24 October 1851.[10][11] Although William Herschel, who discovered Uranus's two largest moons Titania and Oberon in 1787, claimed to have observed four additional moons,[12] this was never confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious.[13][14][15]

All of Uranus's moons are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock. The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell.[16] Ariel is named after the leading sylph in The Rape of the Lock.[17] It is also the name of the spirit who serves Prospero in Shakespeare's The Tempest.[18] The moon is also designated Uranus I.[11]

Spurious moons[edit]

After Herschel discovered Titania and Oberon on January 11, 1787, he subsequently believed that he had observed four other moons: two on January 18 and February 9, 1790, and two more on February 28 and March 26, 1794. It was thus believed for many decades thereafter that Uranus had a system of six satellites, though the four latter moons were never confirmed by any other astronomer. Lassell's observations of 1851, in which he discovered Ariel and Umbriel, however, failed to support Herschel's observations; Ariel and Umbriel, which Herschel certainly ought to have seen if he had seen any satellites beside Titania and Oberon, did not correspond to any of Herschel's four additional satellites in orbital characteristics. Herschel's four spurious satellites were thought to have sidereal periods of 5.89 days (interior to Titania), 10.96 days (between Titania and Oberon), 38.08 days, and 107.69 days (exterior to Oberon).[14] It was therefore concluded that Herschel's four satellites were spurious, probably arising from the misidentification of faint stars in the vicinity of Uranus as satellites, and the credit for the discovery of Ariel and Umbriel was given to Lassell.[15]

QMRDiscovery[edit]

The moons of Uranus- The first two moons to be discovered were Titania and Oberon which were spotted by Sir William Herschel on January 11, 1787, six years after he had discovered the planet itself. Later, Herschel thought he had discovered up to six moons (see below) and perhaps even a ring. For nearly 50 years, Herschel's instrument was the only one with which the moons had been seen.[4] In the 1840s, better instruments and a more favorable position of Uranus in the sky led to sporadic indications of satellites additional to Titania and Oberon. Eventually, the next two moons, Ariel and Umbriel, were discovered by William Lassell in 1851.[5] The Roman numbering scheme of Uranus's moons was in a state of flux for a considerable time, and publications hesitated between Herschel's designations (where Titania and Oberon are Uranus II and IV) and William Lassell's (where they are sometimes I and II).[6] With the confirmation of Ariel and Umbriel, Lassell numbered the moons I through IV from Uranus outward, and this finally stuck.[7] In 1852, Herschel's son John Herschel gave the four then-known moons their names.[8]

The fourth is always different. The fifth is always questionable. There are five main moons of Uranus. The fifth was not found until a lot later.No other discoveries were made for almost another century. In 1948, Gerard Kuiper at the McDonald Observatory discovered the smallest and the last of the five large, spherical moons, Miranda.[8][9] Decades later, the flyby of the Voyager 2 space probe in January 1986 led to the discovery of ten further inner moons.[2] Another satellite, Perdita, was retroactively discovered in 1999[10] after studying old Voyager photographs.[11]

QMRSidera Lodoicea /ˈsɪdərə ˌloʊdoʊˈɪsiə/ is the name given by the astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini to the four moons of Saturn discovered by him in the years 1671, 1672, and 1684 and published in his Découverte de deux nouvelles planètes autour de Saturne in 1673 and in the Journal des sçavans in 1686. These satellites are today known by the following names, given in 1847:

Iapetus or Saturn VIII, discovered October 25, 1671

Rhea or Saturn V, discovered December 23, 1672

Tethys or Saturn III, discovered March 21, 1684

Dione or Saturn IV, discovered March 21, 1684

Iapetus

Rhea

Tethys

Dione

The name Sidera Lodoicea means "Louisian Stars", from Latin sidus "star" and Lodoiceus, a nonce adjective coined from Lodoicus, one of several Latin forms of the French name Louis (reflecting an older form, Lodhuwig). Cassini intended the name to honor King Louis XIV of France, who reigned from 1643 to 1715, and who was Cassini's benefactor as patron of the Paris Observatory, of which Cassini was the director.

The name was modelled on Sidera Medicea, "Medicean stars", the Latin name used by Galileo to name the four Galilean satellites of Jupiter, in honor of the Florentine house of Medici.

Louis XIV

The following contemporary (1686) notice records Cassini's choice of name, and explains his rationale for the same:

In the Conclusion, the Discoverer considers that the Antient Astronomers, having translated the Names of their Heroes among the Starrs, those Names have continued down to us unchanged, notwithstanding the endeavour of following Ages to alter them; and that Galileo, after their Example, had honoured the House of the Medici with the discovery of the Satellites of Jupiter, made by him under the Protection of Cosmus II; which Starrs will be always known by the Name of Sidera Medicea. Wherefore he concludes that the Satellites of Saturn, being much more exalted and more difficult to discover, are not unworthy to bear the Name of Louis le Grand, under whose Reign and in whose Observatory the same have been detected, which therefore he calls Sidera Lodoicea, not doubting but to have perpetuated the Name of that King, by a Monument much more lasting than those of Brass and Marble, which shall be erected to his Memory.[1]

QMRS-IC first stage[edit]

Main article: S-IC

The first stage of Apollo 8 Saturn V being erected in the VAB on February 1, 1968

The S-IC was built by the Boeing Company at the Michoud Assembly Facility, New Orleans, where the Space Shuttle External Tanks would later be built by Lockheed Martin. Most of its mass of over 4,400,000 pounds (2,000 metric tons) at launch was propellant, RP-1 fuel with liquid oxygen as oxidizer.[20] It was 138 feet (42 m) tall and 33 feet (10 m) in diameter, and provided over 7,600,000 pounds-force (34,000 kN) of thrust. The S-IC stage had a dry weight of about 289,000 pounds (131 metric tons) and fully fueled at launch had a total weight of 5,100,000 pounds (2,300 metric tons). It was powered by five Rocketdyne F-1 engines arrayed in a quincunx (five units, with four arranged in a square, and the fifth in the center) The center engine was held in a fixed position, while the four outer engines could be hydraulically turned (gimballed) to steer the rocket.[20] In flight, the center engine was turned off about 26 seconds earlier than the outboard engines to limit acceleration. During launch, the S-IC fired its engines for 168 seconds (ignition occurred about 8.9 seconds before liftoff) and at engine cutoff, the vehicle was at an altitude of about 36 nautical miles (67 km), was downrange about 50 nautical miles (93 km), and was moving about 7,500 feet per second (2,300 m/s).[21]

QMRIn 104 BC, the plebeian tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus issued a denarius depicting Saturn driving a four-horse chariot (quadriga), a vehicle associated with rulers, triumphing generals, and sun gods. Saturninus was a popularist politician who had proposed reduced-price grain distribution to the poor of Rome. The head of the goddess Roma appears on the obverse. The Saturnian imagery played on the tribune's name and his intent to alter the social hierarchy to his advantage by basing his political support on the common people (plebs) rather than the senatorial elite.[57]

This decision allowed for the naming of Makemake and Haumea, and their formal recognition as plutoids and dwarf planets, bringing the number of IAU-accepted plutoids to four. However, the (co)discoverer of Eris, Makemake, and Haumea, Mike Brown, estimates that between 100 and 400 known bodies are plutoids, and that there are many more that have yet to be discovered. See list of possible dwarf planets.

QMRA plutoid or ice dwarf is a trans-Neptunian dwarf planet, i.e. a body orbiting beyond Neptune that is massive enough to be rounded in shape. The term plutoid was adopted by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) working group Committee on Small Bodies Nomenclature, but was rejected by the IAU working group Planetary System Nomenclature.[1] The term plutoid is not widely used by astronomers, though ice dwarf is not uncommon.

There are thought to be thousands of plutoids in the Solar System, although only four have been formally designated as such by the IAU.

Chemistry Chapter

QMRChipotle's menu consists of four items: burritos, bowls, tacos, and salads. The price of each item is based on the choice of chicken, pork carnitas (available only in some locations),[87][88] barbacoa, steak, tofu-based "sofritas",[89][90] or vegetarian (with guacamole). Additional optional toppings include rice, beans, four types of salsa, sour cream, cheese, or lettuce.[91][92] When asked in 2007 about expanding the menu, Steve Ells said, "[I]t's important to keep the menu focused, because if you just do a few things, you can ensure that you do them better than anybody else."[93] Chipotle also offers a children's menu.[94][95] Most restaurants sell beer and margaritas in addition to soft drinks and fruit drinks.[96]

QMRAccording to Plato, the four elements are derived from a common source or prima materia (first matter), associated with chaos. Prima materia is also the name alchemists assign to the starting ingredient for the creation of the philosopher's stone. The importance of this philosophical first matter persisted throughout the history of alchemy. In the seventeenth century, Thomas Vaughan writes, "the first matter of the stone is the very same with the first matter of all things".[5]

Biology Chapter

QMRIn molecular biology, ATP-binding domain of ABC transporters is a water-soluble domain of transmembrane ABC transporters.

ABC transporters belong to the ATP-Binding Cassette superfamily, which uses the hydrolysis of ATP to translocate a variety of compounds across biological membranes. ABC transporters are minimally constituted of two conserved regions: a highly conserved ATP binding cassette (ABC) and a less conserved transmembrane domain (TMD). These regions can be found on the same protein or on two different ones. Most ABC transporters function as a dimer and therefore are constituted of four domains, two ABC modules and two TMDs

QMRA wisdom tooth or third molar is one of the three molars per quadrant of the human dentition. It is the most posterior (most distal) of the three. Wisdom teeth generally erupt between the ages of 17 and 25.[1] Most adults have four wisdom teeth (a third molar in each of the four quadrants), but it is possible to have fewer or more, in which case the extras are called supernumerary teeth. Wisdom teeth commonly affect other teeth as they develop[citation needed], becoming impacted or "coming in sideways." They are often extracted when this occurs.

Psychology Chapter

QMRBruce Tuckman[edit]

Main article: Bruce Tuckman

Bruce Tuckman (1965) proposed the four-stage model called Tuckman's Stages for a group. Tuckman's model states that the ideal group decision-making process should occur in four stages:

Forming (pretending to get on or get along with others)

Storming (letting down the politeness barrier and trying to get down to the issues even if tempers flare up)

Norming (getting used to each other and developing trust and productivity)

Performing (working in a group to a common goal on a highly efficient and cooperative basis)

Tuckman later added a fifth stage for the dissolution of a group called adjourning. (Adjourning may also be referred to as mourning, i.e. mourning the adjournment of the group). This model refers to the overall pattern of the group, but of course individuals within a group work in different ways. If distrust persists, a group may never even get to the norming stage.

One criticism of symbolic racism is that it has been conceptualized and measured inconsistently over time.[4] Sometimes it has been conceptualized as consisting of a single construct and other times as consisting of multiple subdimensions. Most scholars now consistently describe symbolic racism as being composed of the four major components listed by Tarman and Sears.[1] Tarman and Sears posit that consistently defining it as based on those four themes will eliminate the inconsistency problems. The updated symbolic racism scale, Symbolic Racism 2000 (SR2K), is believed to have addressed many issues in measurement inconsistency.[1]

Another criticism is that symbolic racism is not true racism but a manifestation of conservative political ideology. Tarman and Sears evaluated this claim and concluded that symbolic racism is an independent belief system encompassing discrete attitudes from those of conservatives.[1]

Some scholars have suggested that the focus has moved prematurely from old-fashioned racism to modern racism. In a qualitative study, Mellor (2003) conducted interviews with Aboriginal Australians in which he discovered that many experience racism and that much of it is old-fashioned rather than modern.[19] He argues that social scientists may have embraced forms of modern racism too quickly, which could have negative impacts on minorities by helping to maintain discriminatory social institutions.[19]

The concept of symbolic racism has evolved over time but most writings currently define symbolic racism as containing four themes:[1]

Racial discrimination is no longer a serious obstacle to blacks' prospects for a good life.

Blacks' continuing disadvantages are largely due to their unwillingness to work hard enough.

Blacks' continuing demands are unwarranted.

Blacks' increased advantages are also unwarranted.

QMrSymbolic racism (modern-symbolic racism, modern racism,[1] symbolic prejudice) is a coherent belief system that reflects an underlying unidimensional prejudice towards Black people in the United States. These beliefs include the stereotype that Blacks are morally inferior to White people, and that they violate traditional White American values such as hard work and independence. These beliefs may cause the subject to discriminate against Black people and to justify this discrimination as a concern for justice.[2] Some prejudiced people do not view symbolic racism as prejudice since it is not linked directly to race but indirectly through social and political issues.[3]

Sears and Henry characterize symbolic racism as the expression or endorsement of four specific themes or beliefs:[4]

Blacks no longer face much prejudice or discrimination.

The failure of blacks to progress results from their unwillingness to work hard enough.

Blacks are demanding too much too fast.

Blacks have gotten more than they deserve.

QMRComponents of the theory[edit]

The four generally accepted components in integrated threat theory are realistic threats, symbolic threat, intergroup anxiety, and negative stereotypes.

Realistic threats[edit]

These are threats that pose a realistic danger to the in-group. These can include physical threats, threats to economic and political power, and threats to existence. These threats are broad, encompassing any threat to the group, and are based on perception. The threat does not have to be actual, only perceived to be existent to be a threat. This component was originally developed as a part of realistic group conflict theory by Robert LeVine, Donald T. Campbell, and Muzafer Sherif.

Symbolic threat[edit]

These are the perceived differences between group morals, standards, beliefs, and attitudes. This is a threat to the group's worldview rather than to its physical well-being.

Intergroup anxiety[edit]

These are anxieties based on intergroup interaction and that the outcome would be negative for the self, such as embarrassment, rejection, or ridicule. In integrated threat theory, the anxieties are physically measured to calculate prejudice.

Negative stereotypes[edit]

These create a sense that an outgroup poses a threat and a negative outcome through interaction. In essence, this is a fear of negative consequence through interaction with an outgroup.

QMRAnother contemporary theory is the integrated threat theory (ITT), which was developed by Walter G Stephan.[12] It draws from and builds upon several other psychological explanations of prejudice and ingroup/outgroup behaviour, such as the realistic conflict theory and symbolic racism.[13] It also uses the social identity theory perspective as the basis for its validity; that is, it assumes that individuals operate in a group-based context where group memberships form a part of individual identity. ITT posits that outgroup prejudice and discrimination is caused when individuals perceive an outgroup to be threatening in some way. ITT defines four threats:

Realistic threats

Symbolic threats

Intergroup anxiety

Negative stereotypes

QMrSelf-regulation theory (SRT) is a system of conscious personal management that involves the process of guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors, and feelings to reach goals. Self-regulation consists of several stages, and individuals must function as contributors to their own motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences. Roy Baumeister, one of the leading social psychologists who have studied self-regulation, claims it has four components: standards of desirable behavior, motivation to meet standards, monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards, and lastly, willpower.[1] Baumeister along with other colleagues developed three models of self-regulation designed to explain its cognitive accessibility: self-regulation as a knowledge structure, strength, or skill. Studies have been done to determine that the strength model is generally supported, because it is a limited resource in the brain and only a given amount of self-regulation can occur until that resource is depleted.[2] SRT can be applied to impulse control, management of short-term desires, cognitive bias of illusion of control, pain, goal attainment and motivation, or illness behavior, and failure can be explained by either under- or mis-regulation. Self-regulation has gained a lot of attention from researchers, psychologists, and educators, which has allowed it to grow and supplement many other components. It has been through the help of the several contributors to make it a relatable concept that has the ability to improve emotional well-being, achievement, initiative, and optimism.

Sociology Chapter

QMREnterprise architecture domains[edit]

TOGAF is based on four interrelated areas of specialization called architecture domains:

Business architecture which defines the business strategy, governance, organization, and key business processes of the organization

Applications architecture which provides a blueprint for the individual systems to be deployed, the interactions between the application systems, and their relationships to the core business processes of the organization with the frameworks for services to be exposed as business functions for integration

Data architecture which describes the structure of an organization's logical and physical data assets and the associated data management resources

Technical architecture, or technology architecture, which describes the hardware, software, and network infrastructure needed to support the deployment of core, mission-critical applications

16 is the squares of the quadrant model. The TEAF Matrix has 16 squares

QMRTEAF Matrix of Views and Perspectives[edit]

TEAF Matrix of Views and Perspectives.[2]

The TEAF Matrix is a simplified portrayal of an EA structure to aid in understanding important EA aspects from various vantage points (views and perspectives). The TEAF Matrix aims to provide a simple, uniform structure to an entire framework. As depicted in the figure, the TEAF Matrix consists of four architectural views (Functional, Information, Organizational, and Infrastructure), which are shown as columns, and four perspectives (Planner, Owner, Designer, and Builder), which appear as rows. The TEAF Matrix is a four-by-four matrix with a total of 16 cells. The views and perspectives are described in the following sections.[2]

When an EA description work product is shown within one cell of the TEAF Matrix, it means that the main vantage points for developing that work product correspond to that column (view) and row (perspective). However, information from other views (and sometimes other perspectives) is needed to produce a work product. Not all cells must be “filled-in” by producing an associated work product. Each bureau must define in its EA Roadmap its plans for producing and using an EA to match its needs.[2]

Products[edit]

TEAF Products.[1]

The TEAF provides a unifying concept, common terminology and principles, common standards and formats, a normalized context for strategic planning and budget formulation, and a universal approach for resolving policy and management issues. It describes the enterprise information systems architecture and its components, including the architectures purpose, benefits, characteristics, and structure. The TEAF introduces various architectural views and delineates several modeling techniques. Each view is supported with graphics, data repositories, matrices, or reports (i.e., architectural products).[1]

The figure shows a matrix with four views and four perspectives. Essential products are shown across the top two rows of the matrix. It is notable that the TEAF includes an Information Assurance Trust model, the Technical Reference Model, and standards profiles as essential work products. These are not often addressed as critical framework components. One of these frameworks should provide a means to logically structure and organize the selected EA products. Now, in order to effectively create and maintain the EA products, a toolset should be selected.[1]

The System Interface Description (SID) links together the Organizational and Infrastructure Views by depicting the assignments of systems and their interfaces to the nodes and needlines described in the Node Connectivity Description. The Node Connectivity Description for a given architecture shows nodes (not always defined in physical terms), while the System Interface Description depicts the systems corresponding to the system nodes. The System Interface Description can be produced at four levels, as described below. Level 1 is an essential work product, while Levels 2, 3, and 4 are supporting work products.[2]

The System Interface Description identifies the interfaces between nodes, between systems, and between the components of a system, depending on the needs of a particular architecture. A system interface is a simplified or generalized representation of a communications pathway or network, usually depicted graphically as a straight line, with a descriptive label. Often, pairs of connected systems or system components have multiple interfaces between them. The System Interface Description depicts all interfaces between systems and/or system components that are of interest to the architect.[2]

The graphic descriptions and/or supporting text for the System Interface Description should provide details concerning the capabilities of each system. For example, descriptions of information systems should include details concerning the applications present within the system, the infrastructure services that support the applications, and the means by which the system processes, manipulates, stores, and exchanges data.[

QMRDoDAF views[edit]

The Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DoDAF) defines a standard way to organize an enterprise architecture (EA) or systems architecture into complementary and consistent views. It is especially suited to large systems with complex integration and interoperability challenges, and is apparently unique in its use of "operational views" detailing the external customer's operating domain in which the developing system will operate.

DoDAF linkages among views.[22]

The DoDAF defines a set of products that act as mechanisms for visualizing, understanding, and assimilating the broad scope and complexities of an architecture description through graphic, tabular, or textual means. These products are organized under four views:

Overarching All View (AV),

Operational View (OV),

Systems View (SV), and the

Technical Standards View (TV).

Each view depicts certain perspectives of an architecture as described below. Only a subset of the full DoDAF viewset is usually created for each system development. The figure represents the information that links the operational view, systems and services view, and technical standards view. The three views and their interrelationships driven – by common architecture data elements – provide the basis for deriving measures such as interoperability or performance, and for measuring the impact of the values of these metrics on operational mission and task effectiveness.[22]

QMRThe Four Indian Kings or Four Kings of the New World were three Mohawk chiefs of the Iroquois Confederacy and a Mahican of the Algonquian peoples, whose portraits were painted in London to commemorate their travel from New York to meet the Queen of Great Britain in 1710. The three Mohawk were: Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow of the Bear Clan, called King of Maguas, with the Christian name Peter Brant (grandfather of Mohawk leader Joseph Brant); Ho Nee Yeath Taw No Row of the Wolf Clan, called King of Canajoharie ("Great Boiling Pot"), or John of Canajoharie; and Tee Yee Ho Ga Row, meaning "Double Life", of the Wolf Clan, also called Hendrick Tejonihokarawa or King Hendrick. The Mohican chief was Etow Oh Koam of the Turtle Clan, mistakenly identified in his portrait as Emperor of the Six Nations. The Algonquian-speaking Mohican people were not part of the Iroquois Confederacy. Five chiefs set out on the journey, but one died in mid-Atlantic.

The four Native American leaders visited Queen Anne in 1710 as part of a diplomatic visit organised by Pieter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, New York. They were received in London as diplomats, being transported through the streets of the city in Royal carriages, and received by Queen Anne at the Court of St. James Palace. They also visited the Tower of London and St. Paul's Cathedral.

In addition to requesting military aid for defence against the French, the chiefs asked for missionaries to offset the influence of French Jesuits, who had converted numerous Mohawk to Catholicism. Queen Anne informed the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Tenison. A mission was authorized, and Mayor Schuyler had a chapel built the next year at Fort Hunter (located near the Mohawk "Lower Castle" village). Queen Anne sent a gift of a silver Communion set and a reed organ. The Mohawk village known as the "Lower Castle" became mostly Christianized in the early 18th century, unlike the "Upper Castle" at Canajoharie further upriver. No mission at the latter was founded until William Johnson, the British agent to the Iroquois, built the Indian Castle Church in 1769.[1]

To commemorate the diplomatic visit to London, the Crown commissioned Jan Verelst to paint the portraits of the Four Kings. These paintings hung in Kensington Palace until 1977 when Queen Elizabeth II had them relocated to the National Archives of Canada. She unveiled them in Ottawa.

QMRDuring the Tokugawa period, the social order, based on inherited position rather than personal merits, was rigid and highly formalized. At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles (kuge), together with the Shogun and daimyo. Below them the population was divided into four classes in a system known as mibunsei (身分制): the samurai on top (about 5% of the population) and the peasants (more than 80% of the population) on the second level. Below the peasants were the craftsmen, and even below them, on the fourth level, were the merchants.[6] Only the peasants lived in the rural areas. Samurai, craftsmen and merchants lived in the cities that were built around the daimyo's castles, each restricted to their own quarter.

QMRThe Warring States was a great period for military strategy; of the Seven Military Classics of China, four were written during this period:

The Art of War, attributed to Sun Tzu, a highly influential study of strategy and tactics.[14]

Wuzi, attributed to Wu Qi, a statesman and commander who served the states of Wei and then Chu.

Wei Liaozi, of uncertain authorship.

The Methods of the Sima, attributed to Sima Rangju, a commander serving the state of Qin.

Partition of Jin (453-403 BC)[edit]

Main article: Partition of Jin

The rulers of Jin had steadily lost political powers since the middle of the 6th century BC to their nominally subordinate nobles and military commanders, a situation arising from the traditions of the Jin which forbade the enfeoffment of relatives of the ducal house. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and decades of internecine struggle led to the establishment of four major families, the Han, Zhao, Wei and Zhi.

The Battle of Jinyang (453 BC) saw the allied Han, Zhao and Wei destroy the Zhi family and their lands were distributed among them. With this, they became the de facto rulers of most of Jin's territory, though this situation would not be officially recognised until half a century later. The Jin division created a political vacuum that enabled during the first 50 years expansion of Chu and Yue northward and Qi southward. Qin increased its control of the local tribes and began its expansion southwest to Sichuan.

QMROpportunity Structures, in sociology and related social science disciplines, are exogenous factors which limit or empower collective actors (social movements). In explaining the evolution of social movements, the structuralist approach emphasizes that factors external to the movements themselves, such as the level and type of state repression, or the group's access to political institutions, shape the development of the movement; such factors are called opportunity structures.

Doug McAdam summarizes at least four key dynamic components of the political opportunity structure:

1. the relative openness or closure of the institutionalized political system;

2. the stability or instability of the broad set of elite alignments that typically undergird a polity;

3. the presence or absence of elite allies;

4. and the state’s capacity and propensity for repression.[1]

Political opportunity structures can constrain or expand the field of collective action in four ways: 1. they expand the group’s own opportunities; 2. they expand opportunities for others; 3. create opportunities for opponents 4. and create opportunities for elites

Jump up ^ Douglas McAdam, Conceptal origins, current problems, future directions, in: Douglas McAdam, John D. McCarthy, Mayer Y. Zald (ed.), Comparative perspectives on social movements. Political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and cultural framings (Cambridge studies in comparative politics), Cambridge 1999, pp. 23–40, here: p. 27

Douglas McAdam, Conceptal origins, current problems, future directions, in: Douglas McAdam, John D. McCarthy, Mayer Y. Zald (ed.), Comparative perspectives on social movements. Political opportunities, mobilizing structures, and cultural framings (Cambridge studies in comparative politics), Cambridge 1999, pp. 23–40, here: p. 27

QMRWatches of the night[edit]

The Romans divided the night into four watches, (Latin vigiliae plural), following the Greek practice (Greek φυλακή), since, as Vegetius explains, a city-guard could not stand watch all night.[13] For example, "in the fourth watch of night" (quarta vigilia noctis) meant just before dawn.

QMRA standard corporate structure consists of various departments that contribute to the company's overall mission and goals. Common departments include Marketing, Finance, Accounting, Human Resource, and IT. These five divisions represent the major departments within a publicly traded company, though there are often smaller departments within autonomous firms. There is typically a CEO, and Board of Directors composed of the directors of each department. There are also company presidents, vice presidents, and CFOs. There is a great diversity in corporate forms as enterprises may range from single company to multi-corporate conglomerate.[1] The four main corporate structures are Functional, Divisional, Geographic, and the Matrix. Realistically, most corporations tend to have a “hybrid” structure, which is a combination of different models with one dominant strategy. [2]

Models[edit]

Functional structure[edit]

This model is commonly used in single-program organizations. It is basically the standard structure mentioned earlier, which is organized around departments. This structure is most appropriate for small organizations.

Divisional structure[edit]

Divisional structures are also called product structures because they are based on a certain product or project. This structure is most common in multi-service organizations. Normally, It based on the departments divided in the firm.

Geographic structure[edit]

Geographic structures are used in multi-site organizations and are frequently used by networks across different geographic areas.

Matrix structure[edit]

The Matrix structure is probably the most complicated model of them all because it is organized around multiple dimensions (e.g. geography and product), typically with more than one supervisor. This structure is commonly used in very large organizations because a greater volume requires greater co-ordination. However, this structure is very difficult to manage so it is usually better to reconsider its use and replace it with a different type of structure, then compensate for the tradeoffs.

QMRThere are usually four social classes that are described in America: the upper class, the middle class, the working class, and the lower class. The upper class typically earns above $200,000 per year; the middle class earns between $48,000 and $200,000 per year; the working class up to $48,000; and the lower class up generally receives a minimal income that is not enough to sustain themselves.[34] This large income inequality wages class warfare. While income is a large indicator of class, general wealth and accumulated assets plays a large role in class position because those things have value that can be exchanged for money and thus grant power.

The press[edit]

The concept of the media or press as a fourth branch stems from a belief that the news media's responsibility to inform the populace is essential to the healthy functioning of the democracy.[1] The phrase "Fourth Estate" may be used to emphasize the independence of the press particularly when this is contrasted with the press as a "fourth branch".[2]

The people[edit]

Justice Antonin Scalia's majority opinion, The People are the fourth branch via grand juries [1]. The grand jury is mentioned in the Bill of Rights, but not in the body of the Constitution. It has not been textually assigned, therefore, to any of the branches described in the first three Articles”. It "is a constitutional fixture in its own right". In fact the whole theory of its function is that it belongs to no branch of the institutional government, serving as a kind of buffer or referee between the Government and the people (United States v. Williams, 1992).

Interest groups[edit]

In an article titled "The 'Fourth Branch' of Government", Alex Knott of the Center for Public Integrity asserted in 2005 that "special interests and the lobbyists they employ have reported spending, since 1998, a total of almost $13 billion to influence Congress, the White House and more than 200 federal agencies."[3]

Administrative agencies[edit]

The administrative agencies that are funded from public money may exercise powers granted by Congress. Without appropriate controls and oversight this practice may result in a bureaucracy (in the original literal sense). Some critics have argued that a central paradox at the heart of the American political system is democracy's reliance on the what the critics view as undemocratic bureaucratic institutions that characterize the administrative agencies of government.[4] An argument made for calling administrative agencies a "fourth branch" of government is the fact that such agencies typically exercise all three constitutionally divided powers within a single bureaucratic body: That is, agencies legislate (a power vested solely in the legislature by the Constitution)[5] through delegated rulemaking authority; investigate, execute, and enforce such rules (via the executive power these agencies are typically organized under); and apply, interpret, and enforce compliance with such rules (a power separately vested in the judicial branch).[6] Additionally, non-executive, or "independent" administrative agencies are often called a fourth branch of government, as they create rules with the effect of law, yet may be comprised at least partially of private, non-governmental actors.

Other "fourth branches"[edit]

Federal Reserve (central bank of the United States)

Office of the Independent Counsel (or its successor the U.S. Department of Justice Office of Special Counsel)

Office of Personnel Management (The civil service)

Freemasons

Popular culture[edit]

In The Simpsons episode "Sideshow Bob Roberts" (originally aired October 9, 1994), Springfield's leading conservative talk radio host, Birch Barlow (a parody of leading American conservative talk radio host Rush Limbaugh) welcomes listeners to his show by introducing himself as the "fourth branch of government" and the "51st state."

In 2007, the short-lived ABC drama-thriller Traveler, the fourth branch existed as a secret society created by the Founding Fathers and composed of the oldest families in the United States, whose purpose is to implement checks and balances on the U.S. government to guide the true course of America.

Rapper and political activist Immortal Technique has a track entitled the "4th branch," in which he applies the role of said branch to the media in a pejorative manner. He implies in this track (or pretty much explicitly states) that the US media of the time acts more like another part of the government instead of its own independent entity, and he gives some of his reasons for this belief on the track.

"4th Branch" is also the name of a record label - 4th Branch Records, owned by DJ Prezzident, based in Columbia, Missouri.

QMRIn the American political system, the fourth branch of government refers to a group that influences the three branches of government defined in the American Constitution (legislative, executive and judicial). Such groups can include the press (an analogy for the Fourth Estate), the people, and interest groups. U.S. independent administrative government agencies, while technically part of the executive branch (or, in a few cases, the legislative branch) of government, are sometimes referred to as being part of the fourth branch. In some cases the term is pejorative because such a fourth branch has no official status. The term is also widely used as a picturesque phrase without derogatory intent. Where the use is intended to be pejorative, it can be a rhetorical shorthand to illustrate the user's belief in the illegitimacy of certain types of governmental authority with a concomitant skepticism towards the origin of such authority.

QMRThe Fourth Estate (or fourth power) is a societal or political force or institution whose influence is not consistently or officially recognized. "Fourth Estate" most commonly refers to the news media, especially print journalism or "the press". Thomas Carlyle attributed the origin of the term to Edmund Burke, who used it in a parliamentary debate in 1787 on the opening up of press reporting of the House of Commons of Great Britain.[1] Earlier writers have applied the term to lawyers, to the British queens consort (acting as a free agent, independent of the king), and to the proletariat. The term makes implicit reference to the earlier division of the three Estates of the Realm.

QMRThe estates of the realm were the broad social orders of the hierarchically conceived society, recognised in the Middle Ages and Early Modern period in Christian Europe. There was no single system of dividing society into estates, and systems developed over time.

The best known system is the French three-estate system that was used until the French Revolution: the clergy (first estate), the nobility (second estate), and commoners (third estate). Some countries considered burghers and rural commoners separate estates, notably Scandinavian nations and Russia. The two-estate system which eventually evolved in England was to combine nobility and bishops into one lordly estate, with "commons" as the other estate; this system produced the two houses of parliament. In southern Germany, a three-estate system of princes, burghers, and knights was used, with high clergy included as princes.

Today the term "Fourth Estate" is often used in reference to forces outside the established power structure (imagined as three estates), and is now most commonly used in reference to the independent press or media. Historically, in Northern and Eastern Europe, the fourth estate meant rural commoners.

"Medieval political speculation is imbued to the marrow with the idea of a structure of society based upon distinct orders," Johan Huizinga observes.[1] The virtually synonymous terms estate and order designated a great variety of social realities, not at all limited to a class, Huizinga concluded, but applied to every social function, every trade, every recognisable grouping.

There are, first of all, the estates of the realm, but there are also the trades, the state of matrimony and that of virginity, the state of sin. At court there are the 'four estates of the body and mouth': bread-masters, cup-bearers, carvers, and cooks. In the Church there are sacerdotal orders and monastic orders. Finally there are the different orders of chivalry.[1]

This static view of society was predicated on inherited positions. Commoners were universally considered the lowest order. The higher estates' necessary dependency on the commoners' production, however, often further divided the otherwise equal common people into burghers (also known as bourgeoisie) of the realm's cities and towns, and the peasants and serfs of the realm's surrounding lands and villages. A person's estate and position within it were usually inherited from the father and his occupation, similar to a caste within that system. In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates.

In the late Russian Empire the estates were called sosloviyes. The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein. The division in estates was of mixed nature: traditional, occupational, as well as formal: for example, voting in Duma was carried out by estates. Russian Empire Census recorded the reported estate of a person.

After Russia's conquest of Finland in 1809, a Finnish House of Nobility was codified in 1818 in accordance with the old Swedish law of 1723. However the Diet of Finland and its four estates was not convened until 1863.

There was also a population outside the estates. Unlike in other areas, people had no "default" estate, and were not peasants unless they came from a land-owner's family. A summary of this division is:

Nobility (see Finnish nobility and Swedish nobility) was exempt from tax, had an inherited rank and the right to keep a fief, and had a tradition of military service and government. Nobility was codified in 1280 with the Swedish king granting exemption from taxation (frälse) to land-owners that could equip a cavalryman (or be one themselves) for the king's army. Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land. Following Axel Oxenstierna's reform, higher government offices were open only to nobles. However, the nobility still owned only their own property, not the peasants or their land as in much of Europe. Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles. The Nobility is divided into titled nobility (counts and barons) and lower nobility. Until the 18th century the lower nobility was in turn was divided into Knights and Esquires such that each of the three classes would first vote internally, giving one vote per class in the assembly. This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility.

Clergy, or priests, were exempt from tax, and collected tithes for the church. After the Swedish Reformation, the church became Lutheran. In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools. The estate was governed by the state church which consecrated its ministers and appointed them to positions with a vote in choosing diet representatives.

Burghers were city-dwellers, tradesmen and craftsmen. Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds. Entry to this Estate was controlled by the autonomy of the towns themselves. Peasants were allowed to sell their produce within the city limits, but any further trade, particularly foreign trade, was allowed only for burghers. In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights. After the annexation of Finland into Imperial Russia in 1809, mill-owners and other proto-industrialists would gradually be included in this estate.

Peasants were land-owners of land-taxed farms and their families, which represented the majority in medieval times. Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries. Entry was controlled by ownership of farmland, which was not generally for sale but a hereditary property. After 1809, Swedish tenants renting a large enough farm (ten times larger than what was required of peasants owning their own farm) were included as well as non-nobility owning tax-exempt land.

To no estate belonged propertyless cottagers, villeins, tenants of farms owned by others, farmhands, servants, some lower administrative workers, rural craftsmen, travelling salesmen, vagrants, and propertyless and unemployed people (who sometimes lived in strangers' houses). To reflect how the people belonging to the estates saw them, the Finnish word for "obscene", säädytön, has the literal meaning "estateless".

In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772. However, at the start of the 20th century most of the population did not belong to any Estate and had no political representation. A particularly large class were the rent farmers, who did not own the land they cultivated but had to work in the land-owner's farm to pay their rent (unlike Russia, there were no slaves or serfs.) Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system. The political system was reformed as a result of the Finnish general strike of 1905, with the last Diet instituting a new constitutional law to create the modern parliamentary system, ending the political privileges of the estates. The post-independence constitution of 1919 forbade ennoblement, and all tax privileges were abolished in 1920. The privileges of the estates were officially and finally abolished in 1995,[9] although in legal practice, the privileges had long been unenforceable. As in Sweden, the nobility has not been officially abolished and records of nobility are still voluntarily maintained by the Finnish House of Nobility.

The press[edit]

In current use the term is applied to the press,[2] with the earliest use in this sense described by Thomas Carlyle in his book On Heroes and Hero Worship: "Burke said there were Three Estates in Parliament; but, in the Reporters' Gallery yonder, there sat a Fourth Estate more important far than they all."[3]

In Burke's 1787 coining he would have been making reference to the traditional three estates of Parliament: The Lords Spiritual, the Lords Temporal and the Commons.[4] If, indeed, Burke did make the statement Carlyle attributes to him, the remark may have been in the back of Carlyle's mind when he wrote in his French Revolution (1837) that "A Fourth Estate, of Able Editors, springs up; increases and multiplies, irrepressible, incalculable."[5] In this context, the other three estates are those of the French States-General: the church, the nobility and the townsmen.[4] Carlyle, however, may have mistaken his attribution: Thomas Macknight, writing in 1858, observes that Burke was merely a teller at the "illustrious nativity of the Fourth Estate".[6] If Burke is excluded, other candidates for coining the term are Henry Brougham speaking in Parliament in 1823 or 1824[7] and Thomas Macaulay in an essay of 1828 reviewing Hallam's Constitutional History: "The gallery in which the reporters sit has become a fourth estate of the realm."[8] In 1821, William Hazlitt (whose son, also named William Hazlitt, was another editor of Michel de Montaigne—see below) had applied the term to an individual journalist, William Cobbett, and the phrase soon became well established.[9][10]

Oscar Wilde wrote:

In old days men had the rack. Now they have the Press. That is an improvement certainly. But still it is very bad, and wrong, and demoralizing. Somebody — was it Burke? — called journalism the fourth estate. That was true at the time no doubt. But at the present moment it is the only estate. It has eaten up the other three. The Lords Temporal say nothing, the Lords Spiritual have nothing to say, and the House of Commons has nothing to say and says it. We are dominated by Journalism.[11]

In United States English, the phrase "fourth estate" is contrasted with the "fourth branch of government", a term that originated because no direct equivalents to the estates of the realm exist in the United States. The "fourth estate" is used to emphasize the independence of the press, while the "fourth branch" suggests that the press is not independent of the government.[12]

The networked Fourth Estate[edit]

Yochai Benkler, author of the 2006 book The Wealth of Networks, described the "Networked Fourth Estate" in a May 2011 paper published in the Harvard Civil Liberties Review.[13] His explains the growth of non-traditional journalistic media on the Internet and how it affects the traditional press using Wikileaks as an example. When Benkler was asked to testify in the United States vs. PFC Bradley E. Manning trial, in his statement to the morning 10 July 2013 session of the trial he described the Networked Fourth Estate as the set of practices, organizing models, and technologies that are associated with the free press and provide a public check on the branches of government.[14][15]:28–29 It differs from the traditional press and the traditional fourth estate in that it has a diverse set of actors instead of a small number of major presses. These actors include small for-profit media organizations, non-profit media organizations, academic centers, and distributed networks of individuals participating in the media process with the larger traditional organizations.[14]:99–100

Alternative meanings[edit]

In European law[edit]

In 1580 Montaigne proposed that governments should hold in check a fourth estate of lawyers selling justice to the rich and denying it to rightful litigants who do not bribe their way to a verdict:[16][17]

What is more barbarous than to see a nation [...] where justice is lawfully denied him, that hath not wherewithall [sic] to pay for it; and that this merchandize hath so great credit, that in a politicall government there should be set up a fourth estate [tr. Latin: quatriesme estat] of Lawyers, breathsellers and pettifoggers [...].

— Michel de Montaigne, in the translation by John Florio, 1603

The proletariat[edit]

Il quarto stato (1901): a march of strikers in Turin, Italy

An early citation for this is Henry Fielding in The Covent Garden Journal (1752):

None of our political writers ... take notice of any more than three estates, namely, Kings, Lords, and Commons ... passing by in silence that very large and powerful body which form the fourth estate in this community ... The Mob.[18]

(This is an early use of "mob" to mean the mobile vulgus, the common masses.)

This sense has prevailed in other countries: In Italy, for example, striking workers in 1890s Turin were depicted as Il quarto stato—The Fourth Estate—in a painting by Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo.[19] A political journal of the left, Quarto Stato, published in Milan, Italy, in 1926, also reflected this meaning.[20]

Far-right theorist Julius Evola saw the Fourth Estate as the final point of his historical cycle theory, the regression of the castes:

[T]here are four stages: in the first stage, the elite has a purely spiritual character, embodying what may be generally called "divine right." This elite expresses an ideal of immaterial virility. In the second stage, the elite has the character of warrior nobility; at the third stage we find the advent of oligarchies of a plutocratic and capitalistic nature, such as they arise in democracies; the fourth and last elite is that of the collectivist and revolutionary leaders of the Fourth Estate.

— Julius Evola, Men Among The Ruins, p. 164

British queens consort[edit]

In a parliamentary debate of 1789 Thomas Powys, 1st Baron Lilford, MP, demanded of minister William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham that he should not allow powers of regency to "a fourth estate: the queen".[21] This was reported by Burke, who, as noted above, went on to use the phrase with the meaning of "press".

Fiction[edit]

In his novel The Fourth Estate Jeffrey Archer wrote "In May 1789, Louis XVI summoned to Versailles a full meeting of the 'Estates General'. The First Estate consisted of three hundred clergy. The Second Estate, three hundred nobles. The Third Estate, six hundred commoners." The book is a fictionalization from episodes in the lives of two real-life Press Barons: Robert Maxwell and Rupert Murdoch.

QMRSocial estates in the Russian Empire

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Social estates in the Russian Empire were denoted by the term soslovie (sosloviye), which approximately corresponds to the notion of the estate of the realm. The system of sosloviyes was a peculiar system of social groups in the history of the Russian Empire. In Russian language the terms "сословие" and "состояние" (in the meaning of the civil/legal estate) were used interchangeably.

The Code of the Law of the Russian Empire of 1832, vol. 9, "Laws about Estates" (Законы о состояниях) defined four major estates: dvoryans (nobility), clergy, urban dwellers and rural dwellers (peasants). Within these, more detailed categories were recognized. See "Russian nobility: Categories" for dvoryans. Clergy was subdivided into "white" (priests) and "black" (monks). Urban dwellers (Городские обыватели) were categorized into потомственные почетные граждане (hereditary distinguished citizens), личные почетные граждане(personal distinguished citizens), merchantry (ru:купечество), urban commoners (ru:мещанство), and guilded craftspeople (цеховые ремесленники). There also existed the military estate, which included lower military ranks (higher ranks were associated with the estate of dvoryans), and discharged and indefinite-leave. Dependent families were usually included into the estate of the head of the household.

Urban commoners included people who had some real estate in a town, were engaged in some trade, craft, or service, and paid taxes. Subject to these conditions, a person could assign himself into this category, which was hereditary, and one may be excluded from it in the court of law or by the urban commoner's self-government (мещанская управа).

The category of rural dwellers (сельские обыватели) had permanent residence in towns, and they were correspondingly classified as "urban peasants" (городовые крестьяне). The rural dwellers category also included the inorodtsy (инородцы) estate, that included non-Russian and non-Orthodox native peoples of Siberia, Central Asia or Caucasus. An inorodets who converted into Orthodox Christianity was excluded from this estate and included into one of the other ones, most often peasantry.

A separate category, not assigned to any of the above estates were raznochintsy (literally "persons of miscellaneous ranks", but in fact having no rank at all).

A separate stratification existed for governmental bureaucracy, who were classified according to the Table of Ranks. The higher ranks belonged to the sosloviye of dvoryanstvo, while the indication of a lower rank of a person was comparable to that of the indication of a soslovie for various formal purposes (e.g., for the Russian Empire Census).

Finally, in Siberia, the estate of "exiled" was officially recognized, with the subcategory of "exiled nobility".

The institution of distinguished citizenship (or two categories) was introduced by the manifesto of Nicholas I of Russia of April 10, 1832. The distinguished citizens ranked above merchantry and below nobility. They were freed of personal taxes, military service obligation (рекрутская повинность), corporal punishments, etc. Distinguished citizenship was available for persons with a scientific or scholar degree, graduates of certain schools, people of arts and destinguished merchants and industrialists subject to certain conditions.

The estates were classified into two major groups: taxable estates (податные сословия), i.e., which had to pay the personal tax, and non-taxable ones.

With the development of capitalism and the abolishment of the serfdom in Russia in the second half of the 19th century the estate paradigm no longer corresponded to the actual socio-economical stratification of the population, but the terminology was in use until the Russian Revolution of 1917. At the same time the legal and governmental system gradually became estate-independent, with the property grade (имущественный ценз) of a person playing the decisive role.

QMRThe Realm of Sweden or Svenska väldet is a term that historically was used to comprise all the territories under the control of the Swedish monarchs.

Part of a series on the

History of Sweden

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Prehistoric[show]

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Lands of Sweden[edit]

Gnome-searchtool.svg This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (June 2010)

Main article: Lands of Sweden

Researchers from the 19th century have suggested that in the 9th century Svealand, which they claimed was the historical core region of Sweden, expanded southwards, conquering Gothia. Little is known however from this time and more contemporary researchers have suggested that Gothia might as well have been the core region, or the two region were joined through a union.

In the 11th century Sweden also expanded to the east conquering the parts which came to be called Österland, present-day Finland, through crusades. Norrland was made a part of the kingdom in the 16th century. In the 17th century the kingdom expanded to the south and east, except for short-period holdings in Norway, incorporating Scania, Blekinge, Halland and Bohuslän as well as Pomerania. On the other side of the Baltic Sea Kexholm County, Ingria and present day Latvia was also incorporated.

Provinces of Sweden[edit]

Main article: Provinces of Sweden

The four Swedish lands were in turn divided into separate Provinces or Landskap, which were governed by their own laws under the rule of a Ting. The monarchs would gradually strengthen their authority at the expense of the provinces, and in the 15th century the provincial laws were replaced by a single law for the entire kingdom.

QMRThe Swedish constitution consists of four fundamental laws (Swedish: grundlagar):

The 1810 Act of Succession (Swedish: Successionsordningen)

The 1949 Freedom of the Press Act (Swedish: Tryckfrihetsförordningen)

The 1974 Instrument of Government (Swedish: Regeringsformen)

The 1991 Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression (Swedish: Yttrandefrihetsgrundlagen)

There is also a law on the internal organisation and procedures of the Riksdag with a special status, although not regarded as a fundamental law, it requires the same amendment procedure as the fundamental laws except that it does not allow for an amendment referendum:[1]

The 1974 Riksdag Act (Swedish: Riksdagsordningen)

QMRNorrland is one of the four lands of Sweden

Österland (Eastland) or Österlanden (Easternlands), one of the four traditional lands of Sweden, was a medieval term used for the southern part of Finland. It gradually fell out of use by the 15th century. Finland remained a part of Swedish Realm until the Finnish war of 1808–09, when it was ceded to Russia and came to constitute the autonomous Russian Grand Duchy of Finland.

QMRRiksdag of the Estates (formally: Swedish: Riksens ständer; informally: Swedish: Ståndsriksdagen) was the name used for the Estates of Sweden when they were assembled. Until its dissolution in 1866, the institution was the highest authority in Sweden next to the king. It was a Diet made up of the Four Estates, which historically were the lines of division in Swedish society:

Nobility

Clergy

Burghers

Peasants

Representatives of the four estates on a commemorative coin (reverse).

The constitution of 1809 divided the powers of government between the monarch and the Riksdag of the Estates, and after 1866 between the monarch and the new Riksdag.

In 1866 all the Estates voted in favor of dissolution and at the same time to constitute a new assembly, Sveriges Riksdag (the Riksdag). The four former estates were abolished. The House of Nobility, Swedish: Riddarhuset, remains as a quasi-official representation of the Swedish nobility. The modern Centre Party which grew out of the Swedish farmers' movement, could be construed as a modern representation with a traditional bond to the Estate of the Peasants.

QMRLake Lucerne (German: Vierwaldstättersee, lit. "Four Forested Settlements Lake", French: lac des Quattre-Cantons, Italian: lago dei Quattro Cantoni) is a lake in central Switzerland and the fourth largest in the country.

The lake has a complicated shape, with several sharp bends and four arms. It starts in the south-north bound Reuss Valley between steep cliffs above the Urnersee from Flüelen towards Brunnen to the north before it makes a sharp bend to the west where it continues into the Gersauer Becken. Here is also the deepest point of the lake with 214 m (702 ft). Even more west of it is the Bouchser Bucht, but the lake sharply turns north again through the narrow opening between the Unter Nas (lower nose) of the Bürgenstock to the west and the Ober Nas (upper nose) of the Rigi to the east to reach the Vitznauer Bucht. In front of Vitznau below the Rigi the lakes turns sharply west again to reach the center of a four-arm cross, called the Chrütztrichter (cross funnel). Here converge the Vitznau Bay with the Küssnachtersee from the north, the Luzernersee from the west, and the Horwer Bucht and the Stanser Trichter to the south, which is to be found right below the northeast side of the Pilatus and the west side of the Bürgenstock. At the very narrow pass between the east dropper of the Pilatus (called Lopper) and Stansstad the lake reaches its southwestern arm at Alpnachstad on the steep southern foothills of the Pilatus, the Alpnachersee. The lake drains its water in Lucerne from the literally correctly translated western arm Lake of Lucerne into the Reuss.

The entire lake has a total area of 114 km² (44 sq mi) at an elevation of 434 m (1,424 ft) a.s.l., and a maximum depth of 214 m (702 ft). Its volume is 11.8 km³. Much of the shoreline rises steeply into mountains up to 1,500 m above the lake, resulting in many picturesque views including those of the mountains Rigi and Pilatus.

The Reuss enters the lake at Flüelen (in the canton of Uri, the part called Urnersee) and exits at Lucerne. The lake also receives the Muota at Brunnen, the Engelberger Aa at Buochs, and the Sarner Aa at Alpnachstad.

It is possible to circumnavigate the lake by train and road, though the railway route circumvents the lake even on the north side of the Rigi via Arth-Goldau. Since 1980, the A2 motorway leads throuth the Seelisberg Tunnel in order to reach the Gotthard Route in just half an hour in Altdorf, Uri right south of the beginning of the lake in Flüelen.

Steamers and other passenger boats ply between the different villages and towns on the lake. It is a popular tourist destination, both for native Swiss and foreigners, and there are many hotels and resorts along the shores. In addition, the meadow of the Rütli, traditional site of the founding of the Swiss Confederation, is on the Urnersee shore. A 35 km commemorative walkway, the Swiss Path, was built around the Lake of Uri to celebrate the country's 700th anniversary.

Lake Lucerne borders on the three original Swiss cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden (which today is divided into the Cantons of Obwalden and Nidwalden), as well as the canton of Lucerne, thus the name Vierwaldstättersee (lit.: Lake of the Four Forested Settlements). Many of the oldest communities of Switzerland are along the shore, including Küssnacht, Weggis, Vitznau, Gersau, Brunnen, Altdorf, Buochs, and Treib.

View of the Urnersee from near Morschach in Uri, southwards, with Bauen on the left shore on the right

Lake Lucerne is singularly irregular and appears to lie in four different valleys, all related to the conformation of the adjoining mountains.

The Swiss territory is divided into four major types of land use. As of 2001, 36.9%[19] of the land in Switzerland was used for farming. 30.8% of the country is covered with forests and woodlands,[19] with an additional 6.8% covered with houses or buildings.[1] About one-fourth (25.5%) of the country is either mountains, lakes or rivers and is categorised as unproductive.[18]

QMRA world map is a map of most or all of the surface of the Earth. World maps form a distinctive category of maps due to the problem of projection. Maps by necessity distort the presentation of the earth's surface. These distortions reach extremes in a world map. The many ways of projecting the earth reflect diverse technical and aesthetic goals for world maps.[3]

It has quadrants on it

Religion Chapter

QMRAccording to the sociologist Mervin Verbit, emotion may be understood as one of the key components of religiosity. Furthermore, religious emotion may be broken down into four dimensions:

Content

Frequency

Intensity

Centrality

The content of one's religious emotions may vary from situation to situation, as will the degree to which it may occupy the person (frequency), the intensity of the emotion, and the centrality of the emotional feeling (in that religious tradition, or person's life).[12][13][14]

In this sense, emotion is somewhat similar to Charles Glock's "experience" dimension of religiosity (Glock, 1972: 39).[15]

vegas dream four games

Buddhism Chapter

The Four Dharmadhatu (Chinese: 四法界), is a philosophical concept propagated by Master Tu-shun (Chinese: 杜順; 557-640 CE),[1] the founder of Hua-yan (Chinese: 華嚴) school. It builds upon and is a variant of the Dharmadhatu doctrine.

Contents [hide]

1 The Four Dharmadhatu

2 See also

3 References

4 Further reading

5 External links

The Four Dharmadhatu[edit]

The Four Dharmadhatu were outlined in Tu-shun's treatise which has been rendered into English as 'On the Meditation of Dharmadhātu'. The Four Dharmadhatu are:

The Dharmadhātu of 'Shih' (Chinese: 事法界; "shi fajie"). 'Shih' is a rendering of the character 事 which holds the semantic field: "matter", "phenomenon", "event". It may be understood as the 'realm' (Sanskrit: dhātu) of all matters and phenomena.

The Dharmadhātu of 'Li'(Chinese: 理法界; "li fajie"). 'Li' is a rendering of the character 理 which holds the semantic field: "principle", "law", "noumenon". This 'realm' (Sanskrit: dhātu) may be understood as that of principles. It has been referred to as "the realm of the one principle". The "one principle" being qualified as śūnyatā (Sanskrit).[2]

The Dharmadhātu of Non-obstruction of 'Li' against 'Shih' (Chinese: 理事無礙法界; "lishi wuai fajie"). This 'realm' (Sanskrit: dhātu) has been rendered into English as "the realm of non-obstruction between principle and phenomena".[3]

The Dharmadhātu of the Non-obstruction of 'Shih' and 'Shih' (Chinese: 事事無礙法界; "shishi wuai fajie"). This 'realm' (Sanskrit: dhātu) has been rendered into English as "the realm of non-obstruction between phenomena".[4]

Christianity Chapter

QMRIt is known that in 336, Pope Julius I had set the number of presbyter cardinals to 28, so that for each day of the week, a different presbyter cardinal would say mass in one of the four major basilicas of Rome, St. Peter's, Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore, and Basilica of St. John Lateran. These four basilicas had no cardinal, since they were under the Pope's direction. The Basilica of St. John Lateran was also the seat of the bishop of Rome. Traditionally, pilgrims were expected to visit all four basilicas, and San Lorenzo fuori le mura, Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, and San Sebastiano fuori le mura which constituted the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome. In the Great Jubilee in 2000, the seventh church was instead Santuario della Madonna del Divino Amore as appointed by Pope John Paul II.

QMRMonument to the Four Kingdoms of Daniel: two each.

QMRGenesis 10 states "From that land he went to Assyria, where he built Nineveh, the city Rehoboth-Ir, Calah and Resen".[18] The identification of each these four Biblical names with the known Assyrian ruins was the cause of significant debate amongst Assyriologists in the mid-nineteenth century. The site of Nimrud was visited by William Francis Ainsworth in 1837 and by James Phillips Fletcher in 1843.[1] Ainsworth, like Rich, identified the site with Larissa (Λάρισσα) of Xenophon's Anabasis, concluding that Nimrud was the Biblical Resen on the basis of Bochart's identification of Larissa with Resen on etymological grounds.[note 1] Fletcher instead identified the site with Rehoboth on the basis that the city of Birtha described by Ptolemy and Ammianus Marcellinus has the same etymological meaning as Rehoboth in Hebrew.[note 5]

QMRThe Book of Jonah, set in the days of the Assyrian empire, describes it (Jonah 3:3ff; 4:11) as an "exceedingly great city of three days journey in breadth", whose population at that time is given as "more than 120,000". But it is also possible that it took three days to cover all its neighborhoods by walking, which would match the size of ancient Nineveh. The ruins of Kouyunjik, Nimrud, Karamles and Khorsabad form the four corners of an irregular quadrangle. The ruins of Nineveh, with the whole area included within the parallelogram they form by lines drawn from the one to the other, are generally regarded as consisting of these four sites. The book of Jonah depicts Nineveh as a wicked city worthy of destruction. God sent Jonah to preach to the Ninevites of their coming destruction, and they fasted and repented because of this. As a result, God spared the city; when Jonah protests against this, God states He is showing mercy for the population who are ignorant of the difference between right and wrong ("who cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand" [17]) and mercy for the animals in the city.

QMRThe Assyrian flag is the flag chosen by the Assyrian people to represent the Assyrian nation in the homeland and in the diaspora.

George Bit Atanus first designed the flag in 1968. The Assyrian Universal Alliance, Assyrian National Federation and Bet-Nahrain Democratic Party all adopted it in 1971. The flag has a white background with a golden circle at the center, surrounded by a four-pointed star in blue. Four triple-colored (red-white-blue), widening, wavy stripes connect the center to the four corners of the flag. The figure of pre-Christian Assyrian god Assur, known from Iron Age iconography, features above the center.

Contents [hide]

1 Symbolism

2 Previous flags

3 Gallery

4 References

5 External links

Symbolism[edit]

The golden circle at the center that represents the sun, which, by its exploding and leaping flames, generates heat and light to sustain the earth and all its living things. The four pointed star surrounding the sun symbolizes the land, its light blue color symbolizing tranquility.

The wavy stripes extending from the center to the four corners of the flag represent the three major rivers of the Assyrian homeland: the Tigris, the Euphrates, and the Great Zab. The lines are small at the center and become wider as they spread out from the circle. The dark blue represents the Euphrates. The red stripes, whose blood red hue stands for courage, glory and pride, represent the Tigris. The white lines in between the two great rivers symbolizes the Great Zab; its white color stands for tranquility and peace. Some interpret the red, white and blue stripes as the highways that will take the scattered Assyrians back to their ancestral homeland.[1] It is also said that when the stripes are reversed with the red stripes on top and the blue stripes on bottom, it symbolizes that the nation is at war.[dubious – discuss]

The archer figure symbolizes the pre-Christian god Assur.[2]

White background with a golden circle at the center, surrounded by a four-pointed star in blue.

Four triple-coloured (red-white-blue), widening, wavy stripes connect the center to the four corners of the flag.

QMRSome scholars have claimed that Ashur was represented as the solar disc that appears frequently in Assyrian iconography. Many Assyrian kings had names that included the name Ashur, including, above all, Ashur-uballit I, Ashurnasirpal, Esarhaddon (Ashur-aha-iddina), and Ashurbanipal. Epithets include bêlu rabû "great lord", ab ilâni "father of gods", šadû rabû "great mountain", and il aššurî "god of Ashur". The symbols of Ashur include:

Wall relief depicting the God Ashur (Assur) from Nimrud.

a winged disc with horns, enclosing four circles revolving round a middle circle; rippling rays fall down from either side of the disc;

QMRAnother common typological allegory is with the four major Old testament prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. These four prophets prefigure the four Apostles Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. There was no end to the number of analogies that commentators could find between stories of the Old Testament and the New.

QMRMap of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchy, showing the dioceses and the four Tetrarchs' zones of responsibility

Islam Chapter

Hinduism Chapter

Judaism Chapter

Other Religions Chapter

QMRQuetzalcoatl is one of the four sons of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl, the four Tezcatlipocas, each of whom presides over one of the four cardinal directions

Quadrant Model of Reality

Monday, April 11, 2016

Quadrant Model of Reality Book 38 Science and Religion

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