Quadrant Model of Reality Book 32 Science

The quadrant theory is a theory of intelligent design describing that reality is organized around a pattern called the quadrant model pattern. Previous books discuss the nature of this pattern.

March 21 Facebook-11:00

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

QMRThere are four types of solar eclipses: A total eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the intensely bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible. During any one eclipse, totality occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface of Earth.[5] An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line, but the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.[6] A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At certain points on the surface of Earth it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare.[6] A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can only be seen as a partial eclipse, because the umbra passes above the Earth's polar regions and never intersects the Earth's surface.[6] Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable, as it takes well over 90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. Even at 99% it would be no darker than civil twilight.[7]

QMrA. Einstein, On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, New York, Dover Publications 1952, pp. 35–65.P.Fitzgerald, Four Kinds of Temporal Becoming,Philosophical Topics 13 1985, pp. 145–177.

Chemistry Chapter

QMRAn elemental is a mythic being described in occult and alchemical works from around the time of the European Renaissance and particularly elaborated in the 16th century works of Paracelsus. There are four elemental categories: gnomes, undines, sylphs, and salamanders.[1] These correspond to the Classical elements of antiquity: earth, water, air and fire. Aether (quintessence) was not assigned an elemental. Terms employed for beings associated with alchemical elements vary by source and gloss. In his 16th-century alchemical work Liber de Nymphis, sylphis, pygmaeis et salamandris et de caeteris spiritibus, Paracelsus identified mythological beings as belonging to one of the four elements. Part of the Philosophia Magna, this book was first printed in 1566 after Paracelsus' death.[2] He wrote the book to "describe the creatures that are outside the cognizance of the light of nature, how they are to be understood, what marvellous works God has created". He states that there is more bliss in describing these "divine objects" than in describing fencing, court etiquette, cavalry, and other worldly pursuits.[3] The following is his archetypal being for each of the four elements:[4] Gnome, being of earth Undine, being of water Sylph, being of air Salamander, being of fire In his influential De Occulta Philosophia, published in 1531-33,[8] several decades before the publication of Paracelsus' Philosophia Magna, Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa also wrote of four classes of spirits corresponding to the four elements. However, he did not give special names for the classes: "In like manner they distribute these into more orders, so as some are fiery, some watery, some aerial, some terrestrial." Agrippa did however give an extensive list of various mythological beings of this type, although without clarifying which belongs to which elemental class.[9] Like Paracelsus, he did not use the term "elemental spirit" per se. A 1670 French satire of occult philosophy, Comte de Gabalis, was prominent in popularizing Paracelsus' theory of elementals.[10] It particularly focused on the idea of elemental marriage discussed by Paracelsus. In the book, the titular "Count of Kabbalah" explains that members of his order (to which Paracelsus is said to belong) refrain from marriage to human beings in order to retain their freedom to bestow souls upon elementals. Comte de Gabalis used the terms sylphide and gnomide to refer to female sylphs and gnomes (often "sylphid" and "gnomid" in English translations). Male nymphs (the term used instead of the Paracelsian "undine") are said to be rare, while female salamanders are rarely seen.[11] The Rosicrucians claimed to be able to see such elemental spirits. To be admitted to their society, it was previously necessary for the eyes to be purged with the Panacea or "Universal Medicine," a legendary alchemical substance with miraculous curative powers. As well, glass globes would be prepared with one of the four elements and for one month exposed to beams of sunlight. With these steps the initiated would see innumerable beings immediately. These beings, known as elementals, were said to be longer lived than man but ceased to exist upon death. However, if the elemental were to wed a mortal, they would become immortal. This exception seemed to work in reverse when it came to immortals, though, for if an elemental were to wed an immortal being, the immortal would gain the mortality of the elemental. One of the conditions of joining the Rosicrucians however, was a vow of chastity in hopes of marrying an elemental.[12] In Jainism, there is a superficially similar concept within its general cosmology, the ekendriya jiva, "one-sensed beings" with bodies (kaya) that are composed of a single element, albeit with a 5-element system (earth, water, air, fire, and plant), but these beings are actual physical objects and phenomena such as rocks, rain, fires and so on which are endowed with souls (jiva).[13] In the Paracelsian concept, elementals are conceived more as supernatural humanoid beings which are much like human beings except for lacking souls. This is quite the opposite from the Jain conception which rather than positing soulless elementals is positing that all physical objects have some type of soul and that what are commonly considered inanimate objects have this particular type of soul.

There are four states of water. The fourth is different.Like many substances, water can take numerous forms that are broadly categorized by phase of matter. The liquid phase is the most common among water's phases (within the Earth's atmosphere and surface) and is the form that is generally denoted by the word "water." The solid phase of water is known as ice and commonly takes the structure of hard, amalgamated crystals, such as ice cubes, or loosely accumulated granular crystals, like snow. For a list of the many different crystalline and amorphous forms of solid H2O, see the article ice. The gaseous phase of water is known as water vapor (or steam), and is characterized by water assuming the configuration of a transparent cloud. (Note that visible steam and clouds are, in fact, water in the liquid form as minute droplets suspended in the air.) The fourth state of water, that of a supercritical fluid, is much less common than the other three and only rarely occurs in nature, in extremely uninhabitable conditions. When water achieves a specific critical temperature and a specific critical pressure (647 K and 22.064 MPa), liquid and gas phase merge to one homogeneous fluid phase, with properties of both gas and liquid. One example of naturally occurring supercritical water is found in the hottest parts of deep water hydrothermal vents, in which water is heated to the critical temperature by scalding volcanic plumes and achieves the critical pressure because of the crushing weight of the ocean at the extreme depths at which the vents are located. Additionally, anywhere there is volcanic activity below a depth of 2.25 km (1.40 mi) can be expected to have water in the supercritical phase.[10]

QMRQuick breads also vary widely in the consistency of their dough or batter.[10] There are four main types of quick bread batter: pour batter, drop batter, soft dough and stiff dough. Pour batters, such as pancake batter, have a liquid to dry ratio of about 1:1 and so pours in a steady stream. Also called a "low-ratio" baked good. Drop batters, such as cornbread and muffin batters, have a liquid to dry ratio of about 1:2. Soft doughs, such as many chocolate chip cookie doughs, have a liquid to dry ratio of about 1:3. Soft doughs stick significantly to work surfaces. Stiff doughs, such as pie crust and sugar cookie doughs, have a liquid to dry ratio of about 1:8. Stiff doughs are easy to work in that they only minimally stick to work surfaces, including tools and hands. Also called "high-ratio" baked good. The above are volumetric ratios and are not based on baker's percentages or weights.[11]

QMR Another four members revenge song.

QMRA moon pie or MoonPie[1] is a confection, popular in parts of the United States, which consists of two round graham cracker cookies, with marshmallow filling in the center, dipped in a flavored coating. The snack is often associated with the cuisine of the American South where they are traditionally accompanied by an RC Cola. Today, MoonPies are made by the Chattanooga Bakery in Chattanooga, TN. The traditional pie is approximately four inches (100 mm) in diameter. A smaller version exists (mini MoonPie) that is approximately half the size, and a Double-Decker MoonPie of the traditional diameter features a third cookie and attendant layer of marshmallow. The four main flavors are chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, and banana

QMRSweeTarts also come in a variety of other products including gum, little SweeTarts (often packaged to be handed out as Halloween trick-or-treat candy), SweeTart "hearts" for Valentine's Day, "chicks and bunnies" shaped SweeTarts (marketed for Easter in some regions of the US), "skulls and bones" for Halloween, and Giant Chewy SweeTarts, which are a larger, chewier variant of SweeTarts that come 4 to a package, and are the size of a silver dollar and 1/4 inch thick. The Giant Chewy SweeTarts have also retained the lemon (yellow) flavour discontinued in the standard SweeTarts products, as have the Mini Chewy SweeTarts variety. SweeTarts Soft & Chewy Ropes are available in Cherry Punch flavor, and were originally named Kazoozles.

QMRThe first Pop-Tarts came out in four different flavors: strawberry, blueberry, brown sugar cinnamon, and apple currant.[8] As of 2015, there is a wide variety of Pop-Tart flavors, including chocolate chip, s'mores, raspberry, and peanut butter.

QMREuropean health agencies have warned against consuming high amounts of cassia bark, one of the four main species of cinnamon, because of its coumarin content.[27][28] According to the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BFR), 1 kg of (cassia) cinnamon powder contains about 2.1 to 4.4 g of coumarin.[29] Powdered cassia cinnamon weighs 0.56 g/cm3,[30] so a kilogram of cassia cinnamon powder equals 362.29 teaspoons. One teaspoon of cassia cinnamon powder therefore contains 5.8 to 12.1 mg of coumarin, which may be above the tolerable daily intake value for smaller individuals.[29] However, the BFR only cautions against high daily intake of foods containing coumarin. Its report[29] specifically states that Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) contains "hardly any" coumarin.

QMRSaigon cinnamon contains the highest amount of coumarin of all the four Cinnamomum species sold as cinnamon, with one study detecting 6.97 g/kg in an authenticated sample.[1]

QMRThe Sri Lankan grading system divides the cinnamon quills into four groups: Alba, less than 6 mm (0.24 in) in diameter Continental, less than 16 mm (0.63 in) in diameter Mexican, less than 19 mm (0.75 in) in diameter Hamburg, less than 32 mm (1.3 in) in diameter

QMRIn classical times, four types of cinnamon were distinguished (and often confused): Cassia (Hebrew קציעה qəṣi`â), the bark of Cinnamomum iners from Arabia and Ethiopia, literally "the peel of the plant" which is scraped off the tree[6] True cinnamon (Hebrew קִנָּמוֹן qinnamon), the bark of C. verum (also called C. zeylanicum) from Sri Lanka Malabathrum or malobathrum (from Sanskrit तमालपत्रम्, tamālapattram, literally "dark-tree leaves"), several species including C. tamala from the north of India Serichatum, C. cassia from Seres, that is, China

QMRDisaccharides are one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides). The most common types of disaccharides—sucrose, lactose, and maltose—have twelve carbon atoms, with the general formula C12H22O11. The differences in the disaccharides are due to atomic arrangements within the molecule.[3]

QMRA walker cane hybrid[5] was introduced in 2012 designed to bridge the gap between a cane and a walker. The hybrid has two legs which provide lateral (side-to-side) support which a cane does not. It can be used with two hands in front of the user, similar to a walker, and provides an increased level of support compared with a cane. It can be adjusted for use with either one or two hands, at the front and at the side, as well as a stair climbing assistant. The hybrid is not designed to replace a walker which normally has four legs and provides 4-way support using both hands.

Biology Chapter

QMrAccording to the National Cancer Institute, “The most common test[which?] detects DNA from several high-risk HPV types, but it cannot identify the type(s) that are present. Another test[which?] is specific for DNA from HPV types 16 and 18, the two types that cause most HPV-associated cancers. A third test[which?] can detect DNA from several high-risk HPV types and can indicate whether HPV-16 or HPV-18 is present. A fourth test[which?] detects RNA from the most common high-risk HPV types. These tests can detect HPV infections before cell abnormalities are evident.

QMRS4[edit] Main article: Fourth heart sound S4 when audible in an adult is called a presystolic gallop or atrial gallop. This gallop is produced by the sound of blood being forced into a stiff or hypertrophic ventricle. "ta-lub-dub" or "a-stiff-wall" It is a sign of a pathologic state, usually a failing or hypertrophic left ventricle, as in systemic hypertension, severe valvular aortic stenosis, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The sound occurs just after atrial contraction at the end of diastole and immediately before S1, producing a rhythm sometimes referred to as the "Tennessee" gallop where S4 represents the "Ten-" syllable.[2] It is best heard at the cardiac apex with the patient in the left lateral decubitus position and holding his breath. The combined presence of S3 and S4 is a quadruple gallop, also known as the "Hello-Goodbye" gallop. At rapid heart rates, S3 and S4 may merge to produce a summation gallop, sometimes referred to as S7. Atrial contraction must be present for production of an S4. It is absent in atrial fibrillation and in other rhythms in which atrial contraction does not precede ventricular contraction.

QMRThe fourth is always different. The fourth heart sound or S4 is a rare extra heart sound that occurs immediately before the normal two "lub-dub" heart sounds (S1 and S2). It occurs just after atrial contraction and immediately before the systolic S1 and is caused by the atria contracting forcefully in an effort to overcome an abnormally stiff or hypertrophic ventricle. 'This produces a rhythm classically compared to the cadence of the word "Tennessee".[1][2] One can also use the phrase "a-STIFF-wall" to help with the cadence (a S4, stiff S1, wall S2), as well as the pathology of the S4 sound.[3] Physiology[edit] The normal heart sounds, S1 and S2, are produced during the closing of the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves, respectively. The closing of these valves produces a brief period of turbulent flow, which produces sound. The S4 sound occurs, by definition, immediately before S1, while the atria of the heart are vigorously contracting.[4] It is manifest as a vibration of 20 to 30 Hz within the ventricle.[4] While the mechanism is not absolutely certain, it is generally accepted that S4 is caused by stiffening of the walls of the ventricles (usually the left), which produces abnormally turbulent flow as the atria contract to force blood into the ventricle.[4] S4 is sometimes audible in the elderly due to a more rigid ventricle. When loud, it is a sign of a pathologic state,[5] usually a failing left ventricle. If the problem lies with the left ventricle, the gallop rhythm will be heard best at the cardiac apex. It will become more apparent with exercise, with the patient lying on their left-hand side, or with the patient holding expiration. If the culprit is the right ventricle, the abnormal sound will be most evident on the lower left hand side of the sternum and will get louder with exercise and quick, deep inspiration.[6] S4 has also been termed an atrial gallop or a presystolic gallop because of its occurrence late in the heart cycle. It is a type of gallop rhythm by virtue of having an extra sound; the other gallop rhythm is called S3. The two are quite different, but they may sometimes occur together forming a quadruple gallop. If the heart rate is also very fast (tachycardia), it can become difficult to distinguish between S3 and S4 thus producing a single sound called a summation gallop. Causes[edit] S4 is caused by the atria contracting forcefully in an effort to overcome an abnormally stiff or hypertrophic ventricle. This causes abnormal turbulence in the flow of blood that can be detected by a stethoscope. Associations[edit] The S4 heart sound is associated with any process that increases the stiffness of the ventricle,[7] including: hypertrophy of the ventricle long-standing hypertension (causes ventricular hypertrophy) aortic stenosis[8] (causes ventricular hypertrophy) overloading of the ventricle (causes ventricular hypertrophy) fibrosis of the ventricle (e.g. post-MI) Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HOCM) Restrictive cardiomyopathy early phase of myocardial infarction due to ischemia induced myocardial dysfunction Treatment[edit] The S4 heart sound itself does not require treatment; rather plans should be laid to stop the progression of whatever causes the underlying ventricular dysfunction. The S4 heart sound is a secondary manifestation of a primary disease process and treatment should be focused on treating the underlying, primary disease.

QMRDeath due to disease is called death by natural causes. There are four main types of disease: pathogenic disease, deficiency disease, hereditary disease, and physiological disease. Diseases can also be classified as communicable and non-communicable. The deadliest disease in humans is ischemic heart disease (blood flow obstruction), followed by cerebrovascular disease and lower respiratory infections respectively.[2]

QMRBothrops asper is a venomous pit viper species ranging from southern Mexico to northern South America. Sometimes referred to as the "ultimate pit viper", these snakes are found in a wide range of lowland habitats, often near human habitations. Its proximity to human habitations is likely the reason why it is considered more dangerous to humans than others. This species is the main cause of snakebite incidents within its range.[1] No subspecies are currently recognized.[3] Some of the common names applied to this snake are terciopelo, fer-de-lance,[2] barba amarilla (Guatemala, Honduras; "yellow beard"), equis (Ecuador & Panama; "x"),[5] taya equis (Colombia), cuaima (Venezuela), nauyaca (México; from Nahuatl nahui, four, and yacatl, nose; "four noses"),[6] and yellow-jaw tommygoff (Belize).

QMrThe parathyroid glands are so named because they are usually located behind the thyroid gland in the neck. They arise during fetal development from structures known as the third and fourth pharyngeal pouch. The glands, usually four in number, contain the parathyroid chief cells that sense the level of calcium in the blood through the calcium-sensing receptor and secrete parathyroid hormone. Magnesium is required for PTH secretion. Under normal circumstances, the parathyroids secrete PTH to maintain a calcium level within normal limits, as calcium is required for adequate muscle and nerve function (including the autonomic nervous system). PTH acts on several organs to increase calcium levels. It increases calcium absorption in the bowel, while in the kidney it prevents calcium excretion and increases phosphate release and in bone it increases calcium through bone resorption.[citation needed]

QMRThere are four different types of stretching: ballistic, dynamic, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation, and static stretching. Ballistic stretching is a rapid bouncing stretch in which a body part is moving with momentum that stretches the muscles to a maximum. Muscles respond to this type of stretching by contracting to protect itself from over extending. Dynamic stretching is a walking or movement stretch. By performing slow controlled movements through full range of motion, a person reduces risk of injury. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) is a type of stretch for a particular muscle and its specific job, so resistance should be applied, then the muscle should be relaxed. Static stretching is a type of stretch whereby a person stretches the muscle until a gentle tension is felt and then holds the stretch for thirty seconds or until a muscle release is felt, without any movement or bouncing.[3]

Larvae develop through four stages, or instars, after which they metamorphose into pupae. At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their skins to allow for further growth.

General developmental stages[edit] There are four general developmental stages, each with its own morphology. Egg[edit] The first stage is from the fertilization of the egg inside the mother until the embryo hatches. The insect starts as a single cell and then develops into the larval form before it hatches. Larva[edit] The second stage lasts from hatching or birth until the larva pupates. In most species this mobile stage is worm-like in form. Such larvae can be one of several general varieties: elateriform (wireworm-like, as in the beetle family Elateridae), eruciform (caterpillar-like, as in the Lepidoptera and Symphyta. Some that lack legs, such as the larvae of Nematoceran flies such as mosquitoes, are called apodous eruciform), scarabaeiform (grub-like, with a head-capsule, as in the beetle family Scarabaeidae), or vermiform (maggot-like, as in most species of Brachyceran flies). Other species however may be campodeiform (a form reminiscent of members of the genus Campodea, elongated, more or less straight, flattened, and active, with functional legs). This stage is variously adapted to gaining and accumulating the materials and energy necessary for growth and metamorphosis. Pupa[edit] The third stage is from pupation until eclosion. The pupae of most species hardly move at all, although the pupae of some species, such as mosquitoes, are mobile. In preparation for pupation, the larvae of many species construct a protective cocoon of silk or other material, such as its own accumulated faeces. There are three types of pupae: obtect, exarate, and coarctate. Obtect pupae are compact, with the legs and other appendages enclosed. Exarate pupae have their legs and other appendages free and extended. Coarctate pupae develop inside the larval skin. In this stage, the insect's physiology and functional structure, both internal and external, change drastically. Imago[edit] Adult holometabolous insects usually have wings (excepting where secondarily lost) and functioning reproductive organs. In this stage, reproduction is the top priority for queens and males

QMRHolometabolism, also called complete metamorphism, is a form of insect development which includes four life stages – as an embryo or egg, a larva, a pupa and an imago or adult. Holometabolism is a synapomorphic trait of all insects in the superorder Endopterygota. In some species the holometabolous life cycle prevents larvae from competing with adults because they inhabit different ecological niches. Accordingly, their morphology can be adapted to just one phase of activity, such as larvae feeding for growth and development, as opposed to adults flying for dispersal and seeking new supplies of food for their offspring. Conversely, in some insects, the adults can protect and feed the younger stages.

QMRFleas are holometabolous insects, going through the four lifecycle stages of egg, larva, pupa, and imago (adult). Adult fleas must feed on blood before they can become capable of reproduction.[6] Flea populations are distributed with about 50% eggs, 35% larvae, 10% pupae, and 5% adults.[4]

QMRAt or below 0 °C (32 °F), blood vessels close to the skin start to constrict, and blood is shunted away from the extremities via the action of glomus bodies. The same response may also be a result of exposure to high winds. This constriction helps to preserve core body temperature. In extreme cold, or when the body is exposed to cold for long periods, this protective strategy can reduce blood flow in some areas of the body to dangerously low levels. This lack of blood leads to the eventual freezing and death of skin tissue in the affected areas. Of the four degrees of frostbite, each has varying degrees of pain.[2] First degree[edit] This is called frostnip and only affects the surface of the skin, which is frozen. On the onset, itching and pain occur, and then the skin develops white, red, and yellow patches and becomes numb. The area affected by frostnip usually does not become permanently damaged, as only the skin's top layers are affected. Long-term insensitivity to both heat and cold can sometimes happen after suffering from frostnip. Second degree[edit] If freezing continues, the skin may freeze and harden, but the deep tissues are not affected and remain soft and normal. Second-degree injury usually blisters 1–2 days after becoming frozen. The blisters may become hard and blackened, but usually appear worse than they are. Most of the injuries heal in one month, but the area may become permanently insensitive to both heat and cold. Third and fourth degrees[edit] Frostbite 12 days later If the area freezes further, deep frostbite occurs. The muscles, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves all freeze. The skin is hard, feels waxy, and use of the area is lost temporarily, and in severe cases, permanently. The deep frostbite results in areas of purplish blisters which turn black and which are generally blood-filled. Nerve damage in the area can result in a loss of feeling. This extreme frostbite may result in fingers and toes being amputated if the area becomes infected with gangrene. If the frostbite has gone on untreated, they may fall off. The extent of the damage done to the area by the freezing process of the frostbite may take several months to assess, and this often delays surgery to remove the dead tissue.[3]

QMRA number of spiders can cause spider bites that are medically important. Almost all spiders produce venom but only a few are classified as "venomous" and able to cause significant harm to humans.[1] Two medically important spider genera have a worldwide distribution—latrodectus and loxosceles. Others have a limited distribution. Medical reports have been criticized for poor evidence. In the last century, both white tailed and wolf spiders were considered medically significant, only to be recanted. Only four genera (Phoneutria, Atrax, Latrodectus, and Loxosceles) are considered medically significant. Bites of these spiders have a range of severity, with only a minority having severe symptoms. Deaths by verified spider bites are exceedingly rare (e.g. none in Australia for 40 years, none in the United States for 50 years).

QMRPère David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus), also known as the milu (Chinese: 麋鹿; pinyin: mílù) or elaphure, is a species of deer that are mostly found in captivity. This semiaquatic animal prefers marshland, and is native to the subtropics of China. It grazes mainly on grass and aquatic plants. It is the only extant member of the genus Elaphurus. Based on genetic comparisons, Père David's deer is closely related to the deer of the genus Cervus, leading many experts to suggest merging Elaphurus into Cervus,[2] or demoting Elaphurus to a subgenus of Cervus.[3] The species is sometimes known by its informal name sibuxiang (Chinese: 四不像; pinyin: sì bú xiàng; Japanese: shifuzō), literally meaning "four not alike", which could mean "the four unlikes" or "like none of the four"; it is variously said that the four are cow, deer, donkey, horse (or) camel, and that the expression means in detail: "the hooves of a cow but not a cow, the neck of a camel but not a camel, antlers of a deer but not a deer, the tail of a donkey but not a donkey." "the nose of a cow but not a cow, the antlers of a deer but not a deer, the body of a donkey but not a donkey, tail of a horse but not a horse" "the tail of a donkey, the head of a horse, the hoofs of a cow, the antlers of a deer" "the neck of a camel, the hoofs of a cow, the tail of a donkey, the antlers of a deer" "the antlers of a deer, the head of a horse and the body of a cow"[6]

QMRFour characteristics definitively separate adult tsetse from other kinds of flies: Proboscis Tsetse have a distinct proboscis, a long thin structure attached to the bottom of the head and pointing forward. A photograph of the head of a tsetse illustrating the forward pointing proboscis Folded wings When at rest, tsetse fold their wings completely one on top of the other. A photograph of the whole body of a tsetse illustrating the folded wings when at rest Hatchet cell The discal medial ("middle") cell of the wing has a characteristic hatchet shape resembling a meat cleaver or a hatchet. A photograph of the wing of a tsetse illustrating the hatchet shaped central cell Branched arista hairs The antennae have arista with hairs which are themselves branched.

QMRThe blue-ringed octopuses (genus Hapalochlaena) are threee (or perhaps four) octopus species that live in tide pools and coral reefs in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, from Japan to Australia. Their primary habitat is around southern New South Wales, South Australia, and northern Western Australia.[1][2] They are recognized as one of the world's most venomous marine animals.[3] Despite their small size, 12 to 20 cm (5 to 8 in), and relatively docile nature, they are dangerous to humans if provoked and handled, because their venom is powerful enough to kill humans. There are four confirmed speciesGreater blue-ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena lunulata) Southern blue-ringed octopus or lesser blue-ringed octopus (Hapalochlaena maculosa) Blue-lined octopus (Hapalochlaena fasciata) Hapalochlaena nierstraszi was described in 1938 from a single specimen from the Bay of Bengal, with a second specimen caught and described in 2013.[5]

QMROn the Indian subcontinent, almost all snakebite deaths have traditionally been attributed to the Big Four, consisting of the Russell's viper, Indian cobra, saw-scaled viper, and the common krait. However, studies have shown that the hump-nosed viper, previously considered essentially harmless and misidentified as the saw-scaled viper, is capable of delivering a fatal bite.[24][25] In regions of Kerala, India, it may be responsible for nearly 10% of venomous bites.[25] Commonly used antivenoms in India do not appear to be effective against hump-nosed viper bites.[24][25] According to the most conservative estimates, at least 81,000 snake envenomings and 11,000 fatalities occur in India each year, making it the most heavily affected country in the world.[1] The Malayan pit viper and banded krait are two other species involved in a significant number of venomous bites.

QMRAfrica is home to four venomous snake families—Atractaspididae, Colubridae, Elapidae, and Viperidae—approximately 60% of all bites are caused by vipers alone

QMRIt Bites are an English progressive rock and pop fusion band, formed in Egremont, Cumbria, England, in 1982[1] and best known for their 1986 single "Calling All The Heroes", which gained them a Top 10 UK Singles Chart hit.[2] Initially fronted by Francis Dunnery, the band split in 1990, eventually returning in 2006 with new frontman John Mitchell. Described as "a British band with blues and metal aspirations, but also a strong art-rock tendency" by Allmusic,[3] It Bites are better described as a band composed of voracious pop fans with a parallel taste for progressive rock. The band's musical development can be split into four clear phases - their The Big Lad in the Windmill phase (in which they embraced various varieties of contemporary pop, funk, sophisti-pop, and Queen-style glam rock and processed it through their progressive rock influences); the Once Around the World phase (in which they produced 1970s style progressive rock with a 1980s contemporary producer-pop gloss); the Eat Me in St. Louis phase (during which they produced detailed hard rock songs with elements of heavy metal and glam rock); and the current reunion phase (in which they play a more measured melodic progressive rock similar to that of the Once Around The World phase).

QMRThe pyramid was built about 18 BC–12 BC as a tomb for Gaius Cestius, a magistrate and member of one of the four great religious corporations in Rome, the Septemviri Epulonum. It is of brick-faced concrete covered with slabs of white marble standing on a travertine foundation, measuring 100 Roman feet (29.6 m) square at the base and standing 125 Roman feet (37 m) high.[1]

QMRFrom 1956 until 1992 the United States Department of Agriculture recommended its "Basic Four" food groups.[7] These food groups were: Vegetables and fruits: Recommended as excellent sources of vitamins C and A, and a good source of fiber. A dark-green or deep-yellow vegetable or fruit was recommended every other day. Milk: Recommended as a good source of calcium, phosphorus, protein, riboflavin, and sometimes vitamins A and D. Cheese, ice cream, and ice milk could sometimes replace milk. Meat: Recommended for protein, iron and certain B vitamins. Includes meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dry beans, dry peas, and peanut butter. Cereals and breads: Whole grain and enriched breads were especially recommended as good sources of iron, B vitamins and carbohydrates, as well as sources of protein and fiber. Includes cereals, breads, cornmeal, macaroni, noodles, rice and spaghetti.

QMRWhile all countries' population pyramids differ, four general types have been identified by the fertility and mortality rates of a country.[3] Stable pyramid A population pyramid showing an unchanging pattern of fertility and mortality. Stationary pyramid A population pyramid typical of countries with low fertility and low mortality, very similar to a constrictive pyramid. Expansive pyramid A population pyramid that is very wide at the base, indicating high birth and death rates. Constrictive pyramid A population pyramid that comes in at the bottom. The population is generally older on average, as the country has long life expectancy, a low death rate, but also a low birth rate. This pyramid is becoming more common, especially when immigrants are factored out, and is a typical pattern for a very developed country, a high level of education, easy access to and incentive to use birth control, good health care, and few negative environmental factors. In some countries the above "pyramids" are referred to by a description of their shape. The classic one is of course the pyramid. The stationary pyramid is referred to as a "clock-model" (like the bell in a clock tower). The contracting pyramid is referred to as "onion" shaped. Sometimes even as "urn" shaped.

QMRBoats great Pyramid of Giza Main article: Khufu ship There are three boat-shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years. The result is a cedar-wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.[48]

QMRThe amount of bleeding varies. IVH is often described in four grades: Grade I - bleeding occurs just in the germinal matrix Grade II - bleeding also occurs inside the ventricles, but they are not enlarged Grade III - ventricles are enlarged by the accumulated blood Grade IV - bleeding extends into the brain tissue around the ventricles

QMRMolecular alterations[edit] Four subtypes of glioblastoma have been identified:[31] Classical : Ninety-seven percent of tumors in the 'classical' subtype carry extra copies of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene, and most have higher than normal expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), whereas the gene TP53, which is often mutated in glioblastoma, is rarely mutated in this subtype.[32] The Proneural subtype often has high rates of alterations in TP53, and in PDGFRA, the gene encoding a-type platelet-derived growth factor receptor, and in IDH1, the gene encoding isocitrate dehydrogenase-1. The Mesenchymal subtype is characterized by high rates of mutations or other alterations in NF1, the gene encoding Neurofibromin 1 and fewer alterations in the EGFR gene and less expression of EGFR than other types.[33] The Neural subtype was typified by the expression of neuron markers such as NEFL, GABRA1, SYT1 and SLC12A5.[31]

QMRRhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse) describe the variety, conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of language-based communication, particularly writing and speaking. Four of the most common rhetorical modes and their purpose are narration, description, exposition, and argumentation.[1]

QMRMax Scheler (1874-1928) developed a philosophical anthropology on the basis of a material ethic of values ("Materielle Wertethik") such opposing Immanuel Kant's ethics of duty ("Pflichtethik"). He described a hierarchical system of values that further developed phenomenological philosophy. He described the human psyche as of four layers in analogy of the layers of the organic nature, but in the human being it is opposed by the principle of the human spirit. - Scheler's philosophy formes the basis of Viktor Frankl's Logotherapy and Existential Analysis.

QMRExistential psychotherapy is a philosophical method of therapy that operates on the belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence.[1] These givens, as noted by Irvin D. Yalom, are: the inevitability of death, freedom and its attendant responsibility, existential isolation, and finally meaninglessness. These four givens, also referred to as ultimate concerns, form the body of existential psychotherapy and compose the framework in which a therapist conceptualizes a client's problem in order to develop a method of treatment. In the British School of Existential therapy (Cooper, 2003), these givens are seen as predictable tensions and paradoxes of the four dimensions of human existence, the physical, social, personal and spiritual realms (Umwelt, Mitwelt, Eigenwelt and Überwelt). The Viennese School of Existential therapy (Längle, 2003b) describes four fundamental existential dimensions as a structural model of therapy. Their accomplishment (therapeutically endorsed by the method of Personal Existential Analysis) leads to personal existential fulfillment.

QMrIn computer science, ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that database transactions are processed reliably. In the context of databases, a single logical operation on the data is called a transaction. For example, a transfer of funds from one bank account to another, even involving multiple changes such as debiting one account and crediting another, is a single transaction. Jim Gray defined these properties of a reliable transaction system in the late 1970s and developed technologies to achieve them automatically.[1][2][3] In 1983, Andreas Reuter and Theo Härder coined the acronym ACID to describe them.[4]

QMR1945- Naval Jack A squared flag divided into four squares representing the four Kingdoms of Spain with navies in the Middle Ages: Castile (represented by a castle, top left), Leon (represented by a heraldic lion, top right), Aragon (represented by four pallets, bottom left), and Navarre (represented by an orle of chains, bottom right)

QMRThe Panamanian government officially described the flag in Law 15 of December 1949, as follows: The Flag of the Republic consists thus of a divided rectangle of four quarters: the upper field close to the pole white with a blue star of five points; the upper field further from the pole, red; the lower field near the pole, blue; and the lower one further from the pole, white with a red star of five points.

QMRIn 1987, Oades identified four primary nuclei in the VTA A10 group of cells: the nucleus paranigralis (Npn), the nucleus parabrachialis pigmentosus (Npbp), the nucleus interfascicularis (Nif), and the nucleus linearis (Nln) caudalis and rostralis. Presently, scientists divide the VTA up into four similar zones that are called the paranigral nucleus (PN), the parabrachial pigmented area (PBP), the parafasciculus retroflexus area (PFR), and the rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg), which approximately adhere to the previous divisions. Some definitions of the VTA also include the midline nuclei (i.e. the interfascicular nucleus, rostral linear nucleus, and central linear nucleus).

QMRThe tuberoinfundibular pathway refers to a population of dopamine neurons in the arcuate nucleus (aka "infundibular nucleus") in the tuberal region of the hypothalamus that project to the pituitary median eminence (the "infundibular region").[1] It is one of the four major dopamine pathways in the brain. Dopamine released at this site regulates the secretion of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland. Other major dopamine pathways include: mesocortical pathway mesolimbic pathway nigrostriatal pathway

QMRFour phases[edit] Overview of the mammal estrous cycle Proestrus[edit] One or several follicles of the ovary start to grow. Their number is species specific. Typically this phase can last as little as one day or as long as three weeks, depending on the species. Under the influence of estrogen the lining in the uterus (endometrium) starts to develop. Some animals may experience vaginal secretions that could be bloody. The female is not yet sexually receptive; the old corpus luteum gets degenerated; the uterus and the vagina get distended and filled with fluid, become contractile and secrete a sanguinous fluid; the vaginal epithelium proliferates and the vaginal smear shows a large number of non-cornified nucleated epithelial cells. Estrus[edit] "Estrus" redirects here. For other uses, see Estrus (disambiguation). Estrus refers to the phase when the female is sexually receptive ("in heat"). Under regulation by gonadotropic hormones, ovarian follicles mature and estrogen secretions exert their biggest influence. The female then exhibits sexually receptive behavior,[9] a situation that may be signaled by visible physiologic changes. A signal trait of estrus is the lordosis reflex, in which the animal spontaneously elevates her hindquarters. Estrus is commonly seen in the mammalian species, including primates. It is thought that this increased sexual receptivity is a functional design in order for the female to obtain mates with superior genetic quality.[9] In some species, the labia are reddened. Ovulation may occur spontaneously in some species. Metestrus or diestrus[edit] This phase is characterized by the activity of the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. The signs of estrogen stimulation subside and the corpus luteum starts to form. The uterine lining begins to appear. In the absence of pregnancy the diestrus phase (also termed pseudo-pregnancy) terminates with the regression of the corpus luteum. The lining in the uterus is not shed, but is reorganized for the next cycle.

QMRLike other steroids, progesterone consists of four interconnected cyclic hydrocarbons. Progesterone contains ketone and oxygenated functional groups, as well as two methyl branches. Like all steroid hormones, it is hydrophobic.

QMRA steroid is an organic compound with four rings arranged in a specific configuration. Examples include the dietary lipid cholesterol, the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone[2]:10–19 and the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone.[3] Steroids have two principal biological functions: certain steroids (such as cholesterol) are important components of cell membranes which alter membrane fluidity, and many steroids are signaling molecules which activate steroid hormone receptors. The steroid core structure is composed of seventeen carbon atoms, bonded in four "fused" rings: three six-member cyclohexane rings (rings A, B and C in the first illustration) and one five-member cyclopentane ring (the D ring). Steroids vary by the functional groups attached to this four-ring core and by the oxidation state of the rings. Sterols are forms of steroids with a hydroxyl group at position three and a skeleton derived from cholestane.[4][1]:1785f [5] They can also vary more markedly by changes to the ring structure (for example, ring scissions which produce secosteroids such as vitamin D3). Hundreds of steroids are found in plants, animals and fungi. All steroids are manufactured in cells from the sterols lanosterol (animals and fungi) or cycloartenol (plants). Lanosterol and cycloartenol are derived from the cyclization of the triterpene squalene.[6]

QMRThe four-clawed gecko (Gehyra mutilata, also known as the stump-toed gecko, tender-skinned house gecko, sugar lizard, or Pacific gecko, or butiki) is a wide-ranging lizard that is probably native to Southeast Asia. It has made its way to several areas of the world including Sri Lanka, Indochina, and many of the U.S. Pacific Islands. The gecko is somewhat plump, with delicate skin. The skin is usually colored a soft purplish/pinkish gray with golden spots on younger specimens; these spots eventually fade with age.

QMRSyphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum.[1] The signs and symptoms of syphilis vary depending in which of the four stages it presents (primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary). The primary stage classically presents with a single chancre (a firm, painless, non-itchy skin ulceration) but there may be multiple sores. In secondary syphilis a diffuse rash which frequently involves the palms of the hands and soles of the feet occurs. There may also be sores in the mouth or vagina. In latent syphilis there are little to no symptoms which can last for years.[2] In tertiary syphilis there are gummas (soft non-cancerous growths), neurological, or heart symptoms.[3] Syphilis has been known as "the great imitator" as it may cause symptoms similar to many other diseases.[2][3]

QMrThere are various methods of performing a differential diagnostic procedure, but in general, it is based on the idea that one begins by considering the most common diagnosis first: a head cold versus meningitis, for example. As a reminder, medical students are taught the Occam's razor adage, "When you hear hoofbeats, look for horses, not zebras," which means look for the simplest, most common explanation first. Only after ruling out the simplest diagnosis should the clinician consider more complex or exotic diagnoses. Differential diagnosis has four steps. The physician: Gathers all information about the patient and creates a symptoms list. The list can be in writing or in the physician's head, as long as they make a list. Lists all possible causes (candidate conditions) for the symptoms. Again, this can be in writing or in the physician's head but it must be done. Prioritizes the list by placing the most urgently dangerous possible causes at the top of the list. Rules out or treats possible causes, beginning with the most urgently dangerous condition and working down the list. Rule out—practically—means use tests and other scientific methods to determine that a candidate condition has a clinically negligible probability of being the cause.

QMRThere are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of natural sciences than social sciences. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below. Four essential elements[53][54][55] of the scientific method[56] are iterations,[57][58] recursions,[59] interleavings, or orderings of the following: Characterizations (observations,[60] definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry) Hypotheses[61][62] (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject)[63] Predictions (reasoning including deductive reasoning[64] from the hypothesis or theory) Experiments[65] (tests of all of the above)

QMRIn 1877,[17] Charles Sanders Peirce (/ˈpɜːrs/ like "purse"; 1839–1914) characterized inquiry in general not as the pursuit of truth per se but as the struggle to move from irritating, inhibitory doubts born of surprises, disagreements, and the like, and to reach a secure belief, belief being that on which one is prepared to act. He framed scientific inquiry as part of a broader spectrum and as spurred, like inquiry generally, by actual doubt, not mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt, which he held to be fruitless.[87] He outlined four methods of settling opinion, ordered from least to most successful: The method of tenacity (policy of sticking to initial belief) – which brings comforts and decisiveness but leads to trying to ignore contrary information and others' views as if truth were intrinsically private, not public. It goes against the social impulse and easily falters since one may well notice when another's opinion is as good as one's own initial opinion. Its successes can shine but tend to be transitory.[88] The method of authority – which overcomes disagreements but sometimes brutally. Its successes can be majestic and long-lived, but it cannot operate thoroughly enough to suppress doubts indefinitely, especially when people learn of other societies present and past. The method of the a priori – which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of "what is agreeable to reason." Thereby it depends on fashion in paradigms and goes in circles over time. It is more intellectual and respectable but, like the first two methods, sustains accidental and capricious beliefs, destining some minds to doubt it. The scientific method – the method wherein inquiry regards itself as fallible and purposely tests itself and criticizes, corrects, and improves itself.

QMrIn anesthesia, Neuromuscular monitoring, also known as train of four monitoring, is a technique used during recovery from the application of general anesthesia to objectively determine how well a patient's muscles are able to function. It involves the application of electrical stimulation to nerves and recording of muscle response using, for example, an acceleromyograph. Neuromuscular monitoring is typically used when neuromuscular-blocking drugs have been part of the general anesthesia and the doctor wishes to avoid postoperative residual curarization (PORC) in the patient, that is, the residual paralysis of muscles stemming from these drugs. When train of four monitoring is "used continuously, each set (train) of stimuli normally is repeated every 10th to 12th second. Each stimulus in the train causes the muscle to contract, and 'fade' in the response provides the basis for evaluation." These sets are called trains because their shape bears the semblance of a train.[1] In train of four monitoring, "peripheral nerve stimulation can ensure proper medication dosing and thus decrease the incidence of side effects" by "assessing the depth of neuromuscular blockade".[2] Before the patient is fully awake, voluntary muscle testing is not possible and indirect clinical tests, such as apparent muscle tone and pulmonary compliance, can be affected by factors other than PORC. Direct neuromuscular monitoring avoids these problems and allows the doctor to remedy PORC before it becomes a source of patient distress.[3][4][5][6][7] A test for measuring the level of neuromuscular blockade: four consecutive stimuli are delivered along the path of a nerve and the response of the muscle is measured in order to evaluate stimuli that are blocked versus those that are delivered. Four equal muscle contractions will result if there is no neuromuscular blockade, but if nondepolarizing blockade is present, there will be a loss of twitch height and number, which will indicate the degree of blockade. This test is commonly used in intensive care units. See illustration.

QMRCirrus comes in four distinct species; Cirrus castellanus, fibratus, spissatus, and uncinus; which are each divided into four varieties: intortus, vertebratus, radiatus, and duplicatus.[12] Cirrus castellanus is a species that has cumuliform tops caused by high-altitude convection rising up from the main cloud body. Cirrus fibratus looks striated and is the most common cirrus species. Cirrus uncinus clouds are hooked and are the form that is usually called mare's tails. Of the varieties, Cirrus intortus has an extremely contorted shape, and cirrus radiatus has large, radial bands of cirrus clouds that stretch across the sky. Kelvin-Helmholtz waves are a form of cirrus intortus that has been twisted into loops by vertical wind shear.[13]

Psychology Chapter

QMRSocial needs are "acquired psychological processes that activate emotional responses to particular need-relevant incentives." (Reeve, 2009) Need for eye contact, expression of positive emotions by caretakers or loved ones, and cuddling—anything that fosters a sense of emotional security—can be defined as a social need. There are four basic social needs: power, achievement, intimacy, and affiliation. People who have power needs look to gain dominance, achieve high statuses, and/or achieve high positions in their occupations, households, or social groups or organizations. These people look for leadership roles, and are usually happy and content when they are in control. People who have achievement needs are willing to seek out and accomplish tasks. The strive for achievement can develop strongly in children when influenced by their parents. Intimacy needs are a linked to affiliation needs. Intimacy needs can be sought out and met when in close, personal relationships with others. Fulfillment of intimacy needs can help decrease an individual's chance of developing onset of depression, as well as help reduce an individual's fears of being rejected. Affiliation needs are people's needs to feel a sense of involvement and "belonging" within a social group; affiliation needs have to do more with the acceptance of behavior. It is human nature for people to want to be liked by others and get approval from them. It is also innate for people to want to maintain healthy and positive relationships with others around them.

QMRThe concept of information needs was coined by an American information journalist Robert S. Taylor in his article "The Process of Asking Questions" published in American Documentation (Now is Journal of the American Society of Information Science and Technology). In this paper, Taylor attempted to describe how an inquirer obtains an answer from an information system, by performing the process consciously or unconsciously; also he studied the reciprocal influence between the inquirer and a given system. According to Taylor, information need has four levels: The conscious and unconscious need for information not existing in the remembered experience of the investigator. In terms of the query range, this level might be called the “ideal question” — the question which would bring from the ideal system exactly what the inquirer, if he could state his need. It is the actual, but unexpressed, need for information The conscious mental description of an ill-defined area of in decision. In this level, the inquirer might talk to someone else in the field to get an answer. A researcher forms a rational statement of his question. This statement is a rational and unambiguous description of the inquirer’s doubts. The question as presented to the information system.

QMRMaslow's influence extended beyond psychology. His work on peak experiences was relevant to religious studies, founding with Stanislav Grof, Viktor Frankl, James Fadiman, Anthony Sutich, Miles Vich and Michael Murphy, a new school called by himself "the fourth force in psychology" the transpersonal psychology, with applicability in many different areas, one of them being the work on management in transpersonal business studies. Maslow's Hierarchy is used in higher education for advising students and student retention[52] as well as a key concept in student development.[53] Maslow himself found it difficult to accept religious experience as valid unless placed in a positivistic framework.[54]

QMRFor Murray, human nature involves a set of universal basic needs. Individual differences of these needs lead to the uniqueness of a person's personality due to varying amounts of each need. In other words, specific needs are more important to some than to others. He believed that the study of personality should look at the entire person over the course of their lifespan (Flett, 2008). According to Murray, human psychogenic needs function on an unconscious level, but they can play a major role in our personality (Cherry, 2015). According to Murray, personality can be determined in four major ways. These include constitutional determinants, group membership determinants, life role determinants, and situational determinants (Flett, 2008).

QMRAntenarrative is the process by which retrospective narrative is linked to living story. While aspects of this process have been studied by other disciplines under other names for centuries, the term "antenarrative", coined by David Boje in 2001,[1] has four primary uses. The first two uses of antenarrative are as the before(ante)-narrative, existing as story is turned to narrative, and a bet (ante) narrative, placed in hopes that something will become a retrospective narrative. The other two uses are spiral and rhizome antenarratives.

QMRThe four tenets of the Landdyke Movement are relationship with the land, liberation and transformation, living the politics, and bodily Freedoms.[47] Most importantly, members of these communities seek to live outside of a patriarchal society that puts emphasis on “beauty ideals that discipline the female body, compulsive heterosexuality, competitiveness with other women, and dependence.” [48] Instead of adhering typical female gender roles, the women of Landdyke communities value “self-sufficiency, bodily strength, autonomy from men and patriarchal systems, and the development of lesbian-centered community.” [48] Members of the Landdyke movement enjoy bodily freedoms that have been deemed unacceptable in the modern Western world – such as the freedom to expose their breasts, or to go without any clothing at all.[49] An awareness of their impact on the Earth, and connection to nature is essential members of the Landdyke Movement's way of life.[50]

QMRCowan also noted a number of other limits of cognition that point to a "magical number four",[10] and different from Miller, he argued that this correspondence is no coincidence. One other process that seems to be limited at about four elements is subitizing, the rapid enumeration of small numbers of objects. When a number of objects are flashed briefly, their number can be determined very quickly, at a glance, when the number does not exceed the subitizing limit, which is about four objects. Larger numbers of objects must be counted, which is a slower process. The film Rain Man portrayed an autistic savant, who was able to rapidly determine the number of toothpicks from an entire box spilled on the floor, apparently subitizing a much larger number than four objects. A similar feat was informally observed by neuropsychologist Oliver Sacks and reported in his book The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat. Therefore, one might suppose that this limit is an arbitrary limit imposed by our cognition rather than necessarily being a physical limit. (On the other hand, autism expert Daniel Tammet has suggested that the children Sacks observed may have pre-counted the matches in the box.[15]). There is also evidence that even four chunks is a high estimate: Gobet and Clarkson conducted an experiment and found that over half of the memory recall conditions yielded only about two chunks. Research also shows that the size, rather than the number, of chunks that are stored in short-term memory is what allows for enhanced memory in individuals.[16][original research?]

QMRFour broad personality styles[edit] Fisher distinguishes between four broad biologically based styles of thinking and behaving which she associates with four broad neurochemical systems. Fisher emphasizes that these are not “types” and that we are all a unique combination of all of them. The corresponding Platonic thinking style, Keirsey temperament type (according to some readers, not Fisher herself), and color can be seen in parenthesis. Explorer (creative; Artisan temperament, yellow) = dopamine Builder (sensible; Guardian temperament, blue) = serotonin Director (reasoning; Rational temperament; red) = testosterone Negotiator (intuitive; Idealist temperament; green) = estrogen/oxytocin

QMRWorking memory is generally considered to have limited capacity. The earliest quantification of the capacity limit associated with short-term memory was the "magical number seven" suggested by Miller in 1956.[28] He claimed that the information-processing capacity of young adults is around seven simultaneous elements, which he called "chunks", regardless whether the elements are digits, letters, words, or other units. Later research revealed this number depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span may be around seven for digits, six for letters, and five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category. For instance, span is lower for long than short words. In general, memory span for verbal contents (digits, letters, words, etc.) strongly depends on the time it takes to speak the contents aloud, and on the lexical status of the contents (whether the contents are words known to the person or not).[29] Several other factors affect a person's measured span, and therefore it is difficult to pin down the capacity of short-term or working memory to a number of chunks. Nonetheless, Cowan proposed that working memory has a capacity of about four chunks in young adults (and fewer in children and old adults).[30]

QMRCowan regards working memory not as a separate system, but as a part of short-term memory, and extends it to include long-term memory. Representations in working memory are a subset of representations in long-term memory. Working memory is organized into two embedded levels. The first consists of long-term memory representations that are activated. There can be many of these—there is theoretically no limit to the activation of representations in long-term memory. The second level is called the focus of attention. The focus is regarded as having a limited capacity and holds up to four of the activated representations.[19] Oberauer has extended Cowan's model by adding a third component, a more narrow focus of attention that holds only one chunk at a time. The one-element focus is embedded in the four-element focus and serves to select a single chunk for processing. For example, four digits can be held in mind at the same time in Cowan's "focus of attention". When the individual wishes to perform a process on each of these digits—for example, adding the number two to each digit—separate processing is required for each digit, as most individuals can not perform several mathematical processes in parallel.[20] Oberauer's attentional component selects one of the digits for processing, and then shifts the attentional focus to the next digit, continuing until all digits have been processed.[21]

QMRIn 1974, Baddeley and Hitch[14] introduced the multicomponent model of working memory. The theory proposed a model containing three components: the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad with the the central executive functioning as a control center of sorts, directing info between the phonological and visuospatial components.[15] The central executive is responsible inter alia for directing attention to relevant information, suppressing irrelevant information and inappropriate actions, and coordinating cognitive processes when more than one task is simultaneously performed. A "central executive" is responsible for supervising the integration of information and for coordinating "slave systems" that are responsible for the short-term maintenance of information. One slave system, the phonological loop (PL), stores phonological information (that is, the sound of language) and prevents its decay by continuously refreshing it in a rehearsal loop. It can, for example, maintain a seven-digit telephone number for as long as one repeats the number to oneself again and again.[16]The other slave system, the visuospatial sketchpad, stores visual and spatial information. It can be used, for example, for constructing and manipulating visual images and for representing mental maps. The sketchpad can be further broken down into a visual subsystem (dealing with such phenomena as shape, colour, and texture), and a spatial subsystem (dealing with location). In 2000, Baddeley extended the model by adding a fourth component, the episodic buffer, which holds representations that integrate phonological, visual, and spatial information, and possibly information not covered by the slave systems (e.g., semantic information, musical information). The episodic buffer is also the link between working memory and long-term memory.[17] The component is episodic because it is assumed to bind information into a unitary episodic representation. The episodic buffer resembles Tulving's concept of episodic memory, but it differs in that the episodic buffer is a temporary store.[18]

QMRWhole Brain Learning (WBL), is an alternative approach to integral learning/ teaching process advocated in the Philippines by Dr. Perla Rizalina M. Tayko and Perla S. Intia.[1] "Learning to Read, Reading to Learn", is the Philippine-published reference book for this concept. The concept is wholly based on the BrainMap model, pioneered in the United States by Dudley Lynch, creater of The BrainMap(R) assessment inventory. In a recently published book entitled Whole Brain Literacy for Whole Brain Learning by Perla Rizalina M. Tayko, Ph.D. and Marina L. Reyes-Talmo, Ph.D., (2010) the concept and processes of whole brain literacy (WBL) is expanded, differentiated and deepened in its philosophy, perspective, paradigm, processes and application of these to the development of human potential. WBL has many dimensions and definitions. Initially it is defined as an approach or modality of instruction, a technique in asking questions for a dialogic interaction and/or a strategy for curriculum and development. As a perspective, WBL advances the new philosophy of education that draws out the potentials of every learner from the gift of thought and developing it from within or from "inside out" much more than from "outside in" or imposed framework of thinking through processes. The authors, Tayko and Talmo used the term "humanology" to distinguish WBL from other approaches if only to emphasize that the technology being taught to learners are the "human technology" latent in every human being – the whole brain functioning which are based on Lynch's four-brain model, detailed in such books as "The BrainMap Workbook", "Strategy of the Dolphin", and "Your Dolphin High-Performance Business Brain". The four-brain processes as identified and exemplified below and as such WBL taps into these whole brain quadrants through "wending/iterating" as well as "connecting" or weaving as it were on a center core called "core purpose" Whole Brain Literacy (WBL) can be described as the circulation the human thinking system through brain quadrants described by Lynch in his BrainMap model: I-Control, I-Explore, I-Pursue, and I-Preserve. The circulation has no need to be in order. However, the key idea is to think through all four quadrants. Lynch described the core information-seeking questions for the quadrants as follows: I-Control: What I know now? I-Explore: What I want to try? I-Pursue: How to do it? I-Preserve: How do I feel?

QMRIn his brain dominance model, Herrmann identifies four different modes of thinking: A. Analytical thinking Key words : Auditive,logical, factual, critical, technical and quantitative. Preferred activities : collecting data, analysis, understanding how things work, judging ideas based on facts, criteria and logical reasoning. B. Sequential thinking Key words : safekeeping, structured, organized, complexity or detailed, planned. Preferred activities : following directions, detail oriented work, step-by-step problem solving, organization and implementation. C. Interpersonal thinking Key words : Kinesthetic, emotional, spiritual, sensory, feeling. Preferred activities : listening to and expressing ideas, looking for personal meaning, sensory input, and group interaction. D. Imaginative thinking Key words : Visual, holistic, intuitive, innovative, and conceptual. Preferred activities : Looking at the big picture, taking initiative, challenging assumptions, visuals, metaphoric thinking, creative problem solving, long term thinking.

QMRMotivational enhancement therapy or MET is a time-limited, four-session adaptation used in Project MATCH, a US-government-funded study of treatment for alcohol problems, and the "Drinkers' Check-up", which provides normative-based feedback and explores client motivation to change in light of the feedback. It is a development of motivational interviewing and motivational therapy. It focuses on the treatment of alcohol and other substance addictions.

QMRMotivational interviewing (MI) refers to a counseling approach in part developed by clinical psychologists Professor William R Miller, Ph.D. and Professor Stephen Rollnick, Ph.D. The concept of motivational interviewing evolved from experience in the treatment of problem drinkers, and was first described by Miller (1983) in an article published in Behavioural Psychotherapy. These fundamental concepts and approaches were later elaborated by Miller and Rollnick (1991) in a more detailed description of clinical procedures. Motivational Interviewing is a method that works on facilitating and engaging intrinsic motivation within the client in order to change behavior.[2] MI is a goal-oriented, client-centered counseling style for eliciting behavior change by helping clients to explore and resolve ambivalence. Compared with non-directive counseling, it's more focused and goal-directed. It departs from traditional Rogerian client-centered therapy through this use of direction, in which therapists attempt to influence clients to consider making changes, rather than non-directively explore themselves.[1] The examination and resolution of ambivalence is a central purpose, and the counselor is intentionally directive in pursuing this goal.[2] MI recognizes and accepts the fact that clients who need to make changes in their lives approach counseling at different levels of readiness to change their behavior.[3] During counseling, some patients may have thought about it but not taken steps to change it while some may be actively trying to change their behavior and may have been doing so unsuccessfully for years. In order for a therapist to be successful at motivational interviewing, four basic interaction skills should first be established.[4] These skills include: the ability to ask open ended questions, the ability to provide affirmations, the capacity for reflective listening, and the ability to periodically provide summary statements to the client.[5] These skills are used strategically, while focusing on a variety of topics like looking back, a typical day, the importance of change, looking forward, confidence about change, and so on.

As with Morita therapy proper, MTM is roughly divided into four basic areas of treatment. The four areas of treatment[edit] This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2012) Phase one is the seclusion and rest phase; according to Morita (1998), it is the place where his therapy begins. It is a period of learning to separate ourselves from the minute-by-minute barrage of the constant assault on our senses and thought processes by a loud and intrusive world. We learn to turn off the television, close the door temporarily to demanding work, well-meaning friends, and yes, even family. The body returns to natural diurnal rhythms. Phase two introduces us to "light and monotonous work that is conducted in silence". One of the keystones of this stage of self-treatment is journal writing. Our thoughts and feelings come to us in indistinguishable waves and flood our minds. Writing in our personal journals helps us learn to separate our thoughts from our feelings and define their different effects on our lives. In this phase we also go outside… outside of ourselves and out of the house and begin a reconnection with nature. We leave the solitude of Phase one and go out of doors. We breathe the fresh air and feel the sun on our faces. We walk. We walk and breathe. We walk, breathe and reconnect with the world of nature that has been shut out of our lives by pain and stagnation for weeks, months, even years. We move from darkness to light in both figurative and literal ways. Phase three is one of more strenuous work. Dr. Morita had his patients engage in hard physical work outdoors. This is what we call the "chopping wood" phase. For people with physical injuries, it is the phase where you move from passive treatment given to you by others (i.e. chiropractic, massage and pain medicine) to learning to begin healing yourself though a stretch and strength oriented physical therapy program. MTM incorporates moving from being treated to learning self-treatment in both the physical and psychological realms. It is hard, it hurts, and it will be a challenge to persevere in the beginning, but if you are ever going to move from being the treated victim to being the recovering survivor this step must occur. Depending upon the depth and nature of injury (of spirit, mind or body), Phase three can be short or long. For some it becomes a part of daily life, forever. Some pain resolves, some pain needs to be managed. The beneficial aspect of this phase of treatment is that it also encourages the engagement of what we now understand is the right side of the brain. The recovering survivor is encouraged to spend time in creating art—writing, painting, wood carving—whatever puts them into contact with the creative aspects of their humanity. Phase four is when Morita would send patients outside the hospital setting. They would apply what they had learned in the first three phases and use it to help them with the challenge of reintegration into the non-treatment world. This is the phase where the patient learns to integrate a new lifestyle of meditation, physical activity, clearer thinking, more ordered living, and a renewed relationship with the natural world. They are not returning to their former lifestyle. Instead, they will integrate their "new self" into the imposed set of changes brought about by their trauma, pain and limitations. As re-integration into the world outside of treatment brings with it some unanticipated challenges, the survivor returns to the materials they studied and perhaps even the counsel of their teacher to find coping skills that will allow them to progress further and further on the journey of recovery.

QMrMorita therapy is an ecological and purpose-centered, response oriented therapy created through case-based research by Shoma Morita, M.D. (1874-1938). Morita developed his theory of consciousness and medically-grounded four-stage progressive therapeutic method with as much rigor as his contemporaries, Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Anna Freud, Carl Jung, Jacques Lacan, Melanie Klein, and Wilfred Bion. "Although I tried various therapies, including hypnosis for clients with anxiety disorders, I did not obtain results beyond the temporary relief of symptoms in clients. I also used the life-control method for many years and followed Binswanger’s (1911) theory, only to find it manneristic, too theoretical, relatively impractical, and ineffective. Binswanger’s methods deprived my clients of spontaneous activity. Initially, I tried to modify and extend these existing systems, but later designed my own method of treatment. In principle, my method of therapy requires residential care….My treatment involves four stages: (1) isolation-rest therapy, (2) light occupational therapy, (3) heavy occupational therapy, and (4) complicated activity therapy in preparation for actual life" (Morita, 1928/1998, p. 35). As clients move through the four stages, their senses are activated and curiosity about the natural world increases. Herein, they engage and respond more spontaneously and creatively, while gaining a sense of their authentic self (Fujita, C., 1986. Morita Therapy: A Psychotherapeutic System for Neurosis. Tokyo: Igaku-Shoin). For Morita, it was the progressive design and ecological context that made it unique to other therapies of his time, as well as today. Therapeutic change runs deeper than thinking and behaving. One's perception of self-in-the-world shifts while moving through the therapeutic stages. A client’s mind, body and imagination have therapeutic time in a safe place in a natural environment to become revitalized; this is particularly necessary when they have survived trauma ('Classic Morita Therapy'). For instance, while pulling weeds and watching earthworms seek moist soil, they notice that their anxiety has dissipated and they soon embody such experiences. It is the therapist's role to observe, facilitate, and reinforce these experiences. Morita's four stages[edit] Morita therapy was developed to deal with what Dr. Morita defined as Shinkeishitsu - "anxiety-based disorders" involving a high degree of perfectionism.[8] Morita offered a four-stage process of therapy involving: Seclusion and rest that is monitored for client safety Occupational therapy (light) Occupational therapy (heavy) Complex activities.[9] Morita therapy may be seen as a form of re-socialisation, involving a social influence process.[10]

QMRFlourishing, in positive psychology, refers to optimal human functioning. It comprises four parts: goodness, generativity, growth, and resilience (Fredrickson, 2005).[157] According to Fredrickson (2005), goodness is made up of: happiness, contentment, and effective performance; generativity is about making life better for future generations, and is defined by “broadened thought-action repertoires and behavioral flexibility”; growth involves the use of personal and social assets; and resilience reflects survival and growth after enduring a hardship (p. 685).[157] A flourishing life stems from mastering all four of these parts. Two contrasting ideologies are languishing and psychopathology. On the mental health continuum, these are considered intermediate mental health disorders, reflecting someone living an unfulfilled and perhaps meaningless life. Those who languish experience more emotional pain, psychosocial deficiency, restrictions in regular activities, and missed workdays (Fredrickson, 2005).[157]

QMrTopics of interest to researchers in the field are: states of pleasure or flow, values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that these can be promoted by social systems and institutions.[6] Positive psychologists are concerned with four topics: (1) positive experiences, (2) enduring psychological traits, (3) positive relationships and (4) positive institutions.[7] Some thinkers and researchers, like Seligman, have collected data to support the development of guiding theories (e.g. "P.E.R.M.A.", or The Handbook on Character Strengths and Virtues). Research from this branch of psychology has seen various practical applications. The basic premise of positive psychology is that human beings are often, perhaps more often, drawn by the future than they are driven by the past. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi define positive psychology as "the scientific study of positive human functioning and flourishing on multiple levels that include the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."[8] L.M. Keyes and Shane Lopez illustrate the four typologies of mental health functioning: flourishing, struggling, floundering and languishing. However, complete mental health is a combination of high emotional well-being, high psychological well-being, and high social well-being, along with low mental illness.[9]

QMrDrawing from positive psychology constructs and empirical research, four psychological resources were determined to best meet the POB scientific criteria: Hope, Efficacy, Resilience, and Optimism and were termed by Luthans and colleagues as psychological Capital or PsyCap [4][5][6] In combination, the four constructs making up PsyCap were empirically determined to be a second-order, core construct that had a stronger relationship with satisfaction and performance than each of the components by itself.[7] The four components are defined as follows: Hope – Is defined as a positive motivational state where two basic elements - successful feeling of agency (or goal oriented determination) and pathways (or proactively planning to achieve those goals) interact. Self efficacy – Is defined as people's confidence in their ability to achieve a specific goal in a specific situation. Optimism – was defined by Seligman by Attribution theory (Fritz Heider, 1958). An Optimistic person is defined as one that makes "Internal" or "dispositional", fixed and global attributions for positive events and "External" or "situational", not fixed and specific attributions to negative events. Optimism in Psycap is thought as a realistic construct that regards what an employee can or cannot do, as such, optimism reinforces efficacy and hope. Resilience – Is defined in Positive Psychology as a positive way of coping with adversity or distress. In organizational aspect, it is defined as an ability to recuperate from stress, conflict, failure, change or increase in responsibility.

QMRWilliam Glasser's choice theory is composed of four aspects; thinking, acting, feeling, and physiology. We can directly choose our thoughts and our actions; we have great difficulty in directly choosing our feelings and our physiology (sweaty palms, headaches, nervous tics, racing pulse, etc.).[11]

Four main schools[edit] The field is dominated in terms of training and practice by essentially four major schools of practice: psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral/cognitive behavioral, and systems or family therapy.[2] Psychodynamic[edit] Main article: Psychodynamic psychotherapy The psychodynamic perspective developed out of the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud. The core object of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious—to make the client aware of his or her own primal drives (namely those relating to sex and aggression) and the various defenses used to keep them in check.[33] The essential tools of the psychoanalytic process are the use of free association and an examination of the client's transference towards the therapist, defined as the tendency to take unconscious thoughts or emotions about a significant person (e.g. a parent) and "transfer" them onto another person. Major variations on Freudian psychoanalysis practiced today include self psychology, ego psychology, and object relations theory. These general orientations now fall under the umbrella term psychodynamic psychology, with common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.[33] Humanistic[edit] Main article: Humanistic psychology Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, largely due to the person-centered therapy of Carl Rogers (often referred to as Rogerian Therapy) and existential psychology developed by Viktor Frankl and Rollo May.[2] Rogers believed that a client needed only three things from a clinician to experience therapeutic improvement—congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding.[35] By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just the fragmented parts of the personality.[36] This aspect of holism links up with another common aim of humanistic practice in clinical psychology, which is to seek an integration of the whole person, also called self-actualization. According to humanistic thinking,[37] each individual person already has inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept. The mission of the humanistic psychologist is to help the individual employ these resources via the therapeutic relationship. Behavioral and Cognitive behavioral[edit] Main articles: Cognitive behavioral therapy and Behaviour therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) developed from the combination of cognitive therapy and rational emotive behavior therapy, both of which grew out of cognitive psychology and behaviorism. CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion), and how we act (behavior) are related and interact together in complex ways. In this perspective, certain dysfunctional ways of interpreting and appraising the world (often through schemas or beliefs) can contribute to emotional distress or result in behavioral problems. The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify the biased, dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies help clients transcend these in ways that will lead to increased well-being.[38] There are many techniques used, such as systematic desensitization, socratic questioning, and keeping a cognition observation log. Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including dialectic behavior therapy and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.[39] Behavior therapy is a rich tradition. It is well researched with a strong evidence base. Its roots are in behaviorism. In behavior therapy, environmental events predict the way we think and feel. Our behavior sets up conditions for the environment to feedback back on it. Sometimes the feedback leads the behavior to increase- reinforcement and sometimes the behavior descreases- punishment. Oftentimes behavior therapists are called applied behavior analysis. They have studied many areas from developmental disabilities to depression and anxiety disorders. In the area of mental health and addictions a recent article looked at APA's list for well established and promising practices and found a considerable number of them based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning.[40] Multiple assessment techniques have come from this approach including functional analysis (psychology), which has found a strong focus in the school system. In addition, multiple intervention programs have come from this tradition including community reinforcement approach for treating addictions, Acceptance and commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, including dialectic behavior therapy and Behavioral activation. In addition, specific techniques such as contingency management and exposure therapy have come from this tradition. Systems or family therapy[edit] Main article: Family therapy Systems or family therapy works with couples and families, and emphasizes family relationships as an important factor in psychological health. The central focus tends to be on interpersonal dynamics, especially in terms of how change in one person will affect the entire system.[41] Therapy is therefore conducted with as many significant members of the "system" as possible. Goals can include improving communication, establishing healthy roles, creating alternative narratives, and addressing problematic behaviors. Contributors include John Gottman, Jay Haley, Sue Johnson, and Virginia Satir.

QMRThe field is often considered to have begun in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology was focused on psychological assessment, with little attention given to treatment. This changed after the 1940s when World War II resulted in the need for a large increase in the number of trained clinicians. Since that time, two main educational models have developed—the Ph.D. science-practitioner model (focusing on research) and the Psy.D. practitioner-scholar model (focusing on clinical practice). Clinical psychologists are now considered experts in providing psychotherapy, and generally train within four primary theoretical orientations—psychodynamic, humanistic, behavior therapy/ cognitive behavioral, and systems or family therapy.

QMRThe Principles of Psychology is a monumental text in the history of psychology, written by American psychologist William James and published in 1890. James was an American philosopher and psychologist who trained to be a physician before going into psychology. Known as "The Father of Psychology", James also authored Essays in Radical Empiricism, important in philosophy, and The Varieties of Religious Experience, which led to understanding the differences of religious experience that helped build theories of mind cure. There are four methods from James' book: stream of consciousness (James' most famous psychological metaphor); emotion (later known as the James–Lange theory); habit (human habits are constantly formed to achieve certain results); and will (through James' personal experiences in life).

QMRValidation therapy was developed by Naomi Feil for older people with cognitive impairments and dementia. Feil's own approach classifies individuals with cognitive impairment as having one of four stages in a continuum of dementia. These four stages are: Mal orientation Time confusion Repetitive motion Vegetative state. The basic principle of the therapy is the concept of validation or the reciprocated communication of respect which communicates that the other's opinions are acknowledged, respected, heard, and (regardless whether or not the listener actually agrees with the content), they are being treated with genuine respect as a legitimate expression of their feelings, rather than marginalized or dismissed. Validation therapy uses different specific techniques, and it has attracted criticism from researchers who dispute the evidence for some of the beliefs and values of validation therapy, and the appropriateness of the techniques; as there are not enough quality evidences proving the efficacy of such method for people with dementia.[1]

QMRRLT doesn't adhere to the standard CBT emphasis on "self acceptance" and does not adhere to the common concepts of self-esteem and self-confidence instead utilizing what Pucci refers to as the "Four A's" and concentrating on rational self counseling and underlying assumptions the client may have. The belief is that by doing so the therapy takes on a deeper role leading to more long term behavioral change.

QMRAn approach called integral psychotherapy (Forman, 2010; Ingersoll & Zeitler, 2010) is grounded in the work of theoretical psychologist and philosopher Ken Wilber (2000), who integrates insights from contemplative and meditative traditions. Integral theory is a meta-theory that recognizes that reality can be organized from four major perspectives: subjective, intersubjective, objective, and interobjective. Various psychotherapies typically ground themselves in one these four foundational perspectives, often minimizing the others. Integral psychotherapy includes all four. For example, psychotherapeutic integration using this model would include subjective approaches (cognitive, existential), intersubjective approaches (interpersonal, object relations, multicultural), objective approaches (behavioral, pharmacological), and interobjective approaches (systems science). By understanding that each of these four basic perspectives all simultaneously co-occur, each can be seen as essential to a comprehensive view of the life of the client. Integral theory also includes a stage model that suggests that various psychotherapies seek to address issues arising from different stages of psychological development (Wilber, 2000).

QMRThe most recent edition of the Handbook of Psychotherapy Integration (Norcross & Goldfried, 2005) recognized four general routes to integration: Common Factors, Technical Eclecticism, Theoretical Integration, and Assimilative Integration (Norcross, 2005).

The therapy process[edit] The therapy process has four stages, which occur during DMT and can be a creative time for both the therapist and patient(s). Each stage contains a smaller set of goals which correlate to the larger purpose of DMT. The stages and goals of DMT vary with each individual. Although the stages are progressive, the stages are usually revisited several times throughout the entire DMT process. The four stages are: Preparation: the warm-up stage, a safe space is established without obstacles nor distractions, a supportive relationship with a witness is formed, comfort for participants to be familiar with moving with their eyes closed. Incubation: leader verbally prompts participant to go into subconscious, open-ended imagery used to create an internal environment that is catered to the participant, relaxed atmosphere, symbolic movements. Illumination: process which is integrated through conscious awareness via dialogue with witness, self-reflection in which the participant uncovers and resolves subconscious motivations, increased self awareness, can have positive and negative effects. Evaluation: discuss insights and significance of the process, prepare to end therapy[13]

QMRDance/movement therapy (DMT) in USA[1]/ Australia[2] or Dance Movement Psychotherapy (DMP) in the UK[3] is the psychotherapeutic use of movement and dance to support intellectual, emotional, and motor functions of the body.[4] As a form of expressive therapy, DMT looks at the correlation between movement and emotion.[5] A typical DMT session has four main stages: preparation, incubation, illumination, and evaluation.[6] Organizations such as the American Dance Therapy Association and the Association for Dance Movement Psychotherapy UK, maintain standards of professional courtesy and high levels of educational standards within the field. DMT is practiced in various clinical settings and is used for psychotherapy purposes and physical therapy.

QMRBehavior therapists complete a functional analysis or a functional assessment that looks at four important areas: stimulus, organism, response and consequences.[25] The stimulus is the condition or environmental trigger that causes behavior.[26] An organism involves the internal responses of a person, like physiological responses, emotions and cognition.[25] A response is the behavior that a person exhibits and the consequences are the result of the behavior. These four things are incorporated into an assessment done by the behavior therapist.[26]

QMRAlthough EFT posits that each person's emotions are organized into idiosyncratic emotion schemes that are highly variable both between people and within the same person over time,[14] nevertheless emotional responses can be classified into four broad types: primary adaptive, primary maladaptive, secondary reactive, and instrumental.[15]

QMRIdentified schema modes[edit] Young, Klosko & Weishaar (2003) identified 10 schema modes grouped into four categories. The four categories are: Child modes, Dysfunctional Coping modes, Dysfunctional Parent modes, and the Healthy Adult mode. The four Child modes are: Vulnerable Child, Angry Child, Impulsive/Undisciplined Child, and Happy Child. The three Dysfunctional Coping modes are: Compliant Surrenderer, Detached Protector, and Overcompensator. The two Dysfunctional Parent modes are: Punitive Parent and Demanding Parent.

QMrFour main theoretical concepts in schema therapy are early maladaptive schemas (or simply schemas), coping styles, modes, and basic emotional needs:[3] In cognitive psychology, a schema is an organized pattern of thought and behavior. It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information. In schema therapy, schemas specifically refer to early maladaptive schemas, defined as "self-defeating life patterns of perception, emotion, and physical sensation".[2] For instance, a person with an Abandonment schema[4] could be hypersensitive (have an "emotional button" or "trigger") about his/her perceived value to others, which in turn could make him/her feel sad and panicky in his/her interpersonal relationships. Coping styles are a person's behavioral responses to schemas. Maladaptive coping styles (such as overcompensation, avoidance, or surrender) very often wind up reinforcing the schemas.[5] Continuing the Abandonment example: having imagined a threat of abandonment in a relationship and feeling sad and panicky, a person using an avoidance coping style might then behave in ways to limit the closeness in the relationship to try to protect himself/herself from being abandoned. The resulting loneliness or even actual loss of the relationship could easily reinforce the person's Abandonment schema. Modes are mind states that cluster schemas and coping styles into a temporary "way of being" that a person can shift into occasionally or more frequently.[6] For example, a Vulnerable Child mode[4] might be a state of mind encompassing schemas of Abandonment, Defectiveness, Mistrust/Abuse and a coping style of surrendering (to the schemas). If a patient's basic emotional needs are not met in childhood, then schemas, coping styles, and modes can develop.[7] Some basic needs that have been identified are: connection, mutuality, reciprocity, flow, and autonomy.[7] For example, a child with unmet needs around connection—perhaps due to parental loss to death, divorce, or addiction—might develop an Abandonment schema.

QMRA contemporary portfolio model for information[edit] Bytheway has collected and organised basic tools and techniques for information management in a single volume.[6] At the heart of his view of information management is a portfolio model that takes account of the surging interest in external sources of information and the need to organise un-structured information external so as to make it useful (see the figure). This portfolio model organizes issues of internal and external sourcing and management of information, that may be either structured or unstructured. Such an information portfolio as this shows how information can be gathered and usefully organised, in four stages: Stage 1: Taking advantage of public information: recognise and adopt well-structured external schemes of reference data, such as post codes, weather data, GPS positioning data and travel timetables, exemplified in the personal computing press.[25] Stage 2: Tagging the noise on the world wide web: use existing schemes such as post codes and GPS data or more typically by adding “tags”, or construct a formal ontology that provides structure. Shirky provides an overview of these two approaches.[26] Stage 3: Sifting and analysing: in the wider world the generalised ontologies that are under development extend to hundreds of entities and hundreds of relations between them and provide the means to elicit meaning from large volumes of data. Structured data in databases works best when that structure reflects a higher-level information model – an ontology, or an entity-relationship model.[27] Stage 4: Structuring and archiving: with the large volume of data available from sources such as the social web and from the miniature telemetry systems used in personal health management, new ways to archive and then trawl data for meaningful information. Map-reduce methods, originating from functional programming, are a more recent way of eliciting information from large archival datasets that is becoming interesting to regular businesses that have very large data resources to work with, but it requires advanced multi-processor resources.[28]

QMRThe Mental Deficiency Act[edit] The bill was passed in 1913 with only three MPs voting against it.[6] One of them was Josiah Wedgwood, who said of it, "It is a spirit of the Horrible Eugenic Society which is setting out to breed up the working class as though they were cattle."[8] The new act repealed the Idiots Act 1886 and followed the recommendations of the Royal Commission on the Care and Control of the Feeble-Minded. It established the Board of Control for Lunacy and Mental Deficiency to oversee the implementation of provisions for the care and management of four classes of people, a) Idiots. Those so deeply defective as to be unable to guard themselves against common physical dangers. b) Imbeciles. Whose defectiveness does not amount to idiocy, but is so pronounced that they are incapable of managing themselves or their affairs, or, in the case of children, of being taught to do so. c) Feeble-minded persons. Whose weakness does not amount to imbecility, yet who require care, supervision, or control, for their protection or for the protection of others, or, in the case of children, are incapable of receiving benefit from the instruction in ordinary schools. d) Moral Imbeciles. Displaying mental weakness coupled with strong vicious or criminal propensities, and on whom punishment has little or no deterrent effect.[9] A person deemed to be an idiot or imbecile might be placed in an institution or under guardianship if the parent or guardian so petitioned, as could a person of any of the four categories under 21 years, as could a person of any category who had been abandoned, neglected, guilty of a crime, in a state institution, habitually drunk, or unable to be schooled.[10] At the height of operation of the Mental Deficiency Act, 65,000 people were placed in "colonies" or in other institutional settings. The act remained in effect until it was repealed by the Mental Health Act 1959.[11]

QMRImmunotherapy developed in the 1970s following the discovery of the structure of antibodies and the development of hybridoma technology, which provided the first reliable source of monoclonal antibodies.[7][8] These advances allowed for the specific targeting of tumors both in vitro and in vivo. Initial research on malignant neoplasms found mAb therapy of limited and generally short-lived success with blood malignancies.[9][10] Treatment also had to be tailored to each individual patient, which was impracticable in routine clinical settings. Four major antibody types were developed: murine, chimeric, humanised and human. Antibodies of each type are distinguished by suffixes on their name.

QMRTrauma Systems Therapy (TST) is a mental health treatment model for children and adolescents who have been exposed to trauma, defined as experiencing, witnessing, or confronting "an event or events that involved actual or threatened death or serious injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of self or others".[1] TST focuses on the child's emotional and behavioral needs as well as the environments where the child lives (home, school, community). The treatment model includes four components (skill-based psychotherapy, home and community based care, advocacy, and psychopharmacology) that are fully described in a published manual.[2] A clinical trial showed that TST is effective in improving the mental health and well-being of children who have been traumatized.[3] TST has also been successfully replicated.[4] Trauma Systems Therapy treatment is not just for the victims. It also educates the victims significant others in order for them to support the victims in their recovery and help them control their emotions during future stressful events.[5] When referring to TST, therapists are looking at four categories: the reason a child may need TST, the signs and symptoms expressed by the child, the management and treatment methods and the results of children who have gone through TST. A look at what causes emotional trauma, the families involved, and how therapy can heal the child as well as the adult are also important factors.

QMRThe Four Steps to the Epiphany[edit] In 2005, Blank published "The Four Steps to the Epiphany: Successful Strategies for Products that Win," (K&S Ranch Press) which details his approach to the Customer Development process.[7] In the book, Blank outlines his views about how entrepreneurship is a practice that can be actively managed rather than an art which must be passively experienced.[12] The book is viewed in entrepreneurship circles as the definitive source on the Customer Development methodology.[12]

QMRLife-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave analysis)[1] is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from cradle to grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling). LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by: Four main phases[edit] Illustration of LCA phases According to the ISO 14040[8] and 14044[9] standards, a Life Cycle Assessment is carried out in four distinct phases as illustrated in the figure shown to the right. The phases are often interdependent in that the results of one phase will inform how other phases are completed. Goal and scope[edit] An LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goal and scope of the study, which sets out the context of the study and explains how and to whom the results are to be communicated. This is a key step and the ISO standards require that the goal and scope of an LCA be clearly defined and consistent with the intended application. The goal and scope document therefore includes technical details that guide subsequent work: the functional unit, which defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service delivered by the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related. Further, the functional unit is an important basis that enables alternative goods, or services, to be compared and analyzed.[10] the system boundaries; any assumptions and limitations; the allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several products or functions share the same process; and the impact categories chosen. Life cycle inventory[edit] This is an example of a Life-cycle inventory (LCI) diagram Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature for a product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is constructed using data on inputs and outputs. The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. The input and output data needed for the construction of the model are collected for all activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain (referred to as inputs from the techno-sphere). The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition. Data can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this stage. The results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the form of elementary flow to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in the study. Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system boundary. For product LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative industry averages) or brand-specific level, that data is typically collected through survey questionnaires. At an industry level, care has to be taken to ensure that questionnaires are completed by a representative sample of producers, leaning toward neither the best nor the worst, and fully representing any regional differences due to energy use, material sourcing or other factors. The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs and outputs, typically aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy used in its production and any environmentally sensitive flows, even if they fall within the 1% level of inputs. One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the techno-sphere. The technosphere is more simply defined as the man-made world. Considered by geologists as secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable; however, in a practical sense the primary goal is salvage.[11] For an LCI, these technosphere products (supply chain products) are those that have been produced by man and unfortunately those completing a questionnaire about a process which uses man-made product as a means to an end will be unable to specify how much of a given input they use. Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for previous production processes of the product. The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions. Life cycle impact assessment[edit] Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements: selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models; the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific impact categories; and impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to provide an overall impact category total. In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last compulsory stage according to ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements – normalization, grouping, and weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In normalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are usually compared with the total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for example. Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories. During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each other so that they can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental impact. ISO 14044:2006 generally advises against weighting, stating that “weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public”. This advice is often ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high degree of subjectivity as a result of weighting.[citation needed] Interpretation[edit] Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include: identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA; evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and conclusions, limitations and recommendations. A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"! Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute significantly to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data elements, assessing the completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on a clear understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results were developed. Reference test[edit] More specifically, the best alternative is the one that the LCA shows to have the least cradle-to-grave environmental negative impact on land, sea, and air resources.[12]

QMRSpiral development[edit] Spiral model (Boehm, 1988) Main article: Spiral model In 1988, Barry Boehm published a formal software system development "spiral model," which combines some key aspect of the waterfall model and rapid prototyping methodologies, in an effort to combine advantages of top-down and bottom-up concepts. It provided emphasis in a key area many felt had been neglected by other methodologies: deliberate iterative risk analysis, particularly suited to large-scale complex systems. The basic principles are:[1] Focus is on risk assessment and on minimizing project risk by breaking a project into smaller segments and providing more ease-of-change during the development process, as well as providing the opportunity to evaluate risks and weigh consideration of project continuation throughout the life cycle. "Each cycle involves a progression through the same sequence of steps, for each part of the product and for each of its levels of elaboration, from an overall concept-of-operation document down to the coding of each individual program."[5] Each trip around the spiral traverses four basic quadrants: (1) determine objectives, alternatives, and constraints of the iteration; (2) evaluate alternatives; Identify and resolve risks; (3) develop and verify deliverables from the iteration; and (4) plan the next iteration.[6] Begin each cycle with an identification of stakeholders and their "win conditions", and end each cycle with review and commitment.[7]

QMrSelf-regulation theory (SRT) is a system of conscious personal management that involves the process of guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors, and feelings to reach goals. Self-regulation consists of several stages, and individuals must function as contributors to their own motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences. Roy Baumeister, one of the leading social psychologists who have studied self-regulation, claims it has four components: standards of desirable behavior, motivation to meet standards, monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards, and lastly, willpower.[1] Baumeister along with other colleagues developed three models of self-regulation designed to explain its cognitive accessibility: self-regulation as a knowledge structure, strength, or skill. Studies have been done to determine that the strength model is generally supported, because it is a limited resource in the brain and only a given amount of self-regulation can occur until that resource is depleted.[2] SRT can be applied to impulse control, management of short-term desires, cognitive bias of illusion of control, pain, goal attainment and motivation, or illness behavior, and failure can be explained by either under- or mis-regulation. Self-regulation has gained a lot of attention from researchers, psychologists, and educators, which has allowed it to grow and supplement many other components. It has been through the help of the several contributors to make it a relatable concept that has the ability to improve emotional well-being, achievement, initiative, and optimism.

Sociology Chapter

QMRThe Four Ifs are a set of preconditions developed by Chen Shui-bian clarifying and tempering the stance of Taiwan's Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) regarding independence for the island. They were developed in 1988 by Chen, under the Kuomintang administration of Lee Teng-hui. They indicate events which, if occurred, would cause the DPP to immediately advocate for independence for Taiwan. They are: If the Kuomintang unilaterally holds talks with the Chinese Communists; If the Kuomintang sold out the interests of the people of Taiwan; If the Chinese communists annexed Taiwan; If the Kuomintang did not implement true constitutional democracy.

QMRIn evolutionary biology, people often speak of the four F's which are said to be the four basic drives (motivations or instincts) that animals (including humans) are evolutionarily adapted to have, follow, and achieve: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fucking.[Note 1] In the case of vertebrates, this list corresponds to the motivational behaviors that drive the activity in the hypothalamus, which responds to these motivations by regulating activity in the endocrine system and releasing hormones to alter the behavior of the animal.[1]

QMRThe Big Four refers to the four top Allied powers[1] and their leaders who met at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919. The Big Four are also known as the Council of Four. It was composed of Woodrow Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France.[2]

QMRThe economic problem—sometimes called the basic, central, or fundamental economic problem—is a fundamental economic theoretical principles in the operation of any economy.[citation needed] It asserts that there is always scarcity—that is, that an economy's finite resources are insufficient to satisfy all human wants and needs. Four parts of the problem[edit] The economic problem can be divided into different parts, which are given below. Problem of allocation of resources[edit] The problem of allocation of resources arises due to the scarcity of resources, and refers to the question of which wants should be satisfied and which should be left unsatisfied. In other words, what to produce and how much to produce. More production of a good implies more resources required for the production of that good, and resources are scarce. These two facts together mean that, if a society decides to increase production of some good, it has to withdraw some resources from the production of other goods. In other words, more production of a desired commodity can be made possible only by reducing the quantity of resources used in the production of other goods. The problem of allocation deals with the question of whether to produce capital goods or consumer goods. If the community decides to produce capital goods, resources must be withdrawn from the production of consumer goods. In the long run, however, investment in capital goods augments the production of consumer goods. Thus, both capital and consumer goods are important. The problem is determining the optimal production ratio between the two. The problem of all economic efficiency[edit] Resources are scarce and it is important to use them as efficiently as possible. Thus, it is essential to know if the production and distribution of national product made by an economy is maximally efficient. The production becomes efficient only if the productive resources are utilized in such a way that any reallocation does not produce more of one good without reducing the output of any other good. In other words, efficient distribution means that redistributing goods cannot make anyone better off without making someone else worse off. (See Pareto efficiency.) The inefficiencies of production and distribution exist in all types of economies. The welfare of the people can be increased if these inefficiencies are ruled out. Some cost must be incurred to remove these inefficiencies. If the cost of removing these inefficiencies of production and distribution is more than the gain, then it is not worthwhile to remove them. The problem of full-employment of resources[edit] In view of the scarce resources, the question of whether all available resources are fully utilized is an important one. A community should achieve maximum satisfaction by using the scarce resources in the best possible manner—not wasting resources or using them inefficiently. There are two types of employment of resources: Labour-intensive Capital-intensive In capitalist economies, however, available resources are not fully used. In times of depression, many people want to work but can't find employment. It supposes that the scarce resources are not fully utilised in a capitalist economy. The problem of economic growth[edit] If productive capacity grows, an economy can produce progressively more goods, which raises the standard of living. The increase in productive capacity of an economy is called economic growth. There are various factors affecting economic growth. The problems of economic growth have been discussed by numerous growth models, including the Harrod-Domar model, the neoclassical growth models of Solow and Swan, and the Cambridge growth models of Kaldor and Joan Robinson. This part of economic problem is studied in the economies of development.

QMrIn 1947, John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern proved that any individual whose preferences satisfied four [1] axioms has a utility function; such an individual's preferences can be represented on an interval scale and the individual will always prefer actions that maximize expected utility. That is, they proved that an agent is (VNM-)rational if and only if there exists a real-valued function u defined by possible outcomes such that every preference of the agent is characterized by maximizing the expected value of u, which can then be defined as the agent's VNM-utility (it is unique up to adding a constant and multiplying by a positive scalar). No claim is made that the agent has a "conscious desire" to maximize u, only that u exists. The four axioms of VNM-rationality are then completeness, transitivity, continuity, and independence. Completeness assumes that an individual has well defined preferences: Axiom 1 (Completeness) For any lotteries L,M, exactly one of the following holds: \, L\prec M\, , \, M\prec L\, , or \, L \sim M   (either M is preferred, L is preferred, or the individual is indifferent[4]). Transitivity assumes that preference is consistent across any three options: Axiom 2 (Transitivity) If \,L \preceq M\, and \,M \preceq N\,, then \,L \preceq N\,. Continuity assumes that there is a "tipping point" between being better than and worse than a given middle option: Axiom 3 (Continuity): If \,L \preceq M\preceq N\,, then there exists a probability \,p\in[0,1]\, such that \,pL + (1-p)N\, \sim \,M\, where the notation on the left side refers to a situation in which L is received with probability p and N is received with probability (1–p). Instead of continuity, an alternative axiom can be assumed that does not involve a precise equality, called the Archimedean property.[3] It says that any separation in preference can be maintained under a sufficiently small deviation in probabilities: Axiom 3′ (Archimedean property): If \,L \prec M\prec N\,, then there exists a probability \,\varepsilon\in(0,1) such that \,(1-\varepsilon)L + \varepsilon N\, \prec \,M \, \prec \,\varepsilon L + (1-\varepsilon)N.\, Only one of (3) and (3′) need be assumed, and the other will be implied by the theorem. Independence of irrelevant alternatives assumes that a preference holds independently of the possibility of another outcome: Axiom 4 (Independence): If \,L\prec M\,, then for any \,N\, and \,p\in(0,1]\,, \,pL+(1-p)N \prec pM+(1-p)N.\, The independence axiom implies the axiom on reduction of compound lotteries:[5] Axiom 4′ (Reduction of compound lotteries): For any Z, \,W, any p, q, r \in (0,1] such that rq=p, and any lottery X=qZ+(1-q)W, pZ+(1-p)W \sim rX +(1-r)W.

QMRIn economics, game theory, and decision theory the expected utility hypothesis is a hypothesis concerning people's preferences with regard to choices that have uncertain outcomes (gambles). This hypothesis states that if specific axioms are satisfied, the subjective value associated with an individual's gamble is the statistical expectation of that individual's valuations of the outcomes of that gamble. This hypothesis has proved useful to explain some popular choices that seem to contradict the expected value criterion (which takes into account only the sizes of the payouts and the probabilities of occurrence), such as occur in the contexts of gambling and insurance. Daniel Bernoulli initiated this hypothesis in 1738. Until the mid-twentieth century, the standard term for the expected utility was the moral expectation, contrasted with "mathematical expectation" for the expected value.[1] There are four axioms[5] of the expected utility theory that define a rational decision maker. They are completeness, transitivity, independence and continuity. Completeness assumes that an individual has well defined preferences and can always decide between any two alternatives. Axiom (Completeness): For every A and B either A \succeq B or A \preceq B. This means that the individual either prefers A to B, or is indifferent between A and B, or prefers B to A. Transitivity assumes that, as an individual decides according to the completeness axiom, the individual also decides consistently. Axiom (Transitivity): For every A, B and C with A \succeq B and B \succeq C we must have A \succeq C. Independence also pertains to well-defined preferences and assumes that two gambles mixed with a third one maintain the same preference order as when the two are presented independently of the third one. The independence axiom is the most controversial one. Axiom (Independence): Let A, B, and C be three lotteries with A \succeq B, and let t \in (0, 1]; then tA+(1-t)C \succeq t B+(1-t)C . Continuity assumes that when there are three lotteries (A, B and C) and the individual prefers A to B and B to C, then there should be a possible combination of A and C in which the individual is then indifferent between this mix and the lottery B. Axiom (Continuity): Let A, B and C be lotteries with A \succeq B \succeq C; then there exists a probability p such that B is equally good as pA+(1-p)C.

QMRThe Poverty of "Development Economics" is a book by Deepak Lal. Adam Szirmai notes that this book "summarised and popularised much of the earlier criticisms on the dominant paradigm" in development economics and that it "was an influential publication which contributed to the enormous shift in thinking about development."[1] The dominant paradigm that he was criticising is described by Lal as the "dirigiste dogma". The four essential elements of the "dirigiste dogma"[edit] He characterizes this "dirigiste dogma" as having four essential elements: markets need supplanting (not merely supplementing) by "various forms of direct government control" that orthodox microeconomics concern with the allocation of given (admittedly possibly changing) resources is of minor importance when designing policy in developing economies. Rather policy should be concerned with designing and implementing a broad "strategy" of development - one whose focus is macroeconmic aggregates such as: savings, investment, the balance of payments, and the sectoral composition of production. Choosing between agriculture and industry. that the arguments for free trade are not valid for developing countries - justifying restrictions on trade and international payments. massive and continuing governmental intervention is required to redistribute assets and to manipulate prices in order to alleviate poverty and to improve income distribution.[2] For Lal the sources of this "dogma" is Keynesian macroeconomics - with its macro quantity adjustments, the growth and spread of national income accounting, the increased use of macroeconometrics (a la Tinbergen and his associates and successors), and the increased use input-output analysis (a la Leontief). While these may have helped our understanding of macroeconomics, Lal argues, but they have led to an underemphasis on the role of prices.[2] This overfocusing on macroeconomic aggregates, also led to an ignoring of welfare economics. This later Lal argues provides the most useful analytical framework for examining the dirigistes' arguments about the inadequacies of the free market and the scope for government interventions due to missing markets or distributional worries. Lal stresses that in the "real-world" governments' interventions have both resource and distortion costs. Thus, he argues, in a second-best world government intervention should not be undertaken lightly just because of market failures. Rather a proper comparison with other alternatives such as nonintervention should be made. When this is done in each of the four exemplar areas in which he summarizes the historical experience of dirigiste intervention and orthodox counterpositions he argues non intervention comes out on top.[2] Exemplars[edit] The major elements of the "dirigiste dogma", the ideas that underlie them and the claims of this "dogma" are examined in four important areas of development economics: role of foreign trade and private capital flows role and appropriate form of industrialization the relationship between reductions in inequality, poverty alleviation and differing broad development strategies the role of market prices mechanism versus planning[2]

QMRThe American Economic Journal is a group of four peer-reviewed academic journals published by the American Economic Association. The names of the individual journals consist of the prefix American Economic Journal with a descriptor of the field attached. The four field journals which started in 2009 are Applied Economics, Economic Policy, Macroeconomics, and Microeconomics.

QMRFour Horsemen[edit] Main article: Four Horsemen (film) As a director/writer, Ashcroft's documentary feature Four Horsemen[6] premiered at IDFA in Amsterdam in the competition category 'First Appearance'. It was also nominated for the Oxfam Global Justice Award. The film won 'Best International Documentary' at the Galway Film Fleadh and 'Best International Film' at the Tehran Film Festival. For film features 23 international thinkers including Prof. Joseph Stiglitz, Prof Noam Chomsky, Gillian Tett, Ha-Joon Chang, Prof. Michael Hudson, Lawrence Wilkerson, Satish Kumar, Prof. Herman Daly and John Perkins. The film fundamentally attacks neoclassical economics and asks why the neoclassical ideology, after such systemic failure, is still taught in almost all universities today.

QMrAs Polanyi noted, these counter-movements were mostly reactive and therefore not full-fledged socialist movements. Some demands went no further than a wish to mitigate the capitalist market's worst effects. Later, a full socialist program developed, arguing for systemic transformation. Its theorists believed that even if markets and private property could be tamed so as not to be excessively "exploitative", or crises could be effectively mitigated, capitalist social relations would remain significantly unjust and anti-democratic, suppressing universal human needs for fulfilling, empowering and creative work, diversity and solidarity. Within this context socialism has undergone four periods: the first in the 19th century was a period of utopian visions (1780s-1850s); then occurred the rise of revolutionary socialist and Communist movements in the 19th century as the primary opposition to the rise of corporations and industrialization (1830–1916); the polarisation of socialism around the question of the Soviet Union, and adoption of socialist or social democratic policies in response (1916–1989); and the response of socialism in the neo-liberal era (1990- ). As socialism developed, so did the socialist system of economics.

QMRProperty rights are theoretical socially-enforced constructs in economics for determining how a resource or economic good is used and owned.[1] Resources can be owned by (and hence be the property of) individuals, associations or governments.[2] Property rights can be viewed as an attribute of an economic good. This attribute has four broad components[3] and is often referred to as a bundle of rights:[4] the right to use the good the right to earn income from the good the right to transfer the good to others the right to enforce property rights In economics, property is usually considered to be ownership (rights to the proceeds generated by the property) and control over a resource or good. Many economists effectively argue that property rights need to be fixed and need to portray the relationships among other parties in order to be more effective.[5]

QMRReaganomics (/reɪɡəˈnɒmɪks/; a portmanteau of Reagan and economics attributed to Paul Harvey)[1] refers to the economic policies promoted by U.S. President Ronald Reagan during the 1980s. These policies are commonly associated with supply-side economics, referred to as trickle-down economics or voodoo economics by political opponents, and free-market economics by political advocates. The four pillars of Reagan's economic policy were to reduce the growth of government spending, reduce the federal income tax and capital gains tax, reduce government regulation, and tighten the money supply in order to reduce inflation.[2]

QMRThrough the mid-20th century, the "Big Four" domestic airlines were American, Eastern, TWA, and United. Additionally, Pan Am focused exclusively on international service and was the unofficial U.S. flag carrier. Many smaller airlines operated concurrently, and some grew into national airlines in the years surrounding the 1979 deregulation.

QMRCultural models[edit] "One way we organize and understand our social world is through the use of cultural models or culturally shaped mental maps. These consist of culturally derived ideas and practices that are embodied, enacted, or instituted in everyday life." Cultural psychologists develop models to categorize cultural phenomena.[27] The 4 I’s culture cycle[edit] The 4 I's cultural model was developed by Hazel Rose Markus and Alana Conner in their book Clash! 8 Cultural Conflicts That Make Us Who We Are. In it, they refer to the mutually constitutive nature of culture and individual as a "culture cycle." The culture cycle consists of four layers (Individuals, Interactions, Institutions, Ideas) of cultural influence that help to explain the interaction between self and culture.[19] Individuals[edit] The first “I” concerns how an individual thinks about and expresses itself. Studies show that in the United States, individuals are more likely think of him or herself as “independent,” “equal,” and “individualistic.” Individuals have characteristics that are consistent across time and situation. When asked to describe themselves, Americans are likely to use adjectives to describe their personalities like, “energetic,” “friendly,” or “hard-working.” In Japan, studies show that individuals are more likely to think of themselves as “obligated to society,” “interdependent,” and “considerate.” The self is adaptable to the situation. Japanese individuals are therefore more likely to describe themselves in relation to others, such as “I try not to upset anyone,” or “I am a father, a son, and a brother.”[28] Interactions[edit] Interactions with other people and products reinforce cultural behaviors on a daily basis. Stories, songs, architecture, and advertisements are all methods of interaction that guide individuals in a culture to promote certain values and teach them how to behave.[19] For example, in Japan, no-smoking signs emphasize the impact that smoke has on others by illustrating the path of smoke as it affects surrounding people. In the US, no-smoking signs focus on individual action by simply saying “No Smoking.” These signs reflect underlying cultural norms and values, and when people see them they are encouraged to behave in accordance with the greater cultural values. Institutions[edit] The next layer of culture is made up of the institutions in which everyday interactions take place. These determine and enforce the rules for a society and include legal, government, economic, scientific, philosophical, and religious bodies. Institutions encourage certain practices and products while discouraging others. In Japanese kindergartens, children learn about important cultural values such as teamwork, group harmony, and cooperation. During “birthday month celebration,” for example, the class celebrates all the children who have birthdays that month. This institutional practice underscores the importance of a group over an individual. In US kindergartens, children learn their personal value when they celebrate their birthdays one by one, enforcing the cultural value of uniqueness and individualism. Everyday institutional practices such as classroom birthday celebrations propagate prominent cultural themes.[19

QMrHoward Becker, a labeling theorist, touched basis with different types of deviant behaviors. There are four different types of deviant behaviors falling into different categories. "Falsely accusing" an individual which falls under others perceiving you to be obtaining obedient or deviant behaviors. "Pure deviance", which falls under perceiving one to participate in deviant and rule-breaking behavior. "Conforming", which falls under not being perceived as deviant, but merely participating in the social norms that are distributed within societies, can also be placed into the category with pure deviance and falsely accused. "Secret deviance" which is when the individual is not perceived as deviant or participating in any rule-breaking behaviors.

QMRPsychopathology- The four Ds[edit] A description of the four Ds when defining abnormality: Deviance: this term describes the idea that specific thoughts, behaviours and emotions are considered deviant when they are unacceptable or not common in society. Clinicians must, however, remember that minority groups are not always deemed deviant just because they may not have anything in common with other groups. Therefore, we define an individual's actions as deviant or abnormal when their behaviour is deemed unacceptable by the culture they belong to. Distress: this term accounts for negative feelings by the individual with the disorder. They may feel deeply troubled and affected by their illness. Dysfunction: this term involves maladaptive behaviour that impairs the individual's ability to perform normal daily functions, such as getting ready for work in the morning, or driving a car. Such maladaptive behaviours prevent the individual from living a normal, healthy lifestyle. However, dysfunctional behaviour is not always caused by a disorder; it may be voluntary, such as engaging in a hunger strike. Danger: this term involves dangerous or violent behaviour directed at the individual, or others in the environment. An example of dangerous behaviour that may suggest a psychological disorder is engaging in suicidal activity.

QMRThe four canons of science[edit] In order to understand the scientific approach to experimental psychology as well as other areas of scientific research, it is useful to know the four fundamental principles that appear to be accepted by almost all scientists. Determinism[edit] One of the first canons of science is the assumption of determinism. This canon assumes that all events have meaningful, systematic causes. The principle of determinism has a close corollary, that is, that the idea that science is about theories. Scientists accept this canon because in the absence of determinism, orderly, systematic causes wouldn't exist. Empiricism[edit] The canon of empiricism simply means to make observations. This is the best method of figuring out orderly principles. This is a favorite tool among scientists and psychologists because they assume that the best way to find out about the world is to make observations. Parsimony[edit] The third basic assumption of most scientific schools of thought is parsimony. The canon of parsimony says that we should be extremely frugal in developing or choosing between theories by steering away from unnecessary concepts. Almost all scientists agree that if we are faced with two competing theories, that both do a great job at handling a set of empirical observations, we should prefer the simpler, or more parsimonious of the two. The central idea behind parsimony is that as long as we intend to keep simplifying and organizing, we should continue until we have made things as simple as possible. One of the strongest arguments made for parsimony was by the medieval English philosopher William of Occam. For this reason, the principle of parsimony is often referred to as Occam's razor.[13] Testability[edit] The final and most important canon of science is the assumption that scientific theories should be testable using currently available research techniques. This canon is closely related to empiricism because the techniques that scientists typically use to test their theories are empirical techniques. In addition to being closely related to empiricism, the concept of testability is even more closely associated with falsifiability. The idea of falsifiability is that scientists go an extra step by actively seeking out tests that could prove their theory wrong.[14] Among psychologists, the concepts of testability and falsifiability are extremely important because many influential or well-known theories like the work of Freud and other psychoanalysts were difficult to put to any kind of objective test. Operational definitions[edit] Some well-known behaviorists such as Edward C. Tolman and Clark Hull popularized the idea of operationism, or operational definitions. Operational definitions are definitions of theoretical constructs that are stated in terms of concrete, observable procedures. Operational definitions solve the problem of what is not directly observable by connecting unobservable traits or experiences to things that can be observed. Operational definitions make the unobservable observable.[15]

QMRThe work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). Typically, these approaches encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies have equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[148][149] Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.[150][151][152][153][154]

QMRDiabetes mellitus is classified into four broad categories: type 1, type 2, gestational diabetes, and "other specific types".[5] The "other specific types" are a collection of a few dozen individual causes.[5] The term "diabetes", without qualification, usually refers to diabetes mellitus. Type 1 Main article: Diabetes mellitus type 1 Type 1 diabetes mellitus is characterized by loss of the insulin-producing beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, leading to insulin deficiency. This type can be further classified as immune-mediated or idiopathic. The majority of type 1 diabetes is of the immune-mediated nature, in which a T-cell-mediated autoimmune attack leads to the loss of beta cells and thus insulin.[26] It causes approximately 10% of diabetes mellitus cases in North America and Europe. Most affected people are otherwise healthy and of a healthy weight when onset occurs. Sensitivity and responsiveness to insulin are usually normal, especially in the early stages. Type 1 diabetes can affect children or adults, but was traditionally termed "juvenile diabetes" because a majority of these diabetes cases were in children. "Brittle" diabetes, also known as unstable diabetes or labile diabetes, is a term that was traditionally used to describe the dramatic and recurrent swings in glucose levels, often occurring for no apparent reason in insulin-dependent diabetes. This term, however, has no biologic basis and should not be used.[27] Still, type 1 diabetes can be accompanied by irregular and unpredictable high blood sugar levels, frequently with ketosis, and sometimes with serious low blood sugar levels. Other complications include an impaired counterregulatory response to low blood sugar, infection, gastroparesis (which leads to erratic absorption of dietary carbohydrates), and endocrinopathies (e.g., Addison's disease).[27] These phenomena are believed to occur no more frequently than in 1% to 2% of persons with type 1 diabetes.[28] Type 1 diabetes is partly inherited, with multiple genes, including certain HLA genotypes, known to influence the risk of diabetes. In genetically susceptible people, the onset of diabetes can be triggered by one or more environmental factors, such as a viral infection or diet. There is some evidence that suggests an association between type 1 DM and Coxsackie B4 virus. Unlike type 2 DM, the onset of type 1 diabetes is unrelated to lifestyle. Type 2 Main article: Diabetes mellitus type 2 Type 2 DM is characterized by insulin resistance, which may be combined with relatively reduced insulin secretion.[5] The defective responsiveness of body tissues to insulin is believed to involve the insulin receptor. However, the specific defects are not known. Diabetes mellitus cases due to a known defect are classified separately. Type 2 DM is the most common type of diabetes mellitus.

QMRThe Tokugawa government intentionally created a social order called the Four divisions of society (Shinokosho), that would stabilize the country. This system was based on the ideas of Confucianism that spread to Japan from China. By this system, society was composed of samurai (士 shi), farming peasants (農 nō), artisans (工 kō) and merchants (商 shō). Samurai were placed at the top of society because they started an order and set a high moral example for others to follow. The system was meant to reinforce their position of power in society by justifying their ruling status. Peasants came second because they produced the most important commodity, food. According to Confucian philosophy, society could not survive without agriculture.[1] Third were artisans because they produced nonessential goods.

QMRSocial mobility was high, as the ancient regime collapsed and emerging samurai needed to maintain large military and administrative organizations in their areas of influence. Most of the samurai families that survived to the 19th century originated in this era, declaring themselves to be the blood of one of the four ancient noble clans: Minamoto, Taira, Fujiwara and Tachibana. In most cases, however, it is hard to prove these claims.

QMRTopics of interest to researchers in the field are: states of pleasure or flow, values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that these can be promoted by social systems and institutions.[6] Positive psychologists are concerned with four topics: (1) positive experiences, (2) enduring psychological traits, (3) positive relationships and (4) positive institutions.[7] Some thinkers and researchers, like Seligman, have collected data to support the development of guiding theories (e.g. "P.E.R.M.A.", or The Handbook on Character Strengths and Virtues). Research from this branch of psychology has seen various practical applications. The basic premise of positive psychology is that human beings are often, perhaps more often, drawn by the future than they are driven by the past. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi define positive psychology as "the scientific study of positive human functioning and flourishing on multiple levels that include the biological, personal, relational, institutional, cultural, and global dimensions of life."[8] L.M. Keyes and Shane Lopez illustrate the four typologies of mental health functioning: flourishing, struggling, floundering and languishing. However, complete mental health is a combination of high emotional well-being, high psychological well-being, and high social well-being, along with low mental illness.[9]