Quadrant Model of Reality Book 35 Science

The quadrant theory is a theory of intelligent design describing that reality is organized around a pattern called the quadrant model pattern. Previous books discuss the nature of this pattern.

March 21 Facebook-11:00

Science Chapter

QMRThe survey method of data collection is likely the most common of the four major methods. The benefits of this method include its low financial cost and its large sample size. The very large issue with the survey is its accuracy. More often than not, there is a large disparity between people's stated opinions and their expressed opinions. The survey is a reflection only of their stated opinions, and thus is fundamentally inaccurate. Properly interpreted, surveys may be used to understand a person's viewpoints on a matter, but this analysis is very difficult and also leaves much room for doubt. All in all, surveys have limited use in studying actual social action, but are inexpensive and are an excellent way to gain an understanding of a person's attitude toward a matter.

Physics Chapter

QMRThe Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) was a 1632 Italian-language book by Galileo Galilei comparing the Copernican system with the traditional Ptolemaic system. It was translated into Latin as Systema cosmicum[1] (English: Cosmic System) in 1635 by Matthias Bernegger.[2] The book was dedicated to Galileo's patron, Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, who received the first printed copy on February 22, 1632.[3] In the Copernican system, the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, while in the Ptolemaic system, everything in the Universe circles around the Earth. The Dialogue was published in Florence under a formal license from the Inquisition. In 1633, Galileo was found to be "vehemently suspect of heresy" based on the book, which was then placed on the Index of Forbidden Books, from which it was not removed until 1835 (after the theories it discussed had been permitted in print in 1822).[4] In an action that was not announced at the time, the publication of anything else he had written or ever might write was also banned.[5] Contents [hide] 1 Overview 1.1 Structure 1.2 Content 1.3 Omissions 2 Summary 2.1 Day one 2.2 Day two 2.3 Day three 2.4 Day four 3 Notes 4 Bibliography 5 External links Overview[edit] While writing the book, Galileo referred to it as his Dialogue on the Tides, and when the manuscript went to the Inquisition for approval, the title was Dialogue on the Ebb and Flow of the Sea. He was ordered to remove all mention of tides from the title and to change the preface because granting approval to such a title would look like approval of his theory of the tides using the motion of the Earth as proof. As a result, the formal title on the title page is Dialogue, which is followed by Galileo's name, academic posts, and followed by a long subtitle. The name by which the work is now known was extracted by the printer from the description on the title page when permission was given to reprint it with an approved preface by a Catholic theologian in 1744.[6] This must be kept in mind when discussing Galileo's motives for writing the book. Although the book is presented formally as a consideration of both systems (as it needed to be in order to be published at all), there is no question that the Copernican side gets the better of the argument.[7] Structure[edit] The book is presented as a series of discussions, over a span of four days, among two philosophers and a layman: Salviati argues for the Copernican position and presents some of Galileo's views directly, calling him the "Academician" in honor of Galileo's membership in the Accademia dei Lincei. He is named after Galileo's friend Filippo Salviati (1582–1614). Sagredo is an intelligent layman who is initially neutral. He is named after Galileo's friend Giovanni Francesco Sagredo (1571–1620). Simplicio, a dedicated follower of Ptolemy and Aristotle, presents the traditional views and the arguments against the Copernican position. He is supposedly named after Simplicius of Cilicia, a sixth-century commentator on Aristotle, but it was suspected the name was a double entendre, as the Italian for "simple" (as in "simple minded") is "semplice".[8] Simplicio is modeled on two contemporary conservative philosophers, Lodovico delle Colombe (Italian) (1565–1616?), Galileo's fiercest detractor, and Cesare Cremonini (1550–1631), a Paduan colleague who had refused to look through the telescope.[9] Colombe was the leader of a group of Florentine opponents of Galileo's, which some of the latter's friends referred to as "the pigeon league".[10] Content[edit] The discussion is not narrowly limited to astronomical topics, but ranges over much of contemporary science. Some of this is to show what Galileo considered good science, such as the discussion of William Gilbert's work on magnetism. Other parts are important to the debate, answering erroneous arguments against the Earth's motion. A classic argument against earth motion is the lack of speed sensations of the earth surface, though it moves, by the earth's rotation, at about 1700 km/h at the equator. In this category there is a thought experiment in which a man is below decks on a ship and cannot tell whether the ship is docked or is moving smoothly through the water: he observes water dripping from a bottle, fish swimming in a tank, butterflies flying, and so on; and their behavior is just the same whether the ship is moving or not. This is a classic exposition of the Inertial frame of reference and refutes the objection that if we were moving hundreds of kilometres an hour as the Earth rotated, anything that one dropped would rapidly fall behind and drift to the west. The bulk of Galileo's arguments may be divided into three classes: Rebuttals to the objections raised by traditional philosophers; for example, the thought experiment on the ship. Observations that are incompatible with the Ptolemaic model: the phases of Venus, for instance, which simply couldn't happen, or the apparent motions of sunspots, which could only be explained in the Ptolemaic or Tychonic systems as resulting from an implausibly complicated precession of the Sun's axis of rotation.[11] Arguments showing that the elegant unified theory of the Heavens that the philosophers held, which was believed to prove that the Earth was stationary, was incorrect; for instance, the mountains of the Moon, the moons of Jupiter, and the very existence of sunspots, none of which was part of the old astronomy. Generally, these arguments have held up well in terms of the knowledge of the next four centuries. Just how convincing they ought to have been to an impartial reader in 1632 remains a contentious issue. Galileo attempted a fourth class of argument: Direct physical argument for the Earth's motion, by means of an explanation of tides. As an account of the causation of tides or a proof of the Earth's motion, it is a failure. The fundamental argument is internally inconsistent and actually leads to the conclusion that tides do not exist. But, Galileo was fond of the argument and devoted the "Fourth Day" of the discussion to it. The degree of its failure is—like nearly anything having to do with Galileo—a matter of controversy. On the one hand, the whole thing has recently been described in print as "cockamamie."[12] On the other hand, Einstein used a rather different description: It was Galileo's longing for a mechanical proof of the motion of the earth which misled him into formulating a wrong theory of the tides. The fascinating arguments in the last conversation would hardly have been accepted as proof by Galileo, had his temperament not got the better of him. [Emphasis added][13][14] Summary[edit] Preface: To the Discerning Reader' refers to the ban on the 'Pythagorean opinion that the earth moves' and claims that the author 'takes the Copernican side with a pure mathematical hypothesis'. He introduces the friends Sagredo and Salviati who he had had discussions with as well as the peripatetic philosopher Simplicio. Day one[edit] He starts with Aristotle's proof of the completeness and perfection of the world (i.e. the universe) because of its three dimensions. Simplicio points out that three was favoured by the Pythagoreans whereas Salviati can't understand why three legs are better than two or four. He suggests that the numbers were 'trifles which later spread among the vulgar' and that their definitions, such as those of straight lines and right angles, were more useful in establishing the dimensions. Simplicio's response was that Aristotle thought that in physical matters mathematical demonstration wasn't always needed. Salviati attacks Aristotle's definition of the heavens as incorruptible and unchanging whilst only the lunar-bound zone shows change. He points to the changes seen in the skies: the new stars of 1572 and 1604 and sunspots, seen through the new telescope. There is a discussion about Aristotle's use of a priori arguments. Salviati suggests that he uses his experience to choose an appropriate argument to prove just as others do and that he would change his mind in the present circumstances. Simplicio argues that sunspots could simply be small opaque objects passing in front of the sun, but Salviati points out that some appear or disappear randomly and those at the edge are flattened, unlike separate bodies. Therefore, "it is better Aristotelian philosophy to say 'Heaven is alterable because my senses tell me' than 'Heaven is unalterable because Aristotle was so persuaded by reasoning'". Experiments with a mirror are used to show that the moon's surface must be opaque and not a perfect crystal sphere as Simplicio believes. He refuses to accept that mountains on the moon cause shadows, or that reflected light from the earth is responsible for the faint outline in a crescent moon. Sagredo holds that he considers the earth noble because of the changes in it whereas Simplicio says that change in the moon or stars would be useless because they do not benefit man. Salviati points out that days on the moon are a month long and despite the varied terrain that the telescope has disclosed, it wouldn't sustain life. Humans acquire mathematical truths slowly and hesitantly, whereas God knows the full infinity of them intuitively. And when one looks into the marvellous things men have understood and contrived, then clearly the human mind is one of the most excellent of God's works. Day two[edit] Salviati starts by repeating that Aristotle would be changing his opinions if he saw what they were seeing. "It is the followers of Aristotle who have crowned him with authority, not he who has usurped or appropriated it to himself." There is one supreme motion—that by which the sun, moon, planets and fixed stars appear to be moved from east to west in the space of 24 hours. This may as logically belong to the earth alone as to the rest of the universe. Aristotle and Ptolemy, who understood this, do not argue against any other motion than this diurnal one. Motion is relative: the position of the sacks of grain on a ship can be identical at the end of the voyage despite the movement of the ship. Why should we believe that nature moves all these extremely large bodies with inconceivable velocities rather than simply moving the moderately sized earth? If the earth is removed from the picture, what happens to all the movement? The movement of the skies from east to west is the opposite of all the other motions of the heavenly bodies which are from west to east; making the earth rotate brings it into line with all the others. Although Aristotle argues that circular motions are not contraries, they could still lead to collisions. The great orbits of the planets take longer than the shorter: Saturn and Jupiter take many years, Mars two, whereas the moon takes only a month. Jupiter's moons take even less. This is not changed if the earth rotates every day, but if the earth is stationary then we suddenly find that the sphere of the fixed stars rotates in 24 hours. Given the distances, that would more reasonably be thousands of years. In addition some of these stars have to travel faster than others: if the Pole Star was precisely at the axis, then it would be entirely stationary whereas those of the equator have unimaginable speed. The solidity of this supposed sphere is incomprehensible. Make the earth the primum mobile and the need for this extra sphere disappears. Actual path of cannonball B is from C to D They consider three main objections to the motion of the earth: that a falling body would be left behind by the earth and thus fall far to the west of its point of release; that a cannonball fired to the west would similarly fly much further than one fired to the east; and that a cannonball fired vertically would also land far to the west. Salviati shows that these do not take account of the impetus of the cannon. He also points out that attempting to prove that the earth doesn't move by using vertical fall commits the logical fault of paralogism (assuming what is to be proved), because if the earth is moving then it is only in appearance that it is falling vertically; in fact it is falling at a slant, as happens with a cannonball rising through the cannon (illustrated). In rebutting a work which claims that a ball falling from the moon would take six days to arrive, the odd-number rule is introduced: a body falling 1 unit in an interval would fall 3 units in the next interval, 5 units in the subsequent one, etc. This gives rise to the rule by which the distance fallen is according to the square of the time. Using this he calculates the time is really little more than 3 hours. He also points out that density of the material doesn't make much difference: a lead ball might only accelerate twice as fast as one of cork. In fact, a ball falling from such a height wouldn't fall behind but ahead of the vertical because the rotational motion would be in ever-decreasing circles. What makes the earth move is similar to whatever moves Mars or Jupiter and is the same as that which pulls the stone to earth. Calling it gravity doesn't explain what it is. Day three[edit] Salviati starts by dismissing the arguments of a book against the novas he has been reading overnight.[15] Unlike comets, these were stationary and their lack of parallax easily checked and thus could not have been in the sublunary sphere. Simplicio now gives the greatest argument against the annual motion of the earth that if it moves then it can no longer be the center of the zodiac, the world. Aristotle gives proofs that the universe is finite bounded and spherical. Salvatius points out that these disappear if he denies him the assumption that it is movable, but allows the assumption initially in order not to multiply disputes. The solar system He points out that if anything is the centre, it must be the sun not the earth, because all the planets are closer or further away from the earth at different times, Venus and Mars up to eight times. He encourages Simplicio to make a plan of the planets, starting with Venus and Mercury which are easily seen to rotate about the sun. Mars must also go about the sun (as well as the earth) since it is never seen horned, unlike Venus now seen through the telescope; similarly with Jupiter and Saturn. Earth, which is between Mars with a period of two years and Venus with nine months, has a period of a year which may more elegantly be attributed to motion than a state of rest. Sagredo brings up two other common objections. If the earth rotated, the mountains would soon be in a position that one would have to descend them rather than ascend. Secondly, the motion would be so rapid that someone at the bottom of a well would have only a brief instance to glimpse a star as it traversed. Simplicio can see that the first is no different from travelling over the globe, as any who have circumnavigated but though he realises the second is the same as if the heavens were rotating, he still doesn't understand it. Salviati says the first is no different from those who deny the antipodes. For the second, he encourages Simplicio to decide what fraction of the sky can be seen from down the well. Salviati brings up another problem, which is that Mars and Venus are not as variable as the theory would suggest. He explains that the size of a star to the human eye is affected by the brightness and the sizes are not real. This is resolved by use of the telescope which also shows the crescent shape of Venus. A further objection to the movement of the earth, the unique existence of the moon, has been resolved by the discovery of the moons of Jupiter, which would appear like our moon to any Jovian. How retrogression is explained by Copernicus Copernicus has succeeded in reducing some of the uneven motions of Ptolemy who had to deal with motions that sometimes go fast, sometimes slow, and sometimes backwards, by means of vast epicycles. Mars, above the sun's sphere, often falls far below it, then soars above it. These anomalies are cured by the annual movement of the earth. This is explained by a diagram in which the varying motion of Jupiter is shown using the earth's orbit. Simplicio produces another booklet in which theological arguments are mixed with astronomic, but Salviati refuses to address the issues from Scripture. So he produces the argument that the fixed stars must be at an inconceivable distance with the smallest larger than the whole orbit of the earth. Salviati explains that this all comes from a misrepresentation of what Copernicus said, resulting in a huge over-calculation of the size of a sixth magnitude star. But many other famous astronomers over-estimated the size of stars by ignoring the brightness factor. Not even Tycho, with his accurate instruments, set himself to measure the size of any star except the sun and moon. But Salviati (Galileo) was able to make a reasonable estimate simply by hanging a cord to obscure the star and measuring the distance from eye to cord. But still many cannot believe that the fixed stars can individually be as big or bigger than the sun. To what end are these? Salviati maintains that "it is brash for our feebleness to attempt to judge the reasons for God's actions, and to call everything in the universe vain and superfluous which does not serve us". Has Tycho or any of his disciples tried to investigate in any way phenomena that might affirm or deny the movement of the earth? Do any of them know how much variation is needed in the fixed stars? Simplicio objects to conceding that the distance of the fixed stars is too great for it to be detectable. Salviati points out how difficult it is even to detect the varying distances of Saturn. Many of the positions of the fixed stars are not known accurately and far better instruments than Tycho's are needed: say using a sight with a fixed position 60 miles away. Sagredo then asks Salviati to explain how the Copernican system explains the seasons and inequalities of night and day. This he does with the aid of a diagram showing the position of the earth in the four seasons. He points out how much simpler it is than the Ptolemaic system. But Simplicio thinks Aristotle was wise to avoid too much geometry. He prefers Aristotle's axiom to avoid more than one simple motion at a time. Day four[edit] They are in Sagredo's house in Venice, where tides are an important issue, and Salviati wants to show the effect of the earth's movement on the tides. He first points out the three periods of the tides: daily (diurnal), generally with intervals of 6 hours of rising and six more of falling; monthly, seemingly from the moon, which increases or decreases these tides; and annual, leading to different sizes at the equinoxes. He considers first the daily motion. Three varieties are observed: in some places the waters rise and fall without any forward motion; in others they move towards the east and back to the west without rising or falling; in still others there is a combination of both—this happens in Venice where the waters rise on entering and fall on leaving. In the Straits of Messina there are very swift currents between Scylla and Charybdis. In the open Mediterranean the alteration of height is small but the currents are noticeable. Simplicio counters with the peripatetic explanations, which are based on the depths of the sea, and the dominion of the moon over the water, though this doesn't explain the risings when the moon is below the horizon. But he admits it could be a miracle. When the water in Venice rises, where does it come from? There is little rise in Corfu or Dubrovnik. From the ocean through the Straits of Gibraltar? It's much too far away and the currents are too slow. So could the movement of the container cause the disturbance? Consider the barges that bring water into Venice. When they hit an obstacle, the water rushes forward; when they speed up it will go to the back. For all this disturbance there is no need for new water and the level in the middle stays largely constant though the water there rushes backwards and forwards. Consider a point on the earth under the joint action of the annual and diurnal movements. At one time these are added together and 12 hours later they act against each other, so there is an alternate speeding up and slowing down. So the ocean basins are affected in the same way as the barge particularly in an east-west direction. Note also that the length of the barge makes a difference to the speed of oscillations, just as the length of a plumb bob changes its speed. The depth of water also makes a difference to the size of vibrations. The primary effect only explains tides once a day; one must look elsewhere for the six hour change, to the oscillation periods of the water. In some places, such as the Hellespont and the Aegean the periods are briefer and variable. But a north-south sea like the Red Sea has very little tide whereas the Messina Strait carries the pent up effect of two basins. Simplicio objects that if this accounts for the water, should it not even more be seen in the winds? Salviati suggests that the containing basins are not so effective and the air does not sustain its motion. Nevertheless, these forces are seen by the steady winds from east to west in the oceans in the torrid zone. It seems that the moon also is taking part in the production of the daily effects, but that is repugnant to his mind. The motions of the moon have caused great difficulty to astronomers. It's impossible to make a full account of these things given the irregular nature of the sea basins.

QMRIn 1945, using the results of critical mass experiments, Los Alamos technicians fabricated and assembled components for four bombs: the Trinity Gadget, Little Boy, Fat Man, and an unused spare Fat Man. After the war, those who could, including Oppenheimer, returned to university teaching positions. Those who remained worked on levitated and hollow pits and conducted weapon effects tests such as Crossroads Able and Baker at Bikini Atoll in 1946.

QMrOf the four basic types of nuclear weapon, the first, pure fission, uses the first of the three nuclear reactions above. The second, fusion-boosted fission, uses the first two. The third, two-stage thermonuclear, uses all three.

Chemistry Chapter

QMRSoil textures are classified by the fractions of each soil separate (sand, silt, and clay) present in a soil. Classifications are typically named for the primary constituent particle size or a combination of the most abundant particles sizes, e.g. "sandy clay" or "silty clay". A fourth term, loam, is used to describe a roughly equal concentration of sand, silt, and clay, and lends to the naming of even more classifications, e.g. "clay loam" or "silt loam".

Biology Chapter

QMRFound largely in temperate and tropical climates, currently there are known more than 75 species[1] of bioluminescent fungi, all of which are members of the order Agaricales (Basidiomycota) with one exceptional ascomycete belonging to the order Xylariales.[2] All known bioluminescent Agaricales are mushroom-forming, white-spored agarics that belong to four distinct evolutionary lineages. The Omphalotus lineage (comprising the genera Omphalotus and Neonothopanus) contains 12 species, the Armillaria lineage has 10 known species, while the Mycenoid lineage (Mycena, Panellus, Prunulus, Roridomyces) has more than 50 species. The recently discovered Lucentipes lineage contains two species, Mycena lucentipes and Gerronema viridilucens, which belong to a family that has not yet been formally named.[3] Armillaria mellea is the most widely distributed of the luminescent fungi, found across Asia, Europe, North America, and South Africa.[4]

Most basidiomycota have single celled basidia (holobasidia), but in some groups basidia can be multicellular (a phragmobasidia). For instance, rust fungi in the order Uredinales have four-celled phragmobasidia that are transversely septate; some jelly fungi in the order Tremellales have four-celled phragmobasidia that are cruciately septate. Sometimes the basidium (metabasidium) develops from a probasidium, which is a specialized cell which is not elongated like a typical hypha. The basidium may be stalked or sessile.

QMrA basidium (pl., basidia) is a microscopic, spore-producing structure found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi. The presence of basidia is one of the main characteristic features of the Basidiomycota. A basidium usually bears four sexual spores called basidiospores; occasionally the number may be two or even eight. In a typical basidium, each basidiospore is borne at the tip of a narrow prong or horn called a sterigma (pl. sterigmata), and is forcibly discharged upon maturity

QMRAfter formation of the ascus-initial cell, the A and a nuclei fuse with each other to form a diploid nucleus (see Figure). This nucleus is the only diploid nucleus in the entire life cycle of N. crassa. The diploid nucleus has 14 chromosomes formed from the two fused haploid nuclei that had 7 chromosomes each. Formation of the diploid nucleus is immediately followed by meiosis. The two sequential divisions of meiosis lead to four haploid nuclei, two of the A mating type and two of the a mating type. One further mitotic division leads to four A and four a nuclei in each ascus. Meiosis is an essential part of the life cycle of all sexually reproducing organisms, and in its main features, meiosis in N. crassa seems typical of meiosis generally. As the above events are occurring, the mycelial sheath that had enveloped the ascogonium develops as the wall of the perithecium, becomes impregnated with melanin, and blackens. The mature perithecium has a flask-shaped structure. A mature perithecium may contain as many as 300 asci, each derived from identical fusion diploid nuclei. Ordinarily, in nature, when the perithecia mature the ascospores are ejected rather violently into the air. These ascospores are heat resistant and, in the lab, require heating at 60 °C for 30 minutes to induce germination. For normal strains, the entire sexual cycle takes 10 to 15 days. In a mature ascus containing eight ascospores, pairs of adjacent spores are identical in genetic constitution, since the last division is mitotic, and since the ascospores are contained in the ascus sac that holds them in a definite order determined by the direction of nuclear segregations during meiosis. Since the four primary products are also arranged in sequence, a first division segregation pattern of genetic markers can be distinguished from a second division segregation pattern.

QMRFusion of the nuclei (karyogamy) takes place in the U-shaped cells in the hymenium, and results in the formation of a diploid zygote. The zygote grows into the ascus, an elongated tube-shaped or cylinder-shaped capsule. Meiosis then gives rise to four haploid nuclei, usually followed by a further mitotic division that results in eight nuclei in each ascus. The nuclei along with some cytoplasma become enclosed within membranes and a cell wall to give rise to ascospores that are aligned inside the ascus like peas in a pod. (For a general description of meiosis and its adaptive function see Meiosis and Bernstein and Bernstein[15]). Upon opening of the ascus, ascospores may be dispersed by the wind, while in some cases the spores are forcibly ejected form the ascus; certain species have evolved spore cannons, which can eject ascospores up to 30 cm. away. When the spores reach a suitable substrate, they germinate, form new hyphae, which restarts the fungal life cycle. The form of the ascus is important for classification and is divided into four basic types: unitunicate-operculate, unitunicate-inoperculate, bitunicate, or prototunicate. See the article on asci for further details.

QMRIn mass, the spores (produced on the surface of the branches) are white. Light microscopy reveals additional details: the spores are roughly spherical to broadly elliptical, with dimensions of 4–7 by 3–5 μm.[6] They have a clear apiculus about 1 μm long, and a single large oil droplet.[9] The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are four-spored, do not have clamps, and measure 50–60 by 7–9 μm, gradual... See More

QMRClavarioid fungi have a worldwide distribution, though some genera — such as Aphelaria and Lachnocladium — are principally tropical. They are one of the most common of the four fungi groupings.

QMRIn the Basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the tips of thin projections called sterigmata, which extend from club-shaped cells called a basidia. The fertile portion of the Gasteromycetes, called a gleba, may become powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the stinkhorns. Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells called paraphyses. Similar structures called cystidia often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota. Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify the identification of a mushroom.[15]

QMRAn ascospore is a spore contained in an ascus or that was produced inside an ascus. This kind of spore is specific to fungi classified as ascomycetes (Ascomycota). Typically, a single ascus will contain eight ascospores. The eight spores are produced by meiosis followed by a mitotic division. Two meiotic divisions turn the original diploid zygote nucleus into four haploid ones. That is, the si...See More

QMRAn ascospore is a spore contained in an ascus or that was produced inside an ascus. This kind of spore is specific to fungi classified as ascomycetes (Ascomycota). Typically, a single ascus will contain eight ascospores. The eight spores are produced by meiosis followed by a mitotic division. Two meiotic divisions turn the original diploid zygote nucleus into four haploid ones. That is, the si...See More

QMrTwo forms of fungal yeast cells can survive and grow: haploid and diploid. The haploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth, and under conditions of high stress will, in general, die. This is the asexual form of the fungus. The diploid cells (the preferential 'form' of yeast) similarly undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth. The rate at which the mitotic cell cycle progresses often differs substantially between haploid and diploid cells.[11] Under conditions of stress, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering meiosis and producing four haploid spores, which can subsequently mate. This is the sexual form of the fungus. Under optimal conditions, yeast cells can double their population every 100 minutes.[12][13] However, growth rates vary enormously both between strains and between environments.[14] Mean replicative lifespan is about 26 cell divisions.[15][16]

Ascus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a tetrad of four spores

Ascus classification[edit] Asci of Hypomyces chrysospermus (they are unitunicate-inoperculate). DIC image. The form of the ascus, the capsule which contains the sexual spores, is important for classification of the Ascomycota. There are four basic types of ascus. A unitunicate-operculate ascus has a "lid", the Operculum, which breaks open when the spores are mature and allows the spores to escape. Unitunicate-operculate asci only occur in those ascocarps which have apothecia, for instance the morels. 'Unitunicate' means 'single-walled'. Instead of an operculum, a unitunicate-inoperculate ascus has an elastic ring that functions like a pressure valve. Once mature the elastic ring briefly expands and lets the spores shoot out. This type appears both in apothecia and in perithecia; an example is the illustrated Hypomyces chrysospermus. Ascus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a tetrad of four spores A bitunicate ascus is enclosed in a double wall. This consists of a thin, brittle outer shell and a thick elastic inner wall. When the spores are mature, the shell splits open so that the inner wall can take up water. As a consequence this begins to extend with its spores until it protrudes above the rest of the ascocarp so that the spores can escape into free air without being obstructed by the bulk of the fruiting body. Bitunicate asci occur only in pseudothecia and are found only in the classes Dothideomycetes and Chaetothyriomycetes (which were formerly united in the old class Loculoascomycetes). Examples: Venturia inaequalis (apple scab) and Guignardia aesculi (Brown Leaf Mold of Horse Chestnut). Prototunicate asci are mostly spherical in shape and they have no active dispersal mechanism at all. The mature ascus wall dissolves allowing the spores to escape, or it is broken open by other influences, such as animals. Asci of this type can be found both in perithecia and in cleistothecia, for instance with Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma). This is something of a catch-all term for cases which do not fit into the other three ascus types, and they probably belong to several independent groups which evolved separately from unitunicate asci.

Asci, notably those of Neurospora crassa, have been used in laboratories for studying the process of meiosis, because the four cells produced by meiosis line up in regular order. By modifying genes coding for spore color and nutritional requirements, the biologist can study crossing over and other phenomena. The formation of asci and their use in genetic analysis are described in detail in Neurospora crassa.

QMRAn ascus (plural asci; from Greek ἀσκός ảskós 'skin bag'[1]) is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in ascomycete fungi. Asci usually contain eight ascospores, produced by meiosis followed, in most species, by a mitotic cell division. However, asci in some genera or species can occur in numbers of one (e.g. Monosporascus cannonballus), two, four, or multiples of four

QMRSigns and symptoms Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum.[1] The signs and symptoms of syphilis vary depending in which of the four stages it presents (primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary). The primary stage classically presents with a single chancre (a firm, painless, non-itchy skin ulceration) but there may be multiple sores. In secondary syphilis a diffuse rash which frequently involves the palms of the hands and soles of the feet occurs. There may also be sores in the mouth or vagina. In latent syphilis there are little to no symptoms which can last for years.[2] In tertiary syphilis there are gummas (soft non-cancerous growths), neurological, or heart symptoms.[3] Syphilis has, however, been known as "the great imitator" as it may cause symptoms similar to many other diseases. Syphilis can present in one of four different stages: primary, secondary, latent, and tertiary. Primary chancre of syphilis at the site of infection on the penis Primary syphilis is typically acquired by direct sexual contact with the infectious lesions of another person.[14] Approximately 3 to 90 days after the initial exposure (average 21 days) a skin lesion, called a chancre, appears at the point of contact.[3] This is classically (40% of the time) a single, firm, painless, non-itchy skin ulceration with a clean base and sharp borders between 0.3 and 3.0 cm in size.[3] The lesion, however, may take on almost any form.[15] In the classic form, it evolves from a macule to a papule and finally to an erosion or ulcer.[15] Occasionally, multiple lesions may be present (~40%),[3] with multiple lesions more common when coinfected with HIV. Lesions may be painful or tender (30%), and they may occur outside of the genitals (2–7%). The most common location in women is the cervix (44%), the penis in heterosexual men (99%), and anally and rectally relatively commonly in men who have sex with men (34%).[15] Lymph node enlargement frequently (80%) occurs around the area of infection,[3] occurring seven to 10 days after chancre formation.[15] The lesion may persist for three to six weeks without treatment.[3] Secondary Typical presentation of secondary syphilis with a rash on the palms of the hands Reddish papules and nodules over much of the body due to secondary syphilis Secondary syphilis occurs approximately four to ten weeks after the primary infection.[3] While secondary disease is known for the many different ways it can manifest, symptoms most commonly involve the skin, mucous membranes, and lymph nodes.[16] There may be a symmetrical, reddish-pink, non-itchy rash on the trunk and extremities, including the palms and soles.[3][17] The rash may become maculopapular or pustular. It may form flat, broad, whitish, wart-like lesions known as condyloma latum on mucous membranes. All of these lesions harbor bacteria and are infectious. Other symptoms may include fever, sore throat, malaise, weight loss, hair loss, and headache.[3] Rare manifestations include liver inflammation, kidney disease, joint inflammation, periostitis, inflammation of the optic nerve, uveitis, and interstitial keratitis.[3][18] The acute symptoms usually resolve after three to six weeks;[18] however, about 25% of people may present with a recurrence of secondary symptoms. Many people who present with secondary syphilis (40–85% of women, 20–65% of men) do not report previously having had the classic chancre of primary syphilis.[16] Latent Latent syphilis is defined as having serologic proof of infection without symptoms of disease.[14] It is further described as either early (less than 1 year after secondary syphilis) or late (more than 1 year after secondary syphilis) in the United States.[18] The United Kingdom uses a cut-off of two years for early and late latent syphilis.[15] Early latent syphilis may have a relapse of symptoms. Late latent syphilis is asymptomatic, and not as contagious as early latent syphilis.[18] Tertiary Person with tertiary (gummatous) syphilis. Bust in Musée de l'Homme, Paris. Tertiary syphilis may occur approximately 3 to 15 years after the initial infection, and may be divided into three different forms: gummatous syphilis (15%), late neurosyphilis (6.5%), and cardiovascular syphilis (10%).[3][18] Without treatment, a third of infected people develop tertiary disease.[18] People with tertiary syphilis are not infectious.[3] Gummatous syphilis or late benign syphilis usually occurs 1 to 46 years after the initial infection, with an average of 15 years. This stage is characterized by the formation of chronic gummas, which are soft, tumor-like balls of inflammation which may vary considerably in size. They typically affect the skin, bone, and liver, but can occur anywhere.[3] Neurosyphilis refers to an infection involving the central nervous system. It may occur early, being either asymptomatic or in the form of syphilitic meningitis, or late as meningovascular syphilis, general paresis, or tabes dorsalis, which is associated with poor balance and lightning pains in the lower extremities. Late neurosyphilis typically occurs 4 to 25 years after the initial infection. Meningovascular syphilis typically presents with apathy and seizure, and general paresis with dementia and tabes dorsalis.[3] Also, there may be Argyll Robertson pupils, which are bilateral small pupils that constrict when the person focuses on near objects, but do not constrict when exposed to bright light. Cardiovascular syphilis usually occurs 10–30 years after the initial infection. The most common complication is syphilitic aortitis, which may result in aneurysm formation

QMRTrichothecenes – sourced from Cephalosporium, Fusarium, Myrothecium, Stachybotrys and Trichoderma. The toxins are usually found in molded maize, wheat, corn, peanuts and rice, or animal feed of hay and straw.[33][34] Four trichothecenes, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) and deoxynivalenol (DON) have been most commonly encountered by humans and animals. The consequences of oral intake of, or dermal exposure to, the toxins will result in Alimentary toxic aleukia, neutropenia, aplastic anemia, thrombocytopenia and/or skin irritation.[35][36][37] In 1993, the FDA issued a document for the content limits of DON in food and animal feed at an advisory level.[38] In 2003, US published a patent that is very promising for farmers to produce a trichothecene-resistant crop.

QMRMeningococcus vaccines exist against groups A, B, C, W135 and Y.[44][45][46] In countries where the vaccine for meningococcus group C was introduced, cases caused by this pathogen have decreased substantially.[42] A quadrivalent vaccine now exists, which combines all four vaccines. Immunization with the ACW135Y vaccine against four strains is now a visa requirement for taking part in Hajj

QMRWolbachia is a genus of bacteria which infects arthropod species, including a high proportion of insects, as well as some nematodes. It is one of the world's most common parasitic microbes and is possibly the most common reproductive parasite in the biosphere. Its interactions with its hosts are often complex, and in some cases have evolved to be mutualistic rather than parasitic. Some host species cannot reproduce, or even survive, without Wolbachia infection. One study concluded that more than 16% of neotropical insect species carry bacteria of this genus,[4] and as many as 25 to 70 percent of all insect species are estimated to be potential hosts.[5] These bacteria can infect many different types of organs, but are most notable for the infections of the testes and ovaries of their hosts. Wolbachia species are ubiquitous in mature eggs, but not mature sperm. Only infected females therefore pass the infection on to their offspring. Wolbachia maximize their spread by significantly altering the reproductive capabilities of its hosts, with four different phenotypes: Male killing: infected males die during larval development, which increase the rate of born, infected, females.[9] Feminization: infected males develop as females or infertile pseudo-females. Parthenogenesis: reproduction of infected females without males. Some scientists have suggested that parthenogenesis may always be attributable to the effects of Wolbachia.[10] An example of a parthenogenic species is the Trichogramma wasp,[11] which has evolved to procreate without males with the help of Wolbachia. Males are rare in this tiny species of insect, possibly because many have been killed by that very same strain of Wolbachia.[12] Cytoplasmic incompatibility: the inability of Wolbachia-infected males to successfully reproduce with uninfected females or females infected with another Wolbachia strain. In the mechanism of cytoplasmic incompatibility, Wolbachia interferes with the parental chromosomes during the first mitotic divisions to the extent that they can no longer divide in sync.[13]

QMREast German postage stamps depicting four antique microscopes. Advancements in microscopy were essential to the early study of infectious diseases.

QMRWhen infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can suppress the infection. Four types of anti-infective or drugs exist: antibacterial (antibiotic), antiviral, antitubercular, and antifungal

QMrShigella species are classified by four serogroups: Serogroup A: S. dysenteriae (15 serotypes)[7] Serogroup B: S. flexneri (six serotypes) Serogroup C: S. boydii (19 serotypes)[8] Serogroup D: S. sonnei (one serotype) Groups

QMrAlong with cell shape, Gram staining is a rapid diagnostic tool and once was used to group species at the subdivision of Bacteria. Historically, the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based on Gram staining: Firmacutes (+), Gracillicutes (−), Mollicutes (0) and Mendocutes (var.).[2] Since 1987, the monophyly of the gram-negative bacteria has been disproven with molecular studies.[3] However some authors, such as Cavalier-Smith still treat them as a monophyletic clade and refer to the group as subkingdom "Negibacteria".[4]

QMR Four proteins have been identified which are present in all Bacteroidetes species except Cytophaga hutchinsonii;

QMRThe four dominant phyla in the human gut are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria

QMrGracilicutes (Latin: gracilis, slender, and cutis, skin, referring to the cell wall) is a controversial taxon in bacterial taxonomy. Traditionally gram staining results were most commonly used as a classification tool, consequently until the advent of molecular phylogeny, the Kingdom Prokaryotae (as the domain Bacteria was known then) was divided into four phyla,[1] Gracilicutes (gram-negative) Firmacutes [sic] (gram-positive, subsequently corrected to Firmicutes[2]) Mollicutes (gram variable, e.g. Mycoplasma) Mendocutes (uneven gram stain, "methanogenic bacteria" now known as methanogens and classed as Archaea) This classification system was abandoned in favour of the three-domain system based on molecular phylogeny started by C. Woese.[3][4] This taxon was revived in 2006 by Cavalier-Smith as an infrakindgom containing the phyla Spirochaetae, Sphingobacteria, Planctobacteria, and Proteobacteria.[5] However, this taxon is not generally accepted and the three-domain system is followed.[6] The fourth is always different

QMr the kingdom Monera was divided into four divisions based primarily on Gram staining: Firmicutes (positive in staining), Gracilicutes (negative in staining), Mollicutes (neutral in staining) and Mendocutes (variable in staining)

Sarcina is a genus of bacteria that are found in cuboidal arrangements of eight cocci. This is two tetrads

QMRTetrads are clusters of four cocci arranged within the same plane (e.g. Micrococcus sp.).

QMRRuth Ungar performs on vocals, fiddle, and ukulele. She is a songwriter for the Mammals, and her songs center on themes of fair trade and the environment. Her song "Four Blue Walls", inspired by the play Danny and the Deep Blue Sea was featured on an album by Canadian band The Duhks.

QMRThe four-toed elephant shrew or four-toed sengi is the only living species in the genus Petrodromus, which together with three other extant genera Rhynchocyon, Macroscelides and Elephantulus constitutes the order Macroscelidea.[1] This species is only found in particular regions in Africa and is smaller in size compared to its relatives.[3] A comprehensive recording of this species is lacking.[1]

QMrThe four-toed rice tenrec (Oryzorictes tetradactylus) is a species of mammal in the family Tenrecidae. It is endemic to Madagascar. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland, subtropical or tropical high-altitude grassland, and swamps.[2]

QMRTule shrew (1905, Baja California ). Only known by the four type specimens collected in 1905

QMRGenus Neurergus (spotted newts) - four species Yellow-spotted newt (Neurergus crocatus) Kaiser's spotted newt (Neurergus kaiseri) Kurdistan spotted newt (Neurergus microspilotus) Strauch's spotted newt (Neurergus strauchii)

QMRGenetic evidence indicates that megabats originated during the early Eocene and should be placed within the four major lines of microbats.[19]

QMRVenomous mammals are animals of the class Mammalia that produce venom, which they use to kill or disable prey, or to defend themselves from predators or conspecifics. In modern nature, venomous mammals are rare. Mammalian venoms form a heterogeneous group having different compositions and modes of action and are present in three orders of mammals, Insectivora, Monotremata, and Chiroptera. A fourth order, Primates, is proposed to have venomous representatives. The fourth is always different.To explain the rarity of venom delivery in Mammalia, Mark Dufton of the University of Strathclyde has suggested that modern mammalian predators do not need venom because they are able to kill quickly with their teeth or claws, whereas venom, no matter how sophisticated, requires time to disable prey.[2]

QmsArtiodactyla is a large order of hoofed mammals, the even-toed ungulates. They are found nearly cosmopolitan, although no species are native to Australia or Antarctica. Broken into four suborder, Tylopoda (including Camelidae), Suina (including Suidae and Tayassuidae), Whippomorpha (including Hippopotamidae), and Ruminantia, which contains two Infraorders, Tragulina (including Tragulidae) and Pecora (including Moschidae, Cervidae, Bovidae, Antilocapridae, and Giraffidae)

QMrEchidnas /ᵻˈkɪdnə/, sometimes known as spiny anteaters,[1] belong to the family Tachyglossidae in the monotreme order of egg-laying mammals. The four extant species, together with the platypus, are the only surviving members of the Monotremata order and are the only living mammals that lay eggs

QMRMost mammals belong to the placental group. The four largest orders within the placental mammals are Rodentia (mice, rats, and other small, gnawing mammals), Chiroptera (bats), Carnivora (dogs, cats, bears, and other mammals that primarily eat meat), and Cetartiodactyla (including numerous herbivore species, such as deer, sheep, goats, and buffalos, plus whales

QMRSpecies[edit] Three (possibly four) living species of peccaries are found from the southwestern United States through Central America and into South America and Trinidad. The collared peccary (Pecari tajacu) or "musk hog", referring to the animal's scent glands, occurs from the southwestern United States into South America and the island of Trinidad. They are found in all kinds of habitats, from arid scrublands to humid tropical rain forests. The collared peccary is well adapted to habitat disturbed by humans, merely requiring sufficient cover; they can be found in cities and agricultural land throughout their range. Notable populations exist in the suburbs of Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona, where they feed on ornamental plants and other cultivated vegetation.[9][10] Collared peccaries are generally found in bands of eight to 15 animals of various ages. They defend themselves if they feel threatened, but otherwise tend to ignore humans. They defend themselves with their long tusks, which sharpen themselves whenever the mouth opens or closes. A second species, the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), is mainly found in rainforests of Central and South America, but also known from a wide range of other habitats such as dry forests, grasslands, mangrove, cerrado, and dry xerophytic areas.[11] The third species, the Chacoan peccary (Catagonus wagneri), is the closest living relative to the extinct Platygonus pearcei. It is found in the dry shrub habitat or Chaco of Paraguay, Bolivia, and Argentina. The Chacoan peccary has the unusual distinction of having been first described based on fossils and was originally thought to be only an extinct species. In 1975, the animal was discovered to still be alive and well in the Chaco region of Paraguay. The species was well known to the native people. A fourth as yet unconfirmed species, the giant peccary (Pecari maximus), was described from the Brazilian Amazon and north Bolivia[12] by Dutch biologist Marc van Roosmalen. Though relatively recently discovered, it has been known to the local Tupi people as caitetu munde, which means "great peccary which lives in pairs".[13][14] Thought to be the largest extant peccary, it can grow to 1.2 m (3.9 ft) in length. Its pelage is completely dark gray, with no collars whatsoever. Unlike other peccaries, it lives in pairs, or with one or two offspring. However, the scientific evidence for considering it as a species separate from the collared peccary has later been questioned,[15][16] leading the IUCN to treat it as a synonym.[17]

QMRThe fourhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis or Triglopsis quadricornis) is a species of fish in the Cottidae family. It is a demersal fish distributed mainly in brackish arctic coastal waters in Canada, Greenland, Russia, and Alaska, and also as a relict in the boreal Baltic Sea. There are also freshwater populations in the lakes of Norway, Sweden, Finland and Karelia (NW Russia) and in Arctic Canada (Nunavut and Northwest Territories).

Dugong dugon is the only extant species of the family Dugongidae, and one of only four extant species of the Sirenia order, the others forming the manatee family.[5] It was first classified by Müller in 1776 as Trichechus dugon,[6] a member of the manatee genus previously defined by Linnaeus.[7] It was later assigned as the type species of Dugong by Lacépède[8] and further classified within its own family by Gray[9] and subfamily by Simpson.[10]

The dugong (/ˈduːɡɒŋ/, /ˈdjuːɡɒŋ/; Dugong dugon) is a medium-sized marine mammal. It is one of four living species of the order Sirenia, which also includes three species of manatees. It is the only living representative of the once-diverse family Dugongidae; its closest modern relative, Steller's sea cow (Hydrodamalis gigas), was hunted to extinction in the 18th century. The dugong is the only strictly marine herbivorous mammal.

During winter, manatees often congregate near the warm-water outflows of power plants along the coast of Florida instead of migrating south as they once did. Some conservations are concerned these manatees have become too reliant on these artificially warmed areas.[24] The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is trying to find a new way to heat the water for manatees that are dependent on plants that have closed. The main water treatment plant in Guyana has four manatees that keep storage canals clear of weeds; there are also some in the ponds of the National Park in Georgetown, Guyana.

Manatees have four rows of teeth

QMRManatees comprise three of the four living species in the order Sirenia. The fourth is the Eastern Hemisphere's dugong. The Sirenia are thought to have evolved from four-legged land mammals over 60 million years ago, with the closest living relatives being the Proboscidea (elephants) and Hyracoidea (hyraxes).[4]

QMRManatees (family Trichechidae, genus Trichechus) are large, fully aquatic, mostly herbivorous marine mammals sometimes known as sea cows. There are three accepted living species of Trichechidae, representing three of the four living species in the order Sirenia: the Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis), the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus), and the West African manatee (Trichechus senegalensis

QMRThe Weddell seal shares a common recent ancestor with the other Antarctic seals, which are together known as the lobodontine seals. These include the crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga), the Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii), and the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx).[4] These species share teeth adaptations including lobes and cusps useful for straining smaller prey items out of the water. The ancestral Lobodontini likely diverged from its sister clade, the Mirounga (elephant seals) in the late Miocene to early Pliocene, when they migrated southward and diversified rapidly to form four distinct genera in relative isolation around Antarctica.[4]

Distribution and habitat[edit] Hooded seals live primarily on drifting pack ice and in deep water in the Arctic Ocean and North Atlantic. Although some drift away to warmer regions during the year, their best survival rate is in colder climates. They can be found on four distinct areas with pack ice: near Jan Mayen Island (northeast of Iceland); off Labrador and northeastern Newfoundland; the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and the Davis Strait (off midwestern Greenland).[4][6] Males appear to be localized around areas of complex seabed, such as Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, and the Flemish cap, while females concentrate their habitat efforts primarily on shelf areas, such as the Labrador Shelf.[8] Hooded seals are known to be a highly migratory species that often wander long distances, as far west as Alaska and as far south as the Canary Islands and Guadeloupe.[6] Prior to the mid 1990s, hooded seal sightings in Maine and the east Atlantic were rare, but began increasing in the mid 1990s. From January 1997 to December 1999, a total of 84 recorded sightings of hooded seals occurred in the Gulf of Maine, one in France and one in Portugal. From 1996 to 2006, five strandings and sightings were noted near the Spanish coasts in the Mediterranean Sea. There is no scientific explanation for the increase in sightings and range of the hooded seal.[9][10

QMRBreeding and life cycle[edit] There are four major breeding areas for the hooded seal: the Gulf of St. Lawrence; the "Front" east of Newfoundland; Davis Strait (between Greenland and northern Canada); and the West Ice near Jan Mayen. Male hooded seals are known to have several mates in a single mating season, following the hypothesis that they are polygynous. While some males will defend and mate with just one female for long periods of time, others will be more mobile and tend to mate with multiple females for shorter periods of time, generating maximum offspring within the population.[18] Throughout all areas, the hooded seals whelp in late March and early April and molt from June to August.[9] The four recognized herds are generally sorted into two distinct populations: a Northeast (NE) Atlantic population and a Northwest (NW) Atlantic population. It is estimated that 90% of the total NW population give birth on the "Front". The NE herd whelping (giving birth) around Jan Mayen generally disperse into the sea after they breed in March. From April through June, after the breeding season, this species travels long distances to feed and then eventually gather together once again. Although some individuals return to the same area of ice in July to undergo moulting, the majority of the herd moult further North. After moulting, the species disperses widely again to feed in the late summer and autumn before returning to the breeding areas again in late winter.[19][20][21]

QMRThe true seal tribe Lobodontini, collectively known as the lobodontine seals, consist of four species of seals in four genera: the crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophaga), the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), the Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddelli), and the Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossii). All lobodontine seals have circumpolar distributions surrounding Antarctica. They include both the world's most abundant seal (the crabeater seal) and the only predominantly mammal-eating seal (the leopard seal). While the Weddell seal prefers the shore-fast ice, the other species live primarily on and around the off-shore pack ice. Thus, though they are collectively the most abundant group of seals in the world, the combination of remote range and inaccessible habitat make them among the least well studied of the world's seals.

QMRIn the 1980s, phylogenetic analysis of the phocids has led to a few conclusions about the interrelatedness of the various genera. The four genera Hydrurga, Leptonychotes, Lobodon, and Ommatophoca form a monophyletic group, the tribe Lobodontini.

QMRBaleen whales belong to the monophyletic lineage of Mysticeti order. Mysticeti are large filter-feeding cetacenas that also included of largest animals on earth as well as some of the most critically endangered.[6][7] Based on morphology and molecular data, four extant family-level clades are recognized within Mysticeti: Balaenidae (bowhead and right whales), Neobalaenidae (pygmy right whales), Eschirichtiidae (gray whales), and Balaenopteridae (rorquals).[7] Phylogenetic relationships of the mysticeti order remain unclear due to legal and logistical challenges.[7] However, recent morphological analysis, support Balaenidae as a monophyletic group that is the sister group to Neobalaenidae.

QMRThe initial karyotype of cetaceans includes a set of chromosomes from 2n = 44. They have four pairs of telocentric chromosomes (whose centromeres sit at one of the telomeres), two to four pairs of subtelocentric, and one or two large pairs of submetacentric chromosomes. The remaining chromosomes are metacentric - the centromere is approximately in the middle - and are rather small. The sperm whales (Physeteridae), the beaked whales (Ziphiidae) and the right whales (Balaenidae) converge to a reduction in the number of chromosomes to 2n = 42nd.[24]

QMRMarine mammals can be subdivided into four recognized groups; cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises), pinnipeds (seals, sea lions and walruses), sirenians (manatees and dugongs), and fissipeds, which are the group of carnivores with separate digits (the polar bear, and two species of otter). Both cetaceans and sirenians are fully aquatic and therefore are obligate ocean dwellers. Pinnipeds are semiaquatic; they spend the majority of their time in the water, but need to return to land for important activities such as mating, breeding and molting. In contrast, both otters and the polar bear are much less adapted to aquatic living.[2] While the number of marine mammals is small compared to those found on land, their total biomass is large. They play important roles in maintaining marine ecosystems, especially through regulation of prey populations.[3] These two factors make them an integral component of the marine environment. This is of particular concern considering 23% of marine mammal species are currently threatened.[4]

QMrThe genus Charina consists of four species, three of which are found in North America, and one species found in Africa.

QMRThere are four species of amphibian on Grenada, one of which was introduced

QMrAmphibian habitats in Michigan are generally split into four regions: the northern and southern Lower Peninsula and the eastern and western Upper Peninsula, with differentiation based on climate, soils, underlying bedrock and glacially-derived landforms. Region One, the southern Lower Peninsula, is generally characterized by a warmer, less variable climate. Loam and clay soils dominate the region, with a lesser amount of sand, and deciduous hardwoods are the dominant tree species, with some natural prairies and savannas. There is a greater diversity of plant life in this region, and it includes plant and animal species that are not found in any of the other regions. Region Two, the northern Lower Peninsula, has a climate that is cooler and more variable, with greater precipitation, due to its proximity to the Great Lakes, more extensive uplands and more northern latitude. Sandy soils and glacial deposits are the dominant soil type, while forests of conifer or mixed conifer/hardwood predominate. Swamps and bogs are found more often in Region Two than Region One. Region Three, the eastern Upper Peninsula, has a climate profile similar to Region Two. Sand and clay dominate the soil of this region, and tend to be low in nutrients and poorly drained. There are extensive wetlands, dominated by coniferous forests, while upland areas provide mixed conifer/broadleaf hardwood tracts. Region Four, the western Upper Peninsula, provides extensive bedrock structures. The temperature is less moderate than in the other three regions, and can see frigid winters and hot summers. Mixed conifer/broadleaf forests again predominate.[5]

QMRThe Colombian four-eyed frog (Pleurodema brachyops; in Spanish: sapito lipon) is a species of frog in the Leptodactylidae family. It is found in an area stretching from Guyana and northern Brazil (Roraima state) through Venezuela (including Isla Margarita) and Colombia into Panama as well as the Netherlands Antilles.[2]

QMRThe Australian frog fauna consists of four native families, and one introduced family. The sole species of frog introduced to Australia which has naturalised, is the Cane Toad (Bufo marinus), of the family Bufonidae. The Cane Toad was introduced to several locations throughout Queensland, and has since spread west and south.

QMRThe southern red-backed salamander (Plethodon serratus) is a species of salamander native to the United States. It is found in four widely disjunct populations: one in central Louisiana; one in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma; one in central Missouri; and one from southeastern Tennessee, to southwestern North Carolina, western Georgia, and eastern Alabama. It is sometimes referred to as the Georgia red-backed salamander or the Ouachita red-backed salamander. It was once considered a subspecies of the red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus.

QMrThe four-toed salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum) is a lungless salamander native to eastern North America. It is a species of the monotypic genus Hemidactylium. (In Francophone Canada, it is called the salamandre à quatre orteils.)

QMRTexts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—

QMRFour colossal statues of Ramesses II flank the entrance of his temple Abu Simbel

QMRThe four-lined skink (Plestiodon tetragrammus)[2] is a species of lizard, which is endemic to North America. It is a medium-sized member of the Plestiodon skinks.

QMRThree out of the four orders of reptiles can be found in Florida, with the Tuatara order being absent

QMrThe reptiles of Australia are a diverse group of animals, widely distributed across the continent. Three of the four orders of reptiles are native to Australia: Testudines, Squamata and Crocodilia.

QMRThe reverse side of the throne of Pharaoh Tutankhamun with four golden uraeus cobra figures. Gold with lapis lazuli; Valley of the Kings, Thebes(1347-37 BCE).

QMRThis hypothesis was strengthened in 2015 by the discovery of a 113m year-old fossil of a four-legged snake in Brazil that has been named Tetrapodophis amplectus. It has many snake-like features, is adapted for burrowing and its stomach indicates that it was preying on other animals.[21] It is currently uncertain if Tetrapodophis is a snake or another species, in the squamate order, as a snake-like body has independently evolved at least 26 times. Tetrapodophis does not have distinctive snake features in its spine and skull.[22][23]

QMRThe quadratojugal is a small jaw bone that is present in most amphibians, reptiles and birds, but has been lost in mammals. It is connected to the jugal as well as other bones, though these may vary with species.

QMRThe quadrate bone is part of a skull in most tetrapods, including amphibians, sauropsids (reptiles, birds), and early synapsids. In these animals it connects to the quadratojugal and squamosal in the skull, and forms part of the jaw joint (the other part is the articular bone at the rear end of the lower jaw).

QMRThe only remaining groups[35] of the order crocodilia are the alligators and caimans; crocodiles; and gharials.

Like i said I posted the ones below but i also can't remember what exactly I posted before so now I'm mostly posting things that I'm sure I didn't do before but some things I'm going to repeat like the one below. Now that the wiki sights aren't purple since my computer was reset I can't tell

QMRThe four orders of Reptilia[edit] Testudines[edit] Main article: Testudines This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2014) Testudines, or turtles, may have evolved from anaspids, but their exact origin is unknown and heavily debated. Fossils date back to around 220 million years ago and share remarkably similar characteristics. These first turtles retain the same body plan as do all modern testudines and are mostly herbivorous, with some feeding exclusively on small marine organisms. The trade-mark shell is believed to have evolved from extensions from their backbone and widened ribs that fused together. This is supported by the fossil of Odontochelys semitestacea, which has an incomplete shell originating from the ribs and back bone. This species also had teeth with its beak, giving more support to it being a transitional fossil, although this claim is still controversial. This shell evolved to protect against predators, but also slows down the land based species by a great amount. This has caused many species to go extinct in recent times. Because of alien species out-competing them for food and the inability to escape from humans, there are many endangered species in this order. Sphenodontia[edit] Main article: Sphenodontia Sphenodontians arose in the mid Triassic and now consists of a single genus, tuatara, which comprises two endangered species that live on New Zealand and some of its minor surrounding islands. Their evolutionary history is filled with many species.[30] Recent paleogenetic discoveries show that tuataras are prone to quick speciation. Squamata[edit] Main article: Squamata The most recent order of reptiles, squamates,[31] are recognized by having a movable quadrate bone (giving them upper-jaw movement), possessing horny scales and hemipenes. They originate from the early Jurassic and are made up of the three suborders Lacertilia (paraphyletic), Serpentes, and Amphisbaenia. Although they are the most recent order, squamates contain more species than any of the other reptilian orders. Squamates are a monophyletic group included, with the Sphenodontia (e.g. tuataras), in the Lepidosauria. The latter superorder, together with some extinct animals like the plesiosaurs, constitute the Lepidosauromorpha, the sister infraclass to the group, the Archosauromorpha, that contains crocodiles, turtles, and birds. Although squamate fossils first appear in the early Jurassic, mitochondrial phylogenetics suggests that they evolved in the late Permian. Most evolutionary relationships within the squamates are not yet completely worked out, with the relationship of snakes to other groups being most problematic. From morphological data, Iguanid lizards have been thought to have diverged from other squamates very early, but recent molecular phylogenies, both from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, do not support this early divergence.[32] Because snakes have a faster molecular clock than other squamates,[32] and there are few early snake and snake ancestor fossils,[33] it is difficult to resolve the relationship between snakes and other squamate groups. Crocodilia[edit] Main article: Crocodilia The first organisms that showed similar characteristics of Crocodilians[34] were the Crurotarsi, who appeared during the early Triassic 250 million years ago. This quickly gave rise to the Eusuchia clade 220 million years ago, which would eventually lead to the order of Crocodilians, the first of which arose about 85 million years ago during the late Cretaceous. The earliest fossil evidence of eusuchians is of the genus Isisfordia. Early species mainly fed on fish and vegetation. They were land-based, most having long legs (when compared to modern crocodiles) and many were bipedal. As diversification increased, many apex predators arose, all of which are now extinct. Modern Crocodilia arose through specific evolutionary traits. The complete loss of bipedalism was traded for a generally low quadrupedal stance for an easy and less noticeable entrance to bodies of water. The shape of the skull/jaw changed to allow more grasp along with upward-pointing nostrils and eyes. Mimicry is evident, as the backs of all crocodilia resemble some type of floating log and their general color scheme of brown and green mimics moss or wood. Their tail also took on a paddle shape to increase swimming speed. The only remaining groups[35] of this order are the alligators and caimans; crocodiles; and gharials.

QMRChagas disease is a disease caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The disease is also known as American trypanosomiasis.[1] It is common in Central and South America. Carlos Chagas first described it in 1909. Humans are usually infected because they are bitten by a blood-sucking bug of the subfamily Triatominae. The disease can also be spread by blood transfusion, organ transplantation, or by eating food contaminated with the parasite. Pregnant women may spread it to the fetus. The disease has four stages. It can be cured by anti-parasitic drugs. Between eight and eleven million people may suffer from the disease, but many do not know they are infected. Strategies of controlling the disease are mostly focused on eliminating the insect vector, and on preventing contamination from other sources.

QMRSome diseases are caused by infection. Infection is when another organism gets into a person's body and causes harm. There are many kinds of infectious agents: viruses, bacteria, parasites, and fungus. These four kinds of infectious agents cause most infectious disease. There are other kinds though. For example mad cow disease (Bovine spongiform encephalopathy) is caused by prions. Prions are a form of virus that are basically abnormal clumps of proteins. We are not even sure that prions are alive. But they act just like other infectious diseases.

QMRAthlete's foot is divided into four categories or presentations: chronic interdigital athlete's foot, plantar (chronic scaly) athlete's foot (aka "moccasin foot"), acute ulcerative tinea pedis,[11] and vesiculobullous athlete's foot.[2][12][13] "Interdigital" means between the toes. "Plantar" here refers to the sole of the foot. The ulcerative condition includes macerated lesions with scaly borders.[11] Maceration is the softening and breaking down of skin due to extensive exposure to moisture. A vesiculobullous disease is a type of mucocutaneous disease characterized by vesicles and bullae (blisters). Both vesicles and bullae are fluid-filled lesions, and they are distinguished by size (vesicles being less than 5–10 mm and bulla being larger than 5–10 mm, depending upon what definition is used)

QMRAflatoxins are a type of mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus species of fungi, such as A. flavus and A. parasiticus.[8] The umbrella term aflatoxin refers to four different types of mycotoxins produced, which are B1, B2, G1, and G2.[9] Aflatoxin B1, the most toxic, is a potent carcinogen and has been directly correlated to adverse health effects, such as liver cancer, in many animal species.[8] Aflatoxins are largely associated with commodities produced in the tropics and subtropics, such as cotton, peanuts, spices, pistachios and maize.[8][9]

QMRDefects in lumber[edit] Defects occurring in lumber are grouped into the following four divisions: Conversion[edit] During the process of converting timber to commercial form the following defects may occur: Chip mark: this defect is indicated by the marks or signs placed by chips on the finished surface of timber Diagonal grain: improper sawing of timber Torn grain: when a small depression is made on the finished surface due to falling of some tool Wane: presence of original rounded surface in the finished product Defects due to fungi[edit] Fungi attack timber when these conditions are all present: The timber moisture content is above 25% on a dry-weight basis The environment is sufficiently warm Oxygen (O2) is present Wood with less than 25% moisture (dry weight basis) can remain free of decay for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water may not be attacked by fungi if the amount of oxygen is inadequate. Fungi timber defects: Blue stain Brown rot Dry rot Heart rot Sap stain Wet rot White rot Following are the insects which are usually responsible for the decay of timber: Woodboring beetles Marine borers (Barnea similis) Termites Carpenter ants Carpenter bees Natural forces[edit] Main article: wood warping There are two main natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber: abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Rupture of tissue includes cracks or splits in the wood called "shakes". "Ring shake", "wind shake", or "ring failure" is when the wood grain separates around the growth rings either while standing or during felling. Shakes may reduce the strength of a timber and the appearance thus reduce lumber grade and may capture moisture, promoting decay. Eastern hemlock is known for having ring shake.[21] A "check" is a crack on the surface of the wood caused by the outside of a timber shrinking as it seasons. Checks may extend to the pith and follow the grain. Like shakes, checks can hold water promoting rot. A "split" goes all the way through a timber. Checks and splits occur more frequently at the ends of lumber because of the more rapid drying in these locations.[21] Seasoning[edit] The seasoning of lumber is typically either kiln- or air-dried. Defects due to seasoning are the main cause of splinters and slivers.[citation

QMRFound largely in temperate and tropical climates, currently there are known more than 75 species[1] of bioluminescent fungi, all of which are members of the order Agaricales (Basidiomycota) with one exceptional ascomycete belonging to the order Xylariales.[2] All known bioluminescent Agaricales are mushroom-forming, white-spored agarics that belong to four distinct evolutionary lineages. The Omphalotus lineage (comprising the genera Omphalotus and Neonothopanus) contains 12 species, the Armillaria lineage has 10 known species, while the Mycenoid lineage (Mycena, Panellus, Prunulus, Roridomyces) has more than 50 species. The recently discovered Lucentipes lineage contains two species, Mycena lucentipes and Gerronema viridilucens, which belong to a family that has not yet been formally named.[3] Armillaria mellea is the most widely distributed of the luminescent fungi, found across Asia, Europe, North America, and South Africa.[4]

QMRTetrapod herbivores made their first appearance in the fossil record of their jaws near the Permio-Carboniferous boundary, approximately 300 million years ago. The earliest evidence of their herbivory has been attributed to dental occlusion, the process in which teeth from the upper jaw come in contact with teeth in the lower jaw is present. The evolution of dental occlusion led to a drastic increase in plant food processing and provides evidence about feeding strategies based on tooth wear patterns. Examination of phylogenetic frameworks of tooth and jaw morphologes has revealed that dental occlusion developed independently in several lineages tetrapod herbivores. This suggests that evolution and spread occurred simultaneously within various lineages.[12]

QMRThe Mares of Diomedes (Greek: Διομήδους ἵπποι), also called the Mares of Thrace, were four man-eating horses in Greek mythology. Magnificent, wild, and uncontrollable, they belonged to the giant Diomedes (not to be confused with Diomedes, son of Tydeus), king of Thrace, son of Ares and Cyrene who lived on the shores of the Black Sea. Bucephalus, Alexander the Great's horse, was said to be descended from these mares.

QMRThere are four folds of tissue of the vulva.

QMRIn April 2014, a team of scientists led by Anthony Atala reported that they had successfully transplanted laboratory-grown vaginas into four female teenaged girls with a rare medical condition called Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome that causes the vagina to develop improperly, or sometimes not at all.[7] Between 1 out of every 1,500 and 1 out of every 4,000 females are born with this condition.[1] The four patients began treatment between May 2005 and August 2008.[1] In each case, the medical research team began by taking a small sample of genital tissue from the teenager's vulva.[8] The sample was used as a seed to grow additional tissue in the lab which was then placed in a vaginal shaped, biodegradable mold.[7] Vaginal-lining cells were placed on the inside of the tube, while muscle cells were attached to the outside.[8] Five to six weeks later, the structure was implanted into the patients, where the tissue continued to grow and connected with the girls' circulatory and other bodily systems.[1][7] After about eight years, all four patients reported normal function and pleasure levels during sexual intercourse according to the Female Sexual Function Index questionnaire, a validated self-report tool. No adverse results or complications were reported.[1] In two of the four women, the vagina was attached to the uterus, making pregnancy possible. No pregnancies were reported, however, during the study period. Martin Birchall, who works on tissue engineering, but was not involved in the study, said it "addressed some of the most important questions facing translation of tissue engineering technologies."[8] Commentary published by the National Health Service (NHS) called the study "an important proof of concept" and said it showed that tissue engineering had "a great deal of potential."[1] However, the NHS also cautioned that the sample size was very small and further research was necessary to determine the general viability of the technique.[1] The laboratory-grown transplant technique could also be used on women who need reconstructive surgery due to cancer or other disease once the technique is perfected.[7] However, more studies will need to be conducted and the techniques further developed before commercial production can begin.[8]

QMRIn April 2014, a team of scientists led by Anthony Atala reported that they had successfully transplanted laboratory-grown vaginas into four female teenaged girls with a rare medical condition called Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome that causes the vagina to develop improperly, or sometimes not at all.[7] Between 1 out of every 1,500 and 1 out of every 4,000 females are born with this condition.[1] The four patients began treatment between May 2005 and August 2008.[1] In each case, the medical research team began by taking a small sample of genital tissue from the teenager's vulva.[8] The sample was used as a seed to grow additional tissue in the lab which was then placed in a vaginal shaped, biodegradable mold.[7] Vaginal-lining cells were placed on the inside of the tube, while muscle cells were attached to the outside.[8] Five to six weeks later, the structure was implanted into the patients, where the tissue continued to grow and connected with the girls' circulatory and other bodily systems.[1][7] After about eight years, all four patients reported normal function and pleasure levels during sexual intercourse according to the Female Sexual Function Index questionnaire, a validated self-report tool. No adverse results or complications were reported.[1] In two of the four women, the vagina was attached to the uterus, making pregnancy possible. No pregnancies were reported, however, during the study period. Martin Birchall, who works on tissue engineering, but was not involved in the study, said it "addressed some of the most important questions facing translation of tissue engineering technologies."[8] Commentary published by the National Health Service (NHS) called the study "an important proof of concept" and said it showed that tissue engineering had "a great deal of potential."[1] However, the NHS also cautioned that the sample size was very small and further research was necessary to determine the general viability of the technique.[1] The laboratory-grown transplant technique could also be used on women who need reconstructive surgery due to cancer or other disease once the technique is perfected.[7] However, more studies will need to be conducted and the techniques further developed before commercial production can begin.[8]

QMrFour actions are the basis of physical examination: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen), generally in that order although auscultation occurs prior to percussion and palpation for abdominal assessments

QMRThe human sexual response cycle is a four-stage model of physiological responses to sexual stimulation,[1] which, in order of their occurrence, are the excitement phase, plateau phase, orgasmic phase, and resolution phase. The cycle was first proposed by William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson in their 1966 book Human Sexual Response.[1][2] Since then, other human sexual response models have been formulated.

QMRDextromethorphan's effects have been divided into four plateaus. The first plateau (1.5 to 2.5 mg/kg) is described as having euphoria, auditory changes, and change in perception of gravity. The second plateau (2.5 to 7.5 mg/kg) causes intense euphoria, vivid imagination, and closed-eye hallucinations may occur. The third and fourth plateaus (600 mg, or 7.5 mg/kg and over) cause profound alterations in consciousness, and users often report out-of-body experiences or temporary psychosis.[9][10] Flanging (speeding up or slowing down) of sensory input is also a characteristic effect of recreational use.

QMRHow to Solve It (1945) is a small volume by mathematician George Pólya describing methods of problem solving.[1] Four principles[edit] How to Solve It suggests the following steps when solving a mathematical problem: First, you have to understand the problem.[2] After understanding, then make a plan.[3] Carry out the plan.[4] Look back on your work.[5] How could it be better? If this technique fails, Pólya advises:[6] "If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it." Or: "If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve first some related problem. Could you imagine a more accessible related problem?" First principle: Understand the problem[edit] "Understand the problem" is often neglected as being obvious and is not even mentioned in many mathematics classes. Yet students are often stymied in their efforts to solve it, simply because they don't understand it fully, or even in part. In order to remedy this oversight, Pólya taught teachers how to prompt each student with appropriate questions,[7] depending on the situation, such as: What are you asked to find or show?[8] Can you restate the problem in your own words? Can you think of a picture or a diagram that might help you understand the problem? Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution? Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem? Do you need to ask a question to get the answer? The teacher is to select the question with the appropriate level of difficulty for each student to ascertain if each student understands at their own level, moving up or down the list to prompt each student, until each one can respond with something constructive. Second principle: Devise a plan[edit] Pólya[9] mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems.[3] The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A partial list of strategies is included: Guess and check[10] Make an orderly list[11] Eliminate possibilities[12] Use symmetry[13] Consider special cases[14] Use direct reasoning Solve an equation[15] Also suggested: Look for a pattern[16] Draw a picture[17] Solve a simpler problem[18] Use a model[19] Work backward[20] Use a formula[21] Be creative[22] Use your head/noggin[23] Third principle: Carry out the plan[edit] This step is usually easier than devising the plan.[24] In general, all you need is care and patience, given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose another. Don't be misled; this is how mathematics is done, even by professionals. Fourth principle: Review/extend[edit] Pólya[25] mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at what you have done, what worked and what didn't.[26] Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy to use to solve future problems, if these relate to the original problem. Heuristics[edit] The book contains a dictionary-style set of heuristics, many of which have to do with generating a more accessible problem. For example: Heuristic Informal Description Formal analogue Analogy Can you find a problem analogous to your problem and solve that? Map Generalization Can you find a problem more general than your problem? Generalization Induction Can you solve your problem by deriving a generalization from some examples? Induction Variation of the Problem Can you vary or change your problem to create a new problem (or set of problems) whose solution(s) will help you solve your original problem? Search Auxiliary Problem Can you find a subproblem or side problem whose solution will help you solve your problem? Subgoal Here is a problem related to yours and solved before Can you find a problem related to yours that has already been solved and use that to solve your problem? Pattern recognition Pattern matching Reduction Specialization Can you find a problem more specialized? Specialization Decomposing and Recombining Can you decompose the problem and "recombine its elements in some new manner"? Divide and conquer Working backward Can you start with the goal and work backwards to something you already know? Backward chaining Draw a Figure Can you draw a picture of the problem? Diagrammatic Reasoning [27] Auxiliary Elements Can you add some new element to your problem to get closer to a solution? Extension The technique "have I used everything" is perhaps most applicable to formal educational examinations (e.g., n men digging m ditches) problems. The book has achieved "classic" status because of its considerable influence (see the next section). Other books on problem solving are often related to more creative and less concrete techniques. See lateral thinking, mind mapping, brainstorming, and creative problem solving. Influence[edit] It has been translated into several languages and has sold over a million copies, and has been continuously in print since its first publication. Marvin Minsky said in his paper Steps Toward Artificial Intelligence that "everyone should know the work of George Pólya on how to solve problems." [28] Pólya's book has had a large influence on mathematics textbooks as evidenced by the bibliographies for mathematics education.[29] Russian physicist Zhores I. Alfyorov, (Nobel laureate in 2000) praised it, saying he was very pleased with Pólya's famous book. Russian inventor Genrich Altshuller developed an elaborate set of methods for problem solving known as TRIZ, which in many aspects reproduces or parallels Pólya's work.

QMROld School: The Four Early Periods of Communication Study[edit] T

Psychology Chapter

QMRFour discourses is a concept developed by French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. He argued that there were four fundamental types of discourse. He defined four discourses, which he called Master, University, Hysteric and Analyst, and suggested that these relate dynamically to one another. Discourse of the Master – Struggle for mastery / domination / penetration. Based on Hegel's Master-slave dialectic Discourse of the University – Provision and worship of "objective" knowledge — usually in the unacknowledged service of some external master discourse. Discourse of the Hysteric – Symptoms embodying and revealing resistance to the prevailing master discourse. Discourse of the Analyst – Deliberate subversion of the prevailing master discourse. Lacan's theory of the four discourses was initially developed in 1969, perhaps in response to the events of social unrest during May 1968 in France, but also through his discovery of what he believed were deficiencies in the orthodox reading of the Oedipus Complex. The Four Discourses theory is presented in his seminar L'envers de la psychanalyse and in Radiophonie, where he starts using "discourse" as a social bond founded in intersubjectivity. He uses the term discourse to stress the transindividual nature of language: speech always implies another subject. Contents [hide] 1 Necessity of Formalising Psychoanalysis 2 Structure 3 Relevance for cultural studies 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Necessity of Formalising Psychoanalysis[edit] Prior to the development of the Four Discourses, the primary guideline for clinical psychoanalysis was the Oedipus Complex. In Lacan's Seminar of 1969-70, he argues that there was a major problem with the Oedipus complex, namely that the father is already castrated at the point of intervention, rendering the orthodox Freudian reading, where the father becomes a terrifying figure, a neurotic fantasy. Lacan's solution to the tendency of analysts to invoke their own imaginary readings and neurotic fantasies was to begin to formalise psychoanalytic theory, and express it in mathematical functions. This would ensure not only that a minimum of the teaching is lost when communicated, but also limit the associations of the analyst with the concepts employed. Structure[edit] Discourse, in the first place, refers to a point where speech and language intersect. The four discourses represent the four possible formulations of the symbolic network which social bonds can take and can be expressed as the permutations of a four-term configuration showing the relative positions — the agent, the other, the product and the truth — of four terms, the subject, the master signifier, knowledge and objet petit a. The four positions in each discourse are: Agent = Upper left. This is the speaker of the discourse. Other = Upper right. This is what the discourse is addressed to Product = Lower right. This is what the discourse has created Truth = Lower left. This is what the discourse attempted to express. The four variables which occupy these positions are: S1 = the master signifier S2 = knowledge (le savoir) $ = the subject (barred) a = the objet petit a or surplus-jouissance S1 refers to "the marked circle of the field of the Other," it is the Master-Signifier. S2 is the "battery of signifiers, already there" at the place where "one wants to determine the status of a discourse as status of statement," that is knowledge (savoir). S1 comes into play in a signifying battery conforming the network of knowledge. $ is the subject, marked by the unbroken line (trait unaire) which represents it and is different from the living individual who is not the locus of this subject. Add the objet petit a, the object-waste or the loss of the object that occurred when the originary division of the subject took place — the object that is the cause of desire: the plus-de-jouir. Discourse of the Master: It is the basic discourse from which the other three derive. The dominant position is occupied by the master signifier, S1, which represents the subject, S, for all other signifiers: S2. In this signifying operation there is a surplus: objet a. All attempts at totalisation are doomed to fail. This discourse masks the division of the subject, it illustrates the structure of the dialectic of the master and the slave. The master, S1, is the agent who puts the slave, S2, to work: the result is a surplus, objet a, that the master struggles to appropriate. Discourse of the University: It is caused by an anticlockwise quarter turn of the previous discourse. The dominant position is occupied by knowledge (savoir). An attempt to mastery can be traced behind the endeavors to impart neutral knowledge: domination of the other to whom knowledge is transmitted. This hegemony is visible in modernity with science. Discourse of the Hysteric: It is effected by a clockwise quarter turn of the discourse of the master. It is not simply "that which is uttered by the hysteric," but a certain kind of articulation in which any subject may be inscribed. The divided subject, $, the symptom, is in the pole position. This discourse points toward knowledge. "The cure involves the structural introduction of the discourse of the hysteric by way of artificial conditions": the analyst hystericizes the analysand's discourse. Discourse of the Analyst: It is produced by a quarter turn of the discourse of the hysteric in the same way as Freud develops psychoanalysis by giving an interpretative turn to the discourse of his hysterical patients. The position of the agent — the analyst — is occupied by objet a: the analyst becomes the cause of the analysand's desire. This discourse being the reverse of the discourse of the master, does it make psychoanalysis an essentially subversive practice which undermines attempts at domination and mastery? Relevance for cultural studies[edit] Slavoj Žižek uses the theory to explain various cultural artefacts, including Don Giovanni and Parsifal. Discourse Don Giovanni Parsifal Characteristics Master Don Ottavio Amfortas inauthentic, inconsistent University Leporello Klingsor inauthentic, consistent Hysteric Donna Elvira Kundry authentic, inconsistent Analyst Donna Anna Parsifal authentic, consistent

QMR Kirk Boyle. "The Four Fundamental Concepts of Slavoj Žižek’s Psychoanalytic Marxism." International Journal of Žižek Studies. Vol 2.1. (link) ^ Jump up to: a b

QMrSelf-regulation theory (SRT) is a system of conscious personal management that involves the process of guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors, and feelings to reach goals. Self-regulation consists of several stages, and individuals must function as contributors to their own motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences. Roy Baumeister, one of the leading social psychologists who have studied self-regulation, claims it has four components: standards of desirable behavior, motivation to meet standards, monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards, and lastly, willpower.[1] Baumeister along with other colleagues developed three models of self-regulation designed to explain its cognitive accessibility: self-regulation as a knowledge structure, strength, or skill. Studies have been done to determine that the strength model is generally supported, because it is a limited resource in the brain and only a given amount of self-regulation can occur until that resource is depleted.[2] SRT can be applied to impulse control, management of short-term desires, cognitive bias of illusion of control, pain, goal attainment and motivation, or illness behavior, and failure can be explained by either under- or mis-regulation. Self-regulation has gained a lot of attention from researchers, psychologists, and educators, which has allowed it to grow and supplement many other components. It has been through the help of the several contributors to make it a relatable concept that has the ability to improve emotional well-being, achievement, initiative, and optimism.

Sociology Chapter

QMRThe G4 nations comprising Brazil, Germany, India, and Japan are four countries which support each other’s bids for permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Unlike the G7, where the common denominator is the economy and long-term political motives, the G4's primary aim is the permanent member seats on the Security Council. Each of these four countries have figured among the elected non-permanent members of the council since the UN's establishment. Their economic and political influence has grown significantly in the last decades, reaching a scope comparable to the permanent members (P5). However, the G4's bids are often opposed by Uniting for Consensus movement, and particularly their economic competitors or political rivals.[1]

QMRThe Russian apartment bombings were a series of explosions that hit four apartment blocks in the Russian cities of Buynaksk, Moscow and Volgodonsk in September 1999, killing 293 and injuring more than 1000 people and spreading a wave of fear across the country. The bombings, together with the Dagestan War, led the country into the Second Chechen War.

QMRIn 1989 South Korea's four largest dailies, Hankook Ilbo, Joongang Ilbo, Chosun Ilbo, and Donga Ilbo, had a combined circulation of more than 6.5 million. The anti-establishment The Hankyoreh, had 450,000 readers–less than the major dailies or smaller papers like Kyonghan Shinmun or Seoul Shinmun, but larger than four more specialised economic dailies. All the major dailies were privately owned, except for the government- controlled Hankook Ilbo. Several other daily publications had specialised readerships among sport fans and youth. Two English-language newspapers, the government-subsidised Korea Herald and the Korea Times, which was affiliated with the independent Soul simmun, were widely read by foreign embassies and businesses. A Chinese-language daily served South Korea's small Chinese population. '

QMRHikone Castle (彦根城 Hikone-jō?) is a Japanese Edo-period castle in the city of Hikone, in Shiga Prefecture. It is considered the most significant historical building in Shiga. Hikone is one of only 12 Japanese castles with the original keep, and one of only four castles listed as a national treasure.

QMRHikone Castle (彦根城 Hikone-jō?) is a Japanese Edo-period castle in the city of Hikone, in Shiga Prefecture. It is considered the most significant historical building in Shiga. Hikone is one of only 12 Japanese castles with the original keep, and one of only four castles listed as a national treasure.

QMRFour of Japan's castles (Hikone, Himeji, Inuyama, and Matsumoto) are National Treasures.

QMrWakatobi is an acronym for the four main islands of Wangi-Wangi, Kaledupa, Tomia, and Binongko that, together with smaller islands, comprise the Tukang Besi Archipelago at the southeastern tip of Sulawesi. The archipelago is renowned for the diversity of its spectacular coral gardens. Wakatobi’s 3.4 million acres of islands and waters were declared a national park in 1996. The ethnically diverse human population strives to make the area a learning laboratory in areas such as fisheries and agriculture.

QMrSiberut is the largest in the chain of four Mentawai Islands situated off the west coast of Sumatra. It has been isolated from the Sumatra mainland and the Sunda shelf for at least 500,000 years, resulting in an exceptionally high degree of endemism. 65% of the animals are though to be endemic. Lowland dipterocarp rain forest is the principal ecosystem.

QMRLocated in Bagan Historic city, Myazedi quadrilingual stone inscription is the oldest Myanmar Language inscription documenting the Myanmar history, religion and culture in 12th century A.D. The document is an inscription in four languages, Pyu, Mon, Myanmar and Pali, on each of the four sides.

QMrThe four tugging rituals and games are Lbaoz~ Teanh Pro (Cambodia), Punnuk (Philippines), GamnaeGe-juldarigi (South Korea), and Tro chui va Nglzi ti keo eo (Vietnam). Tugging rituals and games in the rice-farming cultures of East Asia and Southeast Asia are enacted among communities to ensure abundant harvests and prosperity. They promote social solidarity, provide entertainment and mark the start of a new agricultural cycle. Many tugging rituals and games also have profound religious significance. Most variations include two teams, each of which pulls one end of a rope attempting to tug it from the other. The intentionally uncompetitive nature of the event removes the emphasis on winning or losing, affirming that these traditions are performed to promote the well-being of the community, and reminding members of the importance of cooperation. Many tugging games bear the traces of agricultural rituals, symbolizing the strength of natural forces, such as the sun and rain while also incorporating mythological elements or purification rites. Tugging rituals and games are often organized in front of a village’s communal house or shrine, preceded by commemorative rites to local protective deities. Village elders play active roles in leading and organizing younger people in playing the game and holding accompanying rituals. Tugging rituals and games also serve to strengthen unity and solidarity and sense of belonging and identity among community members.

QMRIn the provinces of Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang in northern Viet Nam, many of the villages are twinned, reinforcing their relationship through social customs such as Quan họ Bắc Ninh folk songs. The songs are performed as alternating verses between two women from one village who sing in harmony, and two men from another village who respond with similar melodies, but with different lyrics. The women traditionally wear distinctive large round hats and scarves; the men’s costumes include turbans, umbrellas and tunics. The more than 400 song lyrics, sung with 213 different melody variations, express people’s emotional states of longing and sadness upon separation, and the happiness of the meeting of lovers, but custom forbids marrying a singing partner. Quan họ singing is common at rituals, festivals, competitions and informal gatherings, where guests will perform a variety of verses for their hosts before singing farewell. Younger musicians of both sexes may practice the four singing techniques – restrained, resonant, ringing and staccato – at parties organized around singing. Quan họ songs express the spirit, philosophy and local identity of the communities in this region, and help forge social bonds within and between villages that share a cherished cultural practice.

QMrThe Miagao Church also known as the Sto. Tomas de Villanueva Parish Church is a Roman catholic church located in Miagao, Iloilo, Philippines. It was also called the Miagao Fortress Church since it served as defensive tower of the town against Muslim raids. The church was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on December 11, 1993 together with San Agustin Church in Manila; Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion Church in Santa Maria, Ilocos Sur; and San Agustin Church in Paoay, Ilocos Norte under the collective title Baroque Churches of the Philippines, a collection of four Baroque Spanish-era churches.[1]

QMrThe Church of Our Lady of the Assumption (Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion), commonly known as the Santa Maria Church is the parish church of Santa Maria in Ilocos Sur province, Philippines. The church was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on December 11, 1993 as part of the Baroque Churches of the Philippines, a collection of four Baroque Spanish-era churches.[2]

QMRSan Agustin Church (Spanish: Iglesia de la Inmaculada Concepción de María de San Agustín) is a Roman Catholic church under the auspices of The Order of St. Augustine, located inside the historic walled city of Intramuros in Manila. In 1993, San Agustin Church was one of four Philippine churches constructed during the Spanish colonial period to be designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, under the collective title Baroque Churches of the Philippines.[1] It was named a National Historical Landmark by the Philippine government in 1976.[2]

QMRvThe Baroque Churches of the Philippines is the official designation to a collection of four Spanish-era churches in the Philippines, upon its inscription to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2003. [1] They are also one of the most treasured in the Country.[2] The collection is composed of the following: San Agustin Church in Manila Santa Maria Church in Santa Maria, Ilocos Sur Paoay Church in Paoay, Ilocos Norte Miagao Church in Miag-ao, Iloilo These churches have been at the forefront of Philippine history, not just in furthering Christianity in the archipelago, but in serving as the political backbone of Spanish colonial rule, when Church and State were regarded as one. The unique architecture of the churches did not just reflect the adaptation of Spanish/Latin American architecture to the local environment (including the fusion with Chinese motifs), but also of the Church's political influence. These churches had been subject to attacks by local revolts and rebellions, hence, most had the appearance of a fortress, rather than just serving as mere religious structures. This is especially noteworthy in the case of Santa Maria Church, located on top of a hill, serving as a citadel during times of crisis. Miag-ao Church also withstood the occasional attacks of Muslims from the south. Further, the location of the Philippines along the Pacific Ring of Fire called for the emphasis on the buttresses and foundations of these churches, with some being seriously damaged, but eventually rebuilt after an earthquake.

QMRInverquharity Castle is a 15th-century tower house in Angus, Scotland. It lies around 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) north-east of Kirriemuir near the River South Esk. The lands of Inverquharity came to the Ogilvie family around 1420. The castle was first constructed as a rectangular tower in the 1440s, by Alexander Ogilvie, 2nd Lord Inverquharity. In the 16th century a wing was added to form a four-storey L-plan castle.

QMrMichael Maier in his book, the Atalanta Fugiens (1617)[18] writes the following remark about the Sphinx's riddle, in which he states that the solution is the Philosopher's Stone: Sphinx is indeed reported to have had many Riddles, but this offered to Oedipus was the chief, "What is that which in the morning goeth upon four feet; upon two feet in the afternoon; and in the Evening upon three?" What was answered by Oedipus is not known. But they who interpret concerning the Ages of Man are deceived. For a Quadrangle of Four Elements are of all things first to be considered, from thence we come to the Hemisphere having two lines, a Right and a Curve, that is, to the White Luna; from thence to the Triangle which consists of Body, Soul and Spirit, or Sol, Luna and Mercury. Hence Rhasis in his Epistles, "The Stone," says he, "is a Triangle in its essence, a Quadrangle in its quality."

QMrIxkun is a large site containing many unrestored mounds and ruins and is the best known archaeological site within the municipality of Dolores.[13] It was the capital of one of the four largest kingdoms in the upper Mopan Valley.[14] Stela 1 at Ixkun is one of the tallest stone monuments in the entire Petén Basin.[15] Although the main period of activity was during the Late Classic Period, the site was occupied from the Late Preclassic right through to the Postclassic Period.

Four periods of Alamgirpur respectively belonged to (I) Harappan, (II) Painted Grey Ware (III) Early historical and (IV) Late Medieval Period.[2]

On excavation, the site showed four cultural periods with interevning breaks; the earliest of them represented by a thickness of 6 feet, belonged to Harappan Culture. Although kiln burnt bricks were in evidence, no structure of this period was found, probably due to the limited nature of the excavations. Brick sizes were, 11.25 to 11.75 in. in length,5.25 to 6.25 in. in breadth and 2.5 to 2.75 in.in thickness; larger bricks averaged 14 in. x 8 in.x 4 in. which were used in furnace only.[2]

QMRAlamgirpur (Hindi: अलाम्गिरपुर) is an archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization that thrived along Yamuna River (c. 3300–1300 BC) from the Harappan-Bara period, located in Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh, India.[1][2] It is the eastern most site of the civilization.

The tomb was found in relatively good condition compared to the other tombs of Amarna. After the death of Akhenaten, depictions of his rule and religion were destroyed because they were considered to be heretical. In Meryra’s tomb, Akhenaten and Nefertiti’s features have been consistently erased. The desecration is confined to these individuals, and the names and figures of the princesses remain untouched. The tomb consists of four sections: the antechamber, the hall of columns, a second hall, and the shrine. The entrance to the tomb was originally decorated with inscriptions to the Amarna Royal family and the Aten. These decorations have either been destroyed, or are hidden by the modern doors protecting the tomb entrance. The antechamber itself shows Meryre offering prayers to the Akhenaten, and the cartouches of the king, Nefertiti and the Aten. The door jambs are inscribed with funerary prayers for Akhenaten and the Aten. The entrance from the antechamber to the outer hall is decorated with the Short Hymn to the Aten, and shows Meryre's wife Tenre making offerings to the sun-disc.

QMRThe Tomb of Meryra is part of a group of tombs located near Amarna, Egypt. Placed in the mountainsides, the tombs are divided into north and south groupings; the northern tombs are located in the hillsides and the southern on the plains. Meryra’s tomb, identified as Amarna Tomb 4 is located in the northern cluster. The tomb is the largest and most elaborate of the noble tombs of Amarna. It, along with the majority of these tombs, was never completed.[1] The rock cut tombs of Amarna were constructed specifically for the officials of King Akhenaten. Norman de Garis Davies originally published details of the Tomb in 1926 in the Rock Tombs of El Amarna, Part I – the Tomb of Meryra. The tomb dates back to the 18th Egyptian Dynasty.

QMRBy the 1330s, three of the four major khanates of the Mongol Empire had become Muslim.[6] These were the Golden Horde, Hulagu's Ulus and Chagatai's Ulus. The Yuan Empire also embraced Muslim peoples such as the Persians.

QMRThe Golden Horde's elites were descended from four Mongol clans, Qiyat, Manghut, Sicivut and Qonqirat. Their supreme ruler was the Khan, chosen by the kurultai among Batu Khan's descendants. The prime minister, also ethnically Mongol, was known as "prince of princes", or beklare-bek. The ministers were called viziers. Local governors, or basqaqs, were responsible for levying taxes and dealing with popular discontent. Civil and military administration, as a rule, were not separate.

QMRGenghis Khan assigned four Mongol mingghans: the Sanchi'ud (or Salji'ud), Keniges, Uushin, and Je'ured clans to Jochi.[80] By the beginning of the 14-th century, noyans from the Sanchi'ud, Hongirat, Ongud (Arghun), Keniges, Jajirad, Besud, Oirat, and Je'ured clans held importants positions at the court or elsewehere. There existed four mingghans (4,000) of the Jalayir in the left wing of the Ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde).

QMRMongol origins (1225–1241) Main articles: Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria, Mongol invasion of Rus' and Mongol Empire At his death in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons as appanages, but the Empire remained united under the supreme khan.

QMRAfter seizing control of Outer Mongolia, the Qing government grouped Khalkha khoshuns into 4 aimags (province): Tusiyetu Khan aimag, Zasaghtu Khan aimag, Secen Khan aimag and Sain Noyan Khan aimag. In addition, the territories populated by Oirats in the Kobdo region were grouped into Togs Huleg Dalai Khan aimag and Unen Zorigtu Khan aimag. Aimags were governed by aimag congress chigulgan comprising the lords of the khoshuns. The chigulgan daruga (чуулган дарга - official presiding the congress) was appointed from the khoshun lords by the Qing government.

QMRAn aimag (Mongolian: Аймаг, Ayimagh.svg [æːmɑ̆ɡ̊]), originally a Mongolian and Turkic word meaning "tribe", is an administrative subdivision in Mongolia and in Inner Mongolia (China). Mongolia[edit] Main article: Provinces of Mongolia In Mongolia, an aimag is the first-level administrative subdivision. The country currently has 21 aimags. The capital Ulan Bator is administrated as an independent municipality. During the Qing Dynasty, Khalkha was subdivided into four aimags (Setsen Khan Aimag, Tüsheet Khan Aimag, Sain Noyon Khan Aimag and Zasagt Khan Aimag). An aimag was further subdivided into "banners" (khoshuu). Each aimag had an assembly of the local nobility, commonly named "league" in English (chuulga in Mongolian). This administrative structure was kept until 1930, when the current structure with smaller aimags, subdivided into sums, was introduced.

QMRErdeni Batur Hongtaiji of the Dzungar Khanate convened a congress of Western Mongolian Dzungars and Khalkas in 1640 to ally their forces in struggle against increasing foreign aggression. The congress issued a Khalkha-Oirat Law called the "Great Code of the Forty and the Four" or "Mongol-Oirat Code" (Döchin Dörben Hoyar un Ike Tsagaza). The Congress was attended by 28 rulers from Dzungaria, Khalkha, Kukunor, and Kalmykia. Tushiyetu Khan Gombodorji and Secen Khan Sholoi were engaged in a conflict with the Manchu Qing dynasty siding with Tenggis Taiji of Inner Mongolia who revolted against Qing rule in 1646.

QMRKhamag Mongol (Mongolian: Хамаг монгол, lit. "Whole Mongol") was a major Mongolic tribal confederation (khanlig) on the Mongolian Plateau in the 12th century. It is sometimes also considered a predecessor state[1] to the Mongol Empire.[2] Existence of a somewhat mysterious tribal power known in Mongol tradition as Khamag Mongol Uls recorded in sources of Khitan Liao dynasty (907-1125) in North China and eastern Mongolia.[3] After the fall of Liao dynasty in 1125, the Khamag Mongols began to play an important role on the Mongolian plains.[4] They occupied one of the most fertile lands of the country, the basins of the river Onon, Kherlen and Tuul Rivers in the Khentii Mountains. The Taichiud (Cyrillic: Тайчууд) was one of the three core tribes in the Khamag Mongol Khanate of Mongolia during the 12th century and whose people lived in the southern part of Russian Zabaykalsky Krai. Zabaykalsky Krai and the Mongolian Khentii Province were core regions of the Khamag Mongol Khanate.[5] The Khamags consisted of the four core clans Khiyad, Taichuud, Jalairs and Jirukhen.

QMRThe Dörbet (Mongolian: Дөрвөд, Dörvöd, ᠳᠥᠷᠪᠡᠳ, lit. "the Fours"; Chinese: 杜尔伯特部; pinyin: Dù'ěrbótè Bù also known in English as the Derbet) is the second largest subgroup of Mongol people in modern Mongolia and was formerly one of the major tribes of the Four Oirat confederation in the 15th-18th centuries. In early times, the Dörbet and the Dzungars were ruled by collateral branches of the Choros. The Dörbets are distributed among the western provinces of Mongolia, Kalmykia, and in a small portion in Heilongjiang, China. In modern-day Mongolia, the Dörbets are centered in Uvs Province. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Number 3 Notable people 4 References History[edit] A Dörben clan of Duwa Sohor's four sons existed within the Khamag Mongol confederation in the 12th century; but their relation with the Dörbets is unclear. However, the Dörbets appeared in the early 15th century as part of the Four Oirats.The name probably means "döröv"; "four" (Middle Mongolian: dörbe).

QMRThe Four Oirat (Dorben Oirad), also known as the Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes or the Oirat confederation (Oirads; Mongolian: Дөрвөн Ойрад; in the past, also Eleuths), was the confederation of the Oirat tribes, which marked the rise of the Western Mongols in Mongolian history. Despite the universal currency of the term "Four Oirat" among Eastern Mongols[disambiguation needed] and Oirats and numerous explanations by historians, no consensus has been reached on the identity of the original four tribes. While it is believed that the term Four Oirats refers to the Choros, Torghut, Dorbet and Khoid tribes,[2] there is a theory that the Oirats were not consanguineous units but political-ethnic units, composed of many patrilineages.[3]

QMRThe establishment of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) by Kublai Khan accelerated the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire fractured into four khanates including the Yuan dynasty in China and Mongolia, and the three western khanates, i.e. the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate and the Ilkhanate, although later Yuan emperors were seen as the nominal suzerains of the western khanates.

QMrSOCCSKSARGEN[2] (pronounced [sokˈsardʒɛn]) is a region of the Philippines, located in central Mindanao. It is designated as Region XII. The name is an acronym that stands for the region's four provinces and one of its cities: South Cotabato, Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Sarangani and General Santos. The region used to be called Central Mindanao. The regional center is Koronadal located in the province of South Cotabato and the center of commerce, industry, transportation and the most populous city is General Santos.

QMrSouth Africa is divided into nine provinces. On the eve of the 1994 general election, South Africa's former homelands, also known as Bantustans, were reintegrated and the four existing provinces were divided into nine. The twelfth, thirteenth and sixteenth amendments to the constitution changed the borders of seven of the provinces. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Government 3 Current provinces 4 Former administrative divisions 5 See also 6 References History[edit] The provinces at the creation of the Union in 1910 The Union of South Africa was established in 1910 by combining four British colonies: the Cape Colony, the Natal Colony, the Transvaal Colony and the Orange River Colony. (The latter two were, before the Second Boer War, independent republics known as the South African Republic and the Orange Free State.) These colonies became the four original provinces of the Union: Cape Province, Transvaal Province, Natal Province and Orange Free State Province. Provinces and homelands, as they were at the end of apartheid Segregation of the black population started as early as 1913, with ownership of land by the black majority being restricted to certain areas totalling about 13% of the country. From the late 1950s, these areas were gradually consolidated into "homelands", also called "bantustans". Four of these homelands were established as quasi-independent nation states of the black population during the apartheid era. In 1976, the homeland of Transkei was the first to accept independence from South Africa, and although this independence was never acknowledged by any other country, three other homelands — Bophuthatswana (1977), Venda (1979) and Ciskei (1981) — followed suit. On 27 April 1994, the date of the first non-racial elections and of the adoption of the Interim Constitution, all of these provinces and homelands were dissolved, and nine new provinces were established.

QMROne version of the Four Provinces Flag of Ireland. Clockwise from top right, its quarters are the flags of Connacht, Leinster, Ulster, and Munster. The placement of the provinces varies from flag to flag.

The four regions are The Andes River Plate The Pampas The Chaco Location and they are each represented by a statue

QMRThe Monument to the Carta Magna and Four Regions of Argentina located in the intersection of Del Libertador and Sarmiento Avenues, a landmark in the Palermo neighbourhood of Buenos Aires, Argentina. They might commonly refer to as the "Monument of the Spanish" At its top is a symbolic statue of the republic with allegoric marble representations of labor and work at its base, and bronze figures that represent the Andes, Pampa, Chaco and de la Plata regions. Its inscriptions include a fragment of the Argentine constitution that proclaims freedom for the country and for any person in the world who wishes the make Argentina their home and also four statements that proclaim the brotherhood of Argentina and Spain, their people, their language and their destiny.

QMREcuador is geographically divided into four distinct natural regions: The Galapagos Islands, the Coastal Lowlands (La Costa), the Andean Highlands (La Sierra), and the Amazon Rainforest (El Oriente). The backbone of the country is the Andes mountain range, which traverses the country from north to south and divides Ecuador into the western coastal lowlands and the eastern jungles of the higher Amazon. Though you could theoretically visit all four regions in one day, to truly experience any one of these areas requires you to stay a while.

QMrScotland was traditionally divided into four regions: The Highlands, Lowland, Islay, and Campbeltown.[

QMRThe four regions of Papua New Guinea are its broadest scale administrative divisions. While the twenty two province-level divisions are the primary administrative divisions of the country, the regions are quite significant in daily life, as they are often the basis for organisation of government services (such as police), corporate operations, sporting competitions, and even the machinations of politics. Overview[edit] For instance, there has been much discussion over the years of how many Prime Ministers have come from each region, and whether a particular region is due to provide the next one. Ministers and departmental heads are often appointed with an eye to maintaining an overall balance between the regions. Regions[edit] People generally identify quite strongly with their region, and inter-region rivalries can be intense. The four regions are: Highlands Region: Chimbu (Simbu), Eastern Highlands, Enga, Hela, Jiwaka, Southern Highlands, and Western Highlands. Islands Region: Bougainville (North Solomons), East New Britain, Manus, New Ireland, and West New Britain. Momase Region: East Sepik, Madang, Morobe, and Sandaun (West Sepik). Papua Region: Central, Gulf, Milne Bay, Oro (Northern), Western (Fly River), and the National Capital District (Port Moresby). Momase is a recently devised portmanteau word which combines the first two letters of Morobe, Madang, and Sepik.

QMRSwaziland is divided into four districts. These regions are subdivided into 55 tinkhundla. These, in turn, are divided into imiphakatsi.

QMrCultural regions of Latvia are several areas within Latvia formally recognised as distinct from the rest of the country. While some of these regions are seen purely as culturally distinct, others have historically been parts of different countries and have been used to divide the country for administrative and other purposes. The Constitution of Latvia recognises four distinct regions: Kurzeme, Zemgale, Latgale and Vidzeme.[1]

QMRGuinea is divided into four natural regions with distinct human, geographic, and climatic characteristics: Maritime Guinea (La Guinée Maritime) covers 18% of the country Middle Guinea (La Moyenne-Guinée) covers 20% of the country Upper Guinea (La Haute-Guinée) covers 38% of the country Forested Guinea (Guinée Forestière) covers 23% of the country, and is both forested and mountainous

QMRThe regions of Uganda are known as Central, Western, Eastern, and Northern. These four regions are in turn divided into districts. There were 56 districts in 2002,[1] which expanded into 111 districts plus one city (Kampala) by 2010.[2]

QMRThe Republic of Croatia is administratively organised into twenty counties, and is also traditionally divided into four historical and cultural regions: Croatia proper, Dalmatia, Slavonia, and Istria.[1] These are further divided into other, smaller regions.

QMRIn January 2004, Egyptian politicians wrote legislation for a “Four Freedoms Agreement,” which would grant both Sudanese and Egyptians the freedom of movement, residence, ownership and work in either country. It would allow Sudanese nationals to enter Egypt without a visa to live indefinitely in Egypt without any special permits and no longer have to seek refugee status to remain in the country. The agreement would not enable Sudanese refugees to benefit from educational, medical, or social benefits entitled to native citizens. However, as of 2009, the agreement has yet to be ratified by the Egyptian government.[20]

From the hypostyle hall, one enters the second pillared hall, which has four pillars decorated with beautiful scenes of offerings to the gods. There are depictions of Ramesses and Nefertari with the sacred boats of Amun and Ra-Harakhti. This hall gives access to a transverse vestibule in the middle of which is the entrance to the sanctuary. Here, on a black wall, are rock cut sculptures of four seated figures: Ra-Horakhty, the deified king Ramesses, and the gods Amun Ra and Ptah. Ra-Horakhty, Amun Ra and Ptah were the main divinities in that period and their cult centers were at Heliopolis, Thebes and Memphis respectively.[6]

QMR In the Abu Simbel templesFour colossal 20 meter statues of the pharaoh with the double Atef crown of Upper and Lower Egypt decorate the facade of the temple, which is 35 meters wide and is topped by a frieze with 22 baboons, worshippers of the sun and flank the entrance.[7] The colossal statues were sculptured directly from the rock in which the temple was located before it was moved. All statues represent Ramesses II, seated on a throne and wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt. The statue to the left of the entrance was damaged in an earthquake, leaving only the lower part of the statue still intact. The head and torso can still be seen at the statue's feet.

Qms I already did this one but I want to show it to you all again. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (福島第一原子力発電所事故 Fukushima Dai-ichi (About this sound pronunciation) genshiryoku hatsudensho jiko?) was an energy accident at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, initiated primarily by the tsunami that was triggered by the Tōhoku earthquake on 11 March 2011.[6] The damage caused by the tsunami produced equipment failures, and without this equipment a loss-of-coolant accident followed, resulting in three nuclear meltdowns and the release of radioactive material beginning on 12 March.[7] It is the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of 1986 and the second disaster (after Chernobyl) to be given the Level 7 event classification of the International Nuclear Event Scale.[8] Image on 16 March 2011 of the four damaged reactor buildings. From right to left: Unit 1, 2, 3 and 4. Hydrogen-air explosions occurred in Unit 1, 3 and 4, causing structural damage. A vent in Unit 2's wall, with water vapor/"steam" clearly visible, prevented a similar large explosion. Drone overflights on 20 March captured clearer images.[1]

QMrThe Pike River Mine disaster was a coal mining accident that began on 19 November 2010 in the Pike River Mine, 46 kilometres (29 mi) northeast of Greymouth, in the West Coast Region of New Zealand's South Island. A methane explosion occurred in the mine at approximately 3:44 pm (NZDT, UTC+13). At the time of the explosion 31 miners and contractors were present in the mine. Two miners managed to walk from the mine; they were treated for moderate injuries and released from Greymouth Hospital the next day. The remaining 16 miners and 13 contractors,[2] often referred to as the twenty-nine,[3] were believed to be at least 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) from the mine's entrance.[4] Following a second explosion on 24 November at 2:37 pm, the 29 remaining men were believed by police to be dead.[5] Police Superintendent Gary Knowles, officer in command of the rescue operation (Operation Pike) said he believed that "based on that explosion, no one survived."[6] A third explosion occurred at 3:39 pm on 26 November 2010,[7] and a fourth explosion occurred just before 2 pm on 28 November 2010.[8] According to the new mine owner, Solid Energy, the bodies of the 29 miners who died there may never be recovered.[9]

QMrThe 2004 Madrid train bombings (also known in Spain as 11-M) were nearly simultaneous, coordinated bombings against the Cercanías commuter train system of Madrid, Spain, on the morning of 11 March 2004 – three days before Spain's general elections. The explosions killed 191 people and injured more than 1,800.[1] The official investigation by the Spanish judiciary found that the attacks were directed by an al-Qaeda-inspired terrorist cell,[3][4] although no direct al-Qaeda participation has been established.[5][6][7] Though they had no role in the planning or implementation, the Spanish miners who sold the explosives to the terrorists were also arrested.[8][9][10] During the peak of Madrid rush hour on the morning of Thursday, 11 March 2004, ten explosions occurred aboard four commuter trains (cercanías).[26] The date led to the popular abbreviation of the incident as "11-M". All the affected trains were traveling on the same line and in the same direction between Alcalá de Henares and the Atocha station in Madrid. It was later reported that thirteen improvised explosive devices (IEDs) had been placed on the trains. Bomb disposal teams (TEDAX) arriving at the scenes of the explosions detonated two of the remaining three IEDs in controlled explosions, but the third was not found until later in the evening, having been stored inadvertently with luggage taken from one of the trains. The following time-line of events comes from the judicial investigation.[27] All four trains had departed the Alcalá de Henares station between 07:01 and 07:14. The explosions took place between 07:37 and 07:40, as described below (all timings given are in local time CET, UTC +1): Atocha Station (train number 21431) – Three bombs exploded. Based on the video recording from the station security system, the first bomb exploded at 07:37, and two others exploded within 4 seconds of each other at 07:38.``I saw bodies flying, he said. ``There was a security guard dripping with blood. People were pushing and running. I saw a woman who had fallen on the tracks because people were pushing so hard. I escaped with my life by a hair. El Pozo del Tío Raimundo Station (train number 21435) – At approximately 07:38, just as the train was starting to leave the station, two bombs exploded in different carriages. Santa Eugenia Station (train number 21713) – One bomb exploded at approximately 07:38. Calle Téllez (train number 17305), approximately 800 meters from Atocha Station – Four bombs exploded in different carriages of the train at approximately 07:39. At 08:00, emergency relief workers began arriving at the scenes of the bombings. The police reported numerous victims and spoke of 50 wounded and several dead. By 08:30 the emergency ambulance service, SAMUR (Servicio de Asistencia Municipal de Urgencia y Rescate), had set up a field hospital at the Daoiz y Velarde sports facility. Bystanders and local residents helped relief workers, as hospitals were told to expect the arrival of many casualties. At 08:43, firefighters reported 15 dead at El Pozo. By 09:00, the police had confirmed the death of at least 30 people – 20 at El Pozo and about 10 in Santa Eugenia and Atocha. People combed the city's major hospitals in search of family members who they thought were aboard the trains.

QMrThe Russian apartment bombings were a series of explosions that hit four apartment blocks in the Russian cities of Buynaksk, Moscow and Volgodonsk in September 1999, killing 293 and injuring more than 1000 people and spreading a wave of fear across the country. The bombings, together with the Dagestan War, led the country into the Second Chechen War.

QMR I talked about these train bombings and how they fit the quadrant model a long time ago. Years ago before I was in Kauai. In the quadrant model the fourth is always different. Like in the September 11 attack there were four planes and the fourth one was different, hitting the ground. The 7 July 2005 London bombings (often referred to as 7/7) were a series of coordinated terrorist suicide bomb attacks in central London which targeted civilians using the public transport system during the morning rush hour. On the morning of Thursday, 7 July 2005, four Islamist extremists separately detonated three bombs in quick succession aboard London Underground trains across the city and, later, a fourth on a double-decker bus in Tavistock Square. Fifty-two civilians were killed and over 700 more were injured in the attacks, the United Kingdom's worst terrorist incident since the 1988 Lockerbie bombing as well as the country's first ever Islamist suicide attack. The explosions were caused by homemade organic peroxide-based devices packed into backpacks. The bombings were followed two weeks later by a series of attempted attacks that failed to cause injury or damage. The 7 July attacks occurred the day after London had won its bid to host the 2012 Olympic Games, which had highlighted the city's multicultural reputation.[1] Attacks[edit] 2005 London bombings Main articles Timeline of the 2005 London bombings 7 July 2005 London bombings 21 July 2005 London bombings Jean Charles de Menezes Reactions to the 2005 London bombings 21 July 2005 London bombings trial 7 July bombers Mohammad Sidique Khan · Shehzad Tanweer Germaine Lindsay · Hasib Hussain 21 July bombers Yasin Hassan Omar · Osman Hussain Muktar Said Ibrahim · Ramzi Mohammed Locations London Underground Aldgate · Tavistock Square King's Cross · Liverpool Street · Oval Russell Square · Shepherd's Bush Warren Street Similar events September 11 attacks 2001 shoe bomb plot 2002 Bali bombings 2004 Madrid train bombings 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot 2007 London car bombs 2007 Glasgow International Airport attack 2008 Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing Saajid Badat · Richard Reid Attacks on the London Underground 2010 Stockholm bombings 2011 Norway attacks 2012 Burgas bus bombing Boston Marathon bombing 2014 Sydney hostage crisis January 2015 Île-de-France attacks November 2015 Paris attacks This box: view talk edit London Underground[edit] Further information: Timeline of the 2005 London bombings See also: Attacks on the London Underground At 8:49 am, three bombs were detonated on board London Underground trains within fifty seconds of each other: The first exploded on a 6-car London Underground C69 and C77 Stock Circle line sub-surface train, number 204, travelling eastbound between Liverpool Street and Aldgate. The train had left King's Cross St. Pancras about eight minutes earlier. At the time of the explosion, the train's third car was approximately 100 yards (90 m) along the tunnel from Liverpool Street. The parallel track of the Hammersmith & City line between Liverpool Street and Aldgate East was also damaged in the blast. The second device exploded in the second car of another 6-car London Underground C69 and C77 Stock Circle line sub-surface train, number 216, which had just left platform 4 at Edgware Road and was travelling westbound towards Paddington. The train had left King's Cross St. Pancras about eight minutes previously. There were several other trains nearby at the time of the explosion; an eastbound Circle line train (arriving at platform 3 at Edgware Road from Paddington) was passing next to the bombed train and was damaged,[2] as well as a wall that later collapsed. Two other trains were at Edgware Road: an unidentified train on platform 2 and a southbound Hammersmith & City line service that had just arrived at platform 1. A third bomb was detonated on a 6-car London Underground 1973 Stock Piccadilly line deep-level Underground train, number 311, travelling southbound from King's Cross St. Pancras and Russell Square. The device exploded approximately one minute after the service departed King's Cross, by which time it had travelled about 500 yards (450 m). The explosion occurred at the rear of the first car of the train—number 166—causing severe damage to the rear of that car as well as the front of the second one.[3] The surrounding tunnel also sustained damage. It was originally thought that there had been six, rather than three, explosions on the Underground network. The bus bombing brought the reported total to seven; this was clarified later in the day. The erroneous reporting can be attributed to the fact that the blasts occurred on trains that were between stations, causing wounded passengers to emerge from both stations, giving the impression that there was an incident at each. Police also revised the timings of the tube blasts: initial reports had indicated that they occurred during a period of almost half an hour. This was due to initial confusion at London Underground (LU), where the explosions were originally believed to have been caused by power surges. An early report, made in the minutes after the explosions, involved a person under a train, while another described a derailment (both of which did occur, but only as a result of the explosions). A code amber alert was declared by LU at 09:19, and LU began to cease the network's operations, ordering trains to continue only to the next station and suspending all services.[4] The effects of the bombs are understood to have varied due to the differing characteristics of the tunnels in which they occurred:[5] The Circle line is a "cut and cover" sub-surface tunnel, about 7 m (21 ft) deep. As the tunnel contains two parallel tracks, it is relatively wide. The two explosions on the Circle line were probably able to vent their force into the tunnel, reducing their destructive force. The Piccadilly line is a deep-level tunnel, up to 30 m (100 ft) below the surface and with narrow (3.56 m, or 11 ft 8¼ in) single-track tubes and just 15 cm (6 in) clearances. This confined space reflected the blast force, concentrating its effect. Tavistock Square bus[edit] Passengers trapped in a carriage aboard a bombed train between King's Cross and Russell Square Almost one hour after the attacks on the London Underground, a fourth bomb was detonated on the top deck of a number 30 double-decker bus, a Dennis Trident 2 (fleet number 17758, registration LX03 BUF, two years in service at the time) operated by Stagecoach London and travelling its route from Marble Arch to Hackney Wick. Earlier, the bus had passed through the King's Cross area as it travelled from Hackney Wick to Marble Arch. At its final destination, the bus turned around and started the return route to Hackney Wick. It left Marble Arch at 9 am and arrived at Euston bus station at 9:35 am, where crowds of people had been evacuated from the tube and were boarding buses. Locations of the bombings on a Central London tube map The explosion at 9:47 am in Tavistock Square ripped off the roof and destroyed the rear portion of the bus. The blast took place near BMA House, the headquarters of the British Medical Association, on Upper Woburn Place. A number of doctors and medical staff in or near that building were able to provide immediate emergency assistance. Witnesses reported seeing "half a bus flying through the air". BBC Radio 5 Live and The Sun later reported that two injured bus passengers said that they saw a man exploding in the bus.[6] The location of the bomb inside the bus meant the front of the vehicle remained mostly intact. Most of the passengers at the front of the top deck survived, as did those near the front of the lower deck, including the driver, but those at the rear of the bus suffered more serious injuries. The extent of the damage caused to the victims' bodies resulted in a lengthy delay in announcing the death toll from the bombing while police determined how many bodies were present and whether the bomber was one of them. Several passers-by were also injured by the explosion and surrounding buildings were damaged by debris. The bombed bus was subsequently covered with tarpaulin and removed by low-loader for forensic examination at a secure Ministry of Defence site. The vehicle was ultimately returned to Stagecoach and scrapped thereafter on 15 October 2009. A replacement bus, a new Alexander Dennis Enviro400 (fleet number 18500, which has been changed since to 19000, registration LX55 HGC), was named "Spirit of London". In October 2012, the "Spirit of London" bus was set alight in an arson attack.[7] It was repaired and refurbished at a cost of £60,000 and re-entered service in April 2013.[8] Two fourteen-year-old girls were charged for the attack.[7] The four suicide bombers were later identified and named as: Mohammad Sidique Khan: aged 30. Khan detonated his bomb just after leaving Edgware Road tube station on a train travelling toward Paddington, at 8:50 a.m. He lived in Beeston, Leeds, with his wife and young child, where he worked as a learning mentor at a primary school. The blast killed seven people, including Khan himself. Shehzad Tanweer: aged 22. He detonated a bomb aboard a train travelling between Liverpool Street station and Aldgate tube station, at 8:50 a.m. He lived in Leeds with his mother and father, working in a fish and chip shop. Eight people, including Tanweer, were killed by the explosion. Germaine Lindsay: aged 19. He detonated his device on a train travelling between King's Cross and Russell Square tube stations, at 8:50 a.m. He lived in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, with his pregnant wife and young son. His blast killed 27 people, including Lindsay himself. Hasib Hussain: the youngest of the four at 18, Hussain detonated his bomb on the top deck of a double-decker bus at 9:47 a.m. He lived in Leeds with his brother and sister-in-law. Fourteen people, including Hussain, died in the explosion in Tavistock Square. Three of the bombers were British-born sons of Pakistani immigrants; Lindsay was a convert born in Jamaica. Charles Clarke, Home Secretary when the attacks occurred, described the bombers as "cleanskins", a term describing them as previously unknown to authorities until they carried out their attacks.[10] On the day of the attacks, all four had travelled to Luton, Bedfordshire, by car, then to London by train. They were recorded on CCTV arriving at King's Cross station at about 08:30 am. On 12 July 2005, the BBC reported that the Metropolitan Police Service's anti-terrorism chief Deputy Assistant Commissioner Peter Clarke had said that property belonging to one of the bombers had been found at both the Aldgate and Edgware Road blasts. The four bombers captured on CCTV at Luton station at 7:21 am on 7 July 2005. From left to right: Hasib Hussain, Germaine Lindsay, Mohammad Sidique Khan, and Shehzad Tanweer.[9]

QMRSome of the deaths and damage in Texas City were due to the destruction and subsequent burning of several chemical plants (including Monsanto and Union Carbide), oil storage, and other facilities near the explosions. 27 of the 28 members of Texas City's volunteer fire department and 3 members of the Texas City Heights Volunteer Fire Department who were on the docks near the burning ship were killed. One firefighter, Fred Dowdy, who had not responded to the initial call, coordinated other firefighters arriving from communities up to 60 miles (100 km) away. Eventually 200 firefighters arrived, from as far away as Los Angeles. Fires resulting from the cataclysmic events were still burning a week after the disaster, and the process of body recovery took nearly a month. All four fire engines of Texas City were twisted and burned hulks.

QMRThe energy released from a nuclear weapon detonated in the troposphere can be divided into four basic categories:[1] Blast—40–50% of total energy Thermal radiation—30–50% of total energy Ionizing radiation—5% of total energy (more in a neutron bomb) Residual radiation—5–10% of total energy with the mass of the explosion Depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased. The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surroundings. Locations such as submarine, surface, air burst, or exo-atmospheric determine how much energy is produced as blast and how much as radiation. In general, denser media around the bomb, like water, absorb more energy, and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect.

QMrThe 16th Street Baptist Church bombing was an act of white supremacist terrorism[1][2] which occurred at the African-American 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama on Sunday, September 15, 1963, when four members of the Ku Klux Klan planted at least 15 sticks of dynamite attached to a timing device beneath the front steps of the church.[3] Described by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. as "one of the most vicious and tragic crimes ever perpetrated against humanity",[4] the explosion at the church killed four girls and injured 22 others. Although the FBI had concluded in 1965 that the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing had been committed by four known Ku Klux Klansmen and segregationists — Thomas Edwin Blanton, Jr., Herman Frank Cash, Robert Edward Chambliss, and Bobby Frank Cherry[5] — no prosecutions ensued until 1977, when Robert Chambliss was tried and convicted of the first degree murder of one of the victims, 11-year-old Carol Denise McNair. Thomas Blanton and Bobby Cherry were each convicted of four counts of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment in 2001 and 2002 respectively,[6] whereas Herman Cash, who died in 1994, was never charged with his alleged involvement in the bombing.

Four people were stabbed, and one of them critically wounded in a scuffle between members of the Ku Klux Klan and counter-protesters near a planned KKK rally in Anaheim, California.

Alright check this out people According to his girlfriend, the man who shot 16 people (and killed 3) suffered from mental illness and desperately needed professional help and meds for his condition. 16 people 16 is the squares of the quadrant model http://thepenhustler.com/2016/02/26/watch-video-of-kansas-mass-shooter-dancing-to-revenge/ The song is summer 16 He wasn't mentally ill- you just say he was mentally ill after the fact y'all probably had him on some messed up medicine that effs you up. Dude probably was pissed because his stupid girlfriend thought he needed medicine when the medicine castrates you and he knew that and he was getting pissed at how the world treated him and then he shot up the place and the people say "he had a mental illness" theres no way you can say if somebody had a mental illness. You're in the quadrant model of reality The thing is they probably put him on medicine it messed him up. Most of the school shootings and stuff happen because the person is on a dangerous medication and then he shoots up the school because those meds mess you up

16 is the squares of the quadrant model. I read a bunch of books that were permeated with the quadrant model I studied literature in college books had the quadrant model structure the big ones but the fact is just read my book and trust me I just scratched the surface of the quadrant model. This is what the guy who did the shooting that got 16 people listened to and recorded before the shooting

QMR boston bombing Casualties 3 civilians from bombing on April 15 1 police officer shot to death on April 18 The fourth is always different

Qmr 4 people killed The benghazi four the quadrant No wonder benghazi is so big

QMRThe affrighted inhabitants in a crowd brought Hilarion to the shore, as it were to oppose him as a strong wall against the furious waves. The saint made three crosses in the sand, then stretched forth his arms towards the sea; and to the astonishment of all, its billows stopped, and rising up like a high mountain, returned back. The cross is the quadrant

QMROn Thursday 21 July 2005, four attempted bomb attacks disrupted part of London's public transport system two weeks after the 7 July 2005 London bombings. The explosions occurred around midday at Shepherd's Bush, Warren Street and Oval stations on the London Underground, and on a bus in Shoreditch. A fifth bomber dumped his device without attempting to set it off.[1] Connecting lines and stations were closed and evacuated. Metropolitan Police later said the intention was to cause large-scale loss of life, but only the detonators of the bombs exploded, probably causing the popping sounds reported by witnesses, and only one minor injury was reported. The suspects fled the scenes after their bombs failed to explode. On Friday 22 July, CCTV images of four suspects wanted in connection with the bombings were released.[2] Two of the men shown in these images were identified by police on Monday 25 July as Muktar Said Ibrahim and Yasin Hassan Omar.[3] The resultant manhunt was described by the Metropolitan police commissioner Sir Ian Blair as "the greatest operational challenge ever faced" by the Met.[4] During the manhunt, police misidentified Jean Charles de Menezes as one of the suspected bombers and shot and killed him.[5] By 29 July, police had arrested all four of the main bombing suspects from the 21 July attempted bombings. Yasin Hassan Omar was arrested by police on 27 July, in Birmingham. On 29 July, two more suspects were arrested in London. A fourth suspect, Osman Hussein, was arrested in Rome, Italy, and later extradited to the UK.[6][7] Police also arrested numerous other people in the course of their investigations. On 9 July 2007, four defendants, Muktar Ibrahim, 29, Yassin Omar, 26, Ramzi Mohammed, 25, and Hussain Osman, 28, were found guilty of conspiracy to murder.[8] The four attempted bombers were each sentenced to life imprisonment, with a minimum of 40 years' imprisonment.[9]

QMRJune 28, 1988: Auburn, Indiana. Improper mixing of chemicals killed four workers at a local metal-plating plant in the worst confined-space industrial accident in U.S. history; a fifth victim died two days later.[23]

QMR1883 eruption Main article: 1883 eruption of Krakatoa Two-thirds of the original Krakatoa Island was obliterated by the 1883 eruption Evolution of the islands around Krakatoa from 1880 to 2005. Note the continuing growth of Anak Krakatoa after the 1883 event. While seismic activity around the volcano was intense in the years preceding the cataclysmic 1883 eruption, a series of lesser eruptions began on May 20, 1883. The volcano released huge plumes of steam and ash lasting until late August.[22] On August 27 a series of four huge explosions almost entirely destroyed the island. The explosions were so violent that they were heard 3,110 km (1,930 mi) away in Perth, Western Australia, and the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, 4,800 km (3,000 mi) away.[4] The pressure wave from the final explosion was recorded on barographs around the world. Several barographs recorded the wave seven times over the course of five days: four times with the wave travelling away from the volcano to its antipodal point, and three times travelling back to the volcano.[21]:63 Hence, the wave rounded the globe three and a half times. Ash was propelled to a height of 80 km (50 mi). The sound of the eruption was so loud it was reported that if anyone was within ten miles (16 km), they would have gone deaf.

QMRBecause the words Rakata and Krakatau are the same in Indonesian, both names are used interchangeably, leading to confusion in languages which distinguish between the two words. In geological usage, Krakatau is the island and Rakata is the main volcanic cone on that island. But Krakatau is also used for the volcanic edifice as a whole, including all four islands (Krakatau, Anak Krakatau, Verlaten and Lang). Before 1883 (and in many of the eruption reports), Rakata was just referred to as "the Peak (of Krakatau)."[citation needed]

QMrBy 25 August, eruptions further intensified. At about 13:00 (local time) on 26 August, the volcano went into its paroxysmal phase. By 14:00 observers could see a black cloud of ash 27 km (17 mi) high. At this point, the eruption was virtually continuous and explosions could be heard every ten minutes or so. Ships within 20 km (12 mi) of the volcano reported heavy ash fall, with pieces of hot pumice up to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter landing on their decks. A small tsunami hit the shores of Java and Sumatra, some 40 km (25 mi) away, between the time of 18:00 and 19:00 hours. On 27 August four enormous explosions took place at 05:30, 06:44, 10:02, and 10:41 local time. At 5:30 am, the first explosion was at Perboewatan volcano, triggering a tsunami heading straight to Telok Betong, now known as Bandar Lampung. At 6:44 am, Krakatoa exploded again on Danan volcano, with the resulting tsunami stretching eastward and westward. The largest explosion, at 10:02 am, was so violent that it was heard 3,110 km (1,930 mi) away in Perth, Western Australia, and the Indian Ocean island of Rodrigues near Mauritius, 4,800 km (3,000 mi) away, where they were thought to be cannon fire from a nearby ship.[2][3]:79 Each explosion was accompanied by large tsunamis, which are believed to have been over 30 meters (98 feet) high in places. A large area of the Sunda Strait and a number of places on the Sumatran coast were affected by pyroclastic flows from the volcano. The energy released from the explosion has been estimated to be equal to about 200 megatons of TNT,[4] roughly four times as powerful as the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful thermonuclear weapon ever detonated. At 10:41 am, a landslide tore off half of Rakata volcano, causing the final explosion.Final explosive eruption[edit] The pressure wave generated by the colossal fourth and final explosion radiated out from Krakatoa at 1,086 km/h (675 mph).[5]:248 It was so powerful that it ruptured the eardrums of sailors 64 km (40 miles) away on ships in the Sunda Strait,[5]:235 and caused a spike of more than 2 1⁄2 inches of mercury (8.5 kPa) 160 km (100 miles) away in pressure gauges attached to gasometers in the Batavia gasworks, sending them off the scale.[note 1] The pressure wave radiated across the globe and was recorded on barographs all over the world. Several barographs recorded the wave seven times over the course of five days: four times with the wave travelling away from the volcano to its antipodal point, and three times travelling back to the volcano.[3]:63 Hence, the wave rounded the globe three and a half times. Ash was propelled to an estimated height of 80 km (50 mi). The eruptions diminished rapidly after that point, and by the morning of 28 August, Krakatoa was silent. Small eruptions, mostly of mud, continued into October 1883. Tsunamis and distant effects[edit] Ships as far away as South Africa rocked as tsunamis hit them, and the bodies of victims were found floating in the ocean for months after the event. The tsunamis which accompanied the eruption are believed to have been caused by gigantic pyroclastic flows entering the sea; each of the four great explosions was accompanied by massive pyroclastic flows resulting from the gravitational collapse of the eruption columns.[citation needed] This caused several cubic kilometers of material to enter the sea, displacing an equally huge volume of seawater. The town of Merak was destroyed by a tsunami 46 m (151 ft) high. Some of the pyroclastic flows reached the Sumatran coast as much as 40 km (25 mi) away, having apparently moved across the water on a cushion of superheated steam.[note 2] There are also indications of submarine pyroclastic flows reaching 15 km (9.3 mi) from the volcano.[7]

QMRThe bombing of Dresden was an Anglo/American aerial bombing attack on the city of Dresden, the capital of the German state of Saxony, that took place during the Second World War in the European Theatre. Germany would be forced to surrender three months later. In four raids between 13 and 15 February 1945, 722 heavy bombers of the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and 527 of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) dropped more than 3,900 tons of high-explosive bombs and incendiary devices on the city.[1] The bombing and the resulting firestorm destroyed over 1,600 acres (6.5 km2) of the city centre.[2] An estimated 22,700[3] to 25,000[4] people were killed. Three more USAAF air raids followed, two occurring on 2 March aimed at the city's railroad marshaling yard and one small raid on 17 April aimed at industrial areas.

QMRThe Centennial Olympic Park bombing was a terrorist bomb attack on the Centennial Olympic Park in Atlanta, Georgia, on July 27 during the 1996 Summer Olympics. The blast directly killed 1 person and injured 111 others; another person later died of a heart attack. It was the first of four bombings committed by Eric Robert Rudolph.[1] Security guard Richard Jewell discovered the bomb before detonation and cleared most of the spectators out of the park. Rudolph, a carpenter and handyman, had detonated three pipe bombs inside an ALICE Pack. Motivated by what he considered to be the government's sanctioning of "abortion on demand," Rudolph wanted to force the cancellation of the Olympics.The plate and other clues led the FBI to identify Eric Robert Rudolph as a suspect. Rudolph eluded capture and became a fugitive; officials believed he had disappeared into the rugged southern Appalachian Mountains, familiar from his youth. On May 5, 1998, the FBI named him as one of its ten most wanted fugitives and offered a $1,000,000 reward for information leading directly to his arrest. On October 14, 1998, the Department of Justice formally named Rudolph as its suspect in all four bombings. After more than five years on the run, Rudolph was arrested on May 31, 2003, in Murphy, North Carolina, by a rookie police officer, Jeffrey Scott Postell of the Murphy Police Department behind a Save-A-Lot store at about 4 a.m.; Postell, on routine patrol, had originally suspected a burglary in progress.[8] On April 8, 2005, the government announced Rudolph would plead guilty to all four bombings, including the Centennial Olympic Park attack. Rudolph is serving four life terms without the possibility of parole at ADX Florence supermax prison in Florence, Colorado.

QMrBetween 26 November 1972 and 20 January 1973, there were four paramilitary bombings in the centre of Dublin, Ireland. Three civilians were killed and 185 people were injured. No group ever claimed responsibility for the attacks and nobody was ever charged in connection with the bombings. The first bombing in Burgh Quay may have been carried out by former associates of the Littlejohn brothers who were Secret Intelligence Service provocateurs,[1] in a successful attempt to provoke an Irish government clampdown against the Provisional IRA, while the other three bombings were possibly perpetrated by loyalist paramilitaries, specifically the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), with British military or intelligence assistance. The UVF claimed in 1993 to have carried out the 1974 Dublin and Monaghan bombings which incurred the greatest loss of life in a single day throughout the 30-year conflict known as the Troubles.

QMr The nature of the quadrant model is the first three are always more similar. The first two are a duality. The third is a little bit different and more solid/physical. The fourth is transcendent and doesn't seem to belong. The Dublin and Monaghan bombings of 17 May 1974 were a series of co-ordinated terrorist attacks in Dublin and Monaghan, Republic of Ireland. Three bombs exploded in Dublin during rush hour and a fourth exploded in Monaghan almost ninety minutes later. They killed 33 civilians and a full-term unborn child, and injured almost 300. The bombings were the deadliest attack of the conflict known as the Troubles, and the deadliest terrorist attack in the Republic's history.[2] Most of the victims were young women, although the ages of the dead ranged from five months to 80 years. Dublin[edit] A hijacked green 1970 model Hillman Avenger was used in the Parnell Street explosion which killed 10 people A 2006 view of Talbot Street where a further 14 people died At about 17:30 on Friday 17 May 1974, without warning, three car bombs exploded in Dublin city centre at Parnell Street, Talbot Street and South Leinster Street during rush hour. The streets all ran east-west from busy thoroughfares to railway stations.[5] There was a bus strike in Dublin at the time, which meant there were more people on the streets than usual.[6] According to one of the Irish Army's top bomb disposal officers, Commandant Patrick Trears, the bombs were constructed so well that 100% of each bomb exploded upon detonation.[7] Twenty-three people died in these explosions and three others died from their injuries over the following few days and weeks. Many of the dead were young women originally from rural towns employed in the civil service. An entire family from central Dublin was killed. Two of the victims were foreign: an Italian man, and a French Jewish woman whose family had survived the Holocaust. First bomb[edit] The first of the three Dublin car bombs went off at about 17:28 on Parnell Street, near the intersection with Marlborough Street.[8] It was in a parking bay outside the Welcome Inn pub and Barry's supermarket at 93 and 91 Parnell Street respectively, and near petrol pumps. Shop fronts were blown out, cars were destroyed, and people were thrown in all directions. A brown Mini that had been parked behind the bomb was hurled onto the pavement at a right angle. One survivor described "a big ball of flame coming straight towards us, like a great nuclear mushroom cloud whooshing up everything in its path".[9] The bomb car was a metallic green 1970 model Hillman Avenger, registration number DIA 4063. It had been facing toward O'Connell Street, Dublin's main thoroughfare. This car, like the other two bomb cars, had its original registration plates. It had been hijacked in Belfast that morning.[10] Ten people were killed in this explosion, including two infant girls and their parents, and a World War I veteran.[11] Many others, including a teenaged petrol-pump attendant, were severely injured. Second bomb[edit] The second of the Dublin car bombs went off at about 17:30 on Talbot Street, near the intersection with Lower Gardiner Street. Talbot Street was the main route from the city centre to Connolly station, Dublin's primary railway station. It was parked at 18 Talbot Street, on the north side, opposite Guineys department store. The bomb car was a metallic blue mink Ford Escort, registration number 1385 WZ. It had been stolen that morning in the Docks area of Belfast.[10] The blast damaged buildings and vehicles on both sides of the street. People suffered severe burns and were struck by shrapnel, flying glass and debris; some were hurled through the windows of shops.[8] Twelve people were killed outright, and another two died over the following days and weeks. Thirteen of the fourteen victims were women, including one who was nine months pregnant. One young woman who had been beside the bomb car was decapitated; the only clue to her sex was the pair of brown platform boots she was wearing.[12] Several others lost limbs and a man was impaled through the abdomen by an iron bar.[8] Several bodies lay in the street for half an hour as ambulances struggled to get through traffic jams.[13] At least four bodies were found on the pavement outside Guineys.[14] The bodies of the victims were covered by newspapers until they were removed from the scene. Third bomb[edit] The third bomb went off at about 17:32 on South Leinster Street, near the railings of Trinity College and not far from Leinster House, the seat of the Oireachtas. Two women were killed outright; they had been very close to the epicentre of the blast. The bomb car was a blue Austin 1800 Maxi registration number HOI 2487; like the Parnell Street car, it had been hijacked in Belfast that same morning from a taxi company.[10] Dental students from Trinity College rushed to the scene to give first aid to the injured. Monaghan[edit] Almost ninety minutes later, at about 18:58, a fourth car bomb (weighing 150 pounds (68 kg)) exploded in the centre of Monaghan town, just south of the border with Northern Ireland. It had been parked outside Protestant-owned Greacen's pub on North Road. The car was a green 1966 model Hillman Minx registration number 6583 OZ; it had been stolen from a Portadown car park several hours before.[10] As in Dublin, no warning had been given. This bomb killed five people outright, and another two died in the following weeks. There is evidence that the car bomb was parked five minutes before the explosion.[15] The bomb site, which was about 300–400 yards (270–370 m) from the Garda station, was preserved by a roster of eight Gardaí from 19:00 on 17 May until 14:30 on 19 May, at which time the technical examination of the area had been completed.[15] Forensic analysis of the metal fragments taken from the site suggested that the bomb had been in a beer barrel or similar container.[15] It has been suggested that the Monaghan bombing was a "supporting attack"; a diversion to draw security away from the border and thus help the Dublin bombers return to Northern Ireland.

QMRThe nature of the quadrant model is the first three are always similar the fourth is different. The Dublin and Monaghan bombings of 17 May 1974 were a series of co-ordinated terrorist attacks in Dublin and Monaghan, Republic of Ireland. Three bombs exploded in Dublin during rush hour and a fourth exploded in Monaghan almost ninety minutes later. They killed 33 civilians and a full-term unborn child, and injured almost 300. The bombings were the deadliest attack of the conflict known as the Troubles, and the deadliest terrorist attack in the Republic's history.[2] Most of the victims were young women, although the ages of the dead ranged from five months to 80 years.

QMrA picture archiving and communication system (PACS) is a medical imaging technology which provides economical storage and convenient access to images from multiple modalities (source machine types).[1] Electronic images and reports are transmitted digitally via PACS; this eliminates the need to manually file, retrieve, or transport film jackets. The universal format for PACS image storage and transfer is DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine). Non-image data, such as scanned documents, may be incorporated using consumer industry standard formats like PDF (Portable Document Format), once encapsulated in DICOM. A PACS consists of four major components: The imaging modalities such as X-ray plain film (PF), computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a secured network for the transmission of patient information, workstations for interpreting and reviewing images, and archives for the storage and retrieval of images and reports. Combined with available and emerging web technology, PACS has the ability to deliver timely and efficient access to images, interpretations, and related data. PACS breaks down the physical and time barriers associated with traditional film-based image retrieval, distribution, and display.

QMrLebanese Civil War First phase 1975–1977 Bus massacre Hotels Black Saturday Karantina Damour Tel al-Zaatar Second phase 1977–1982 Hundred Days' War Litani Ehden Safra Zahleh Beirut Third phase 1982–1983 1982 Lebanon War Sabra and Shatila U.S. Embassy Barracks bombing Mountain War Fourth phase 1984–1990 U.S. embassy annex bombing War of the Camps Beirut bombing (1985) Geagea–Hobeika Conflict October 13 massacre

QMrOn 2 April 2015, gunmen stormed the Garissa University College in Garissa, Kenya, killing 148 people,[1][2] and injuring 79 or more. The militant group and Al-Qaeda offshoot, Al-Shabaab, which the gunmen claimed to be from, took responsibility for the attack. The gunmen took over 700 students hostage, freeing Muslims and killing those who identified as Christians. The siege ended the same day, when all four of the attackers were killed

QMrOn Saturday 21 September 2013, at about noon,[4][13] at least four masked assailants[14] (initially claimed by the government to be between 10 and 15)[15][16] attacked the Westgate shopping mall, the most upscale mall in Nairobi,[4] in its Westlands district.[17] Fighting with armed police continued over 48 hours later.[18] Cameras in the mall revealed the gunmen carried assault rifles and worecivilian clothing. There were additional reports of grenade explosions. Police surrounded the area and urged residents to stay away. A report indicated that about 80 people were trapped in the basement, but police said that they had escorted some shoppers to safety and were trying to capture the gunmen.[13] The Secretary-General of the Kenya Red Cross Society, Abbas Gullet, said that rescue workers could not reach some of the patrons in the mall. Inspector General of Police David Kimaiyo wrote that there were "police at the scene and the area is surrounded."[17][19][20]

QMR Dearden, Lizzie (16 January 2016). "Burkina Faso attack: Fourth attacker killed at second hotel". The Independent (London). Retrieved 18 January 2016. Jump up ^

QMrThe most destructive act ascribed to al-Qaeda was the series of attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001. Four commercial airliners were hijacked. Two of these were crashed into the Twin Towers (the duality) which later collapsed, destroying the rest of the World Trade Center building complex. The third was crashed into the Pentagon (the third is alway bad and the pentagon is related to the military) and the fourth in a field during a struggle between passengers and hijackers to control the airplane (the fourth is always different). All together, 2,977 victims, including 2,504 civilians, 72 law enforcement officers, 343 firefighters, and 55 military personnel, perished in the attacks. An investigation conducted after the attacks concluded that members of al-Qaeda planned and orchestrated the attacks. Osama bin Laden initially denied his organization's involvement,[9] but later in 2004 admitted his organization was responsible[citation needed]. The September 11, 2001 attacks (or September 11th, or 9/11),[nb 1] were a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks launched by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda on the United States in New York City and Washington, D.C. The attacks took place on Tuesday, September 11, 2001. Four groups of terrorists, each with a trained pilot, captured airplanes and flew them into US landmarks. These landmarks were the World Trade Center's twin towers in New York City, and the Pentagon. The fourth plane crashed in an empty field in Pennsylvania before it could reach its target in Washington, D.C. After the event, the USA government said the people who had done the attacks were close to the terrorist group al-Qaeda. During the events, nearly 3000 people died. Most of them were from the United States, but over 300 were from other places, such as the United Kingdom, India, and Canada.

QMrThe 2007 Yazidi communities bombings occurred at around 8pm local time on August 14, 2007, when four co-ordinated suicide bomb attacks detonated in the Kurdish towns of Kahtaniya and Jazeera (Siba Sheikh Khidir), near Mosul. Iraqi Red Crescent's estimates say the bombs killed 796 and wounded 1,562 people,[31][39] making this the Iraq War's most deadly car bomb attack during the period of major American combat operations.

QMRThe 2003 Istanbul bombings were four truck bomb attacks carried out on November 15, 2003 and November 20, 2003, in Istanbul, Turkey, leaving 57 people dead, and 700 wounded. Several men have been convicted for their involvement in the bombing.

QMRThe hijackers in the September 11 attacks were 19 men affiliated with al-Qaeda. 15 of the 19 were citizens of Saudi Arabia.[1] The others were from the United Arab Emirates (2), Egypt and Lebanon. The hijackers were organized into four teams, each led by a pilot-trained hijacker with three or four "muscle hijackers" who were trained to help subdue the pilots, passengers, and crew. The first hijackers to arrive in the United States were Khalid al-Mihdhar and Nawaf al-Hazmi, who settled in the San Diego area in January 2000. They were followed by three hijacker-pilots, Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, and Ziad Jarrah in mid-2000 to undertake flight training in south Florida. The fourth hijacker-pilot, Hani Hanjour, arrived in San Diego in December 2000. The rest of the "muscle hijackers" arrived in early and mid-2001. They had taken classes to learn how to fly the planes properly.

QMRA group of men, sometimes stated as 24, at other times 26,[43] received training in marine warfare at a remote camp in mountainous Muzaffarabad, POK [ Pakistan occupied Kashmir]. Part of the training was reported to have taken place on the Mangla Dam reservoir.[44] From the students, 10 were handpicked for the Mumbai mission.[48] They also received training in swimming and sailing, besides the use of high-end weapons and explosives under the supervision of LeT commanders. According to a media report citing an unnamed former Defence Department Official of the US, the intelligence agencies of the US had determined that former officers from Pakistan's Army and Inter-Services Intelligence agency assisted actively and continuously in training.[49] They were given blueprints of all the four targets – Taj Mahal Palace & Tower, Oberoi Trident, Nariman House and Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus.

QMROn the night of 31 December 2015, four men hijacked a multi-utility vehicle belonging to Salwinder Singh, a superintendent of the Punjab Police, in Dinanagar. In the process, they slit the throat of jeweller Rajesh Kumar, who was later admitted to a hospital. The vehicle was found abandoned about 500 metres away from the airbase.[31] The attackers are also suspected to have murdered Ikagar Singh, a civilian taxi driver, before the hijacking.[32] The Punjab Police refused to believe the abduction report provided by SP Salwinder Singh after he was released by the attackers, and the other survivor, Madan Gopal, was tortured by the police interrogators upon reporting the incident.[33][34] Salwinder Singh had a chequered past, and his claims may have been dismissed due to his perceived unreliability.[35] A handheld walkie talkie, was left behind by the attackers in the hijacked vehicle. It is speculated that its purpose was to aid coordination between that group and the others already at the airport and that the loss delayed the attack by twenty four hours.[36]

QMrChad December 5, 2015 – Four female suicide bombers from the militant Islamist group Boko Haram attacked the Chadian island of Koulfoua on Lake Chad, killing at least 15 people and injuring 130.[188]

QMrEgypt November 28, 2015 – Islamist gunmen killed four security personnel in an attack at a police checkpoint in Saqqara. 4 dead[184]

QMRThe 2003 Istanbul bombings were four truck bomb attacks carried out on November 15, 2003 and November 20, 2003, in Istanbul, Turkey, leaving 57 people dead, and 700 wounded. Several men have been convicted for their involvement in the bombing.

QMRThe hijackers in the September 11 attacks were 19 men affiliated with al-Qaeda. 15 of the 19 were citizens of Saudi Arabia.[1] The others were from the United Arab Emirates (2), Egypt and Lebanon. The hijackers were organized into four teams, each led by a pilot-trained hijacker with three or four "muscle hijackers" who were trained to help subdue the pilots, passengers, and crew. The first hijackers to arrive in the United States were Khalid al-Mihdhar and Nawaf al-Hazmi, who settled in the San Diego area in January 2000. They were followed by three hijacker-pilots, Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, and Ziad Jarrah in mid-2000 to undertake flight training in south Florida. The fourth hijacker-pilot, Hani Hanjour, arrived in San Diego in December 2000. The rest of the "muscle hijackers" arrived in early and mid-2001. They had taken classes to learn how to fly the planes properly.

QMRA group of men, sometimes stated as 24, at other times 26,[43] received training in marine warfare at a remote camp in mountainous Muzaffarabad, POK [ Pakistan occupied Kashmir]. Part of the training was reported to have taken place on the Mangla Dam reservoir.[44] From the students, 10 were handpicked for the Mumbai mission.[48] They also received training in swimming and sailing, besides the use of high-end weapons and explosives under the supervision of LeT commanders. According to a media report citing an unnamed former Defence Department Official of the US, the intelligence agencies of the US had determined that former officers from Pakistan's Army and Inter-Services Intelligence agency assisted actively and continuously in training.[49] They were given blueprints of all the four targets – Taj Mahal Palace & Tower, Oberoi Trident, Nariman House and Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus.

QMROn the night of 31 December 2015, four men hijacked a multi-utility vehicle belonging to Salwinder Singh, a superintendent of the Punjab Police, in Dinanagar. In the process, they slit the throat of jeweller Rajesh Kumar, who was later admitted to a hospital. The vehicle was found abandoned about 500 metres away from the airbase.[31] The attackers are also suspected to have murdered Ikagar Singh, a civilian taxi driver, before the hijacking.[32] The Punjab Police refused to believe the abduction report provided by SP Salwinder Singh after he was released by the attackers, and the other survivor, Madan Gopal, was tortured by the police interrogators upon reporting the incident.[33][34] Salwinder Singh had a chequered past, and his claims may have been dismissed due to his perceived unreliability.[35] A handheld walkie talkie, was left behind by the attackers in the hijacked vehicle. It is speculated that its purpose was to aid coordination between that group and the others already at the airport and that the loss delayed the attack by twenty four hours.[36]

QMrChad December 5, 2015 – Four female suicide bombers from the militant Islamist group Boko Haram attacked the Chadian island of Koulfoua on Lake Chad, killing at least 15 people and injuring 130.[188]

QMrEgypt November 28, 2015 – Islamist gunmen killed four security personnel in an attack at a police checkpoint in Saqqara. 4 dead[184]

QMRIraq June 13, 2015 – Four suicide SUV car bombs went off in an Iraqi police station in the Hajjaj near Tikrit and Baiji. 11 dead, 27 injured.[132]

QMRThe 2007 Yazidi communities bombings occurred at around 7:20 pm local time on August 14, 2007, when four co-ordinated suicide bomb attacks detonated in the Yazidi towns of Kahtaniya and Jazeera (Siba Sheikh Khidir), near Mosul.

QMrJordan November 9, 2005 – 2005 Amman bombings. a series of coordinated suicide attacks on hotels in Amman, Jordan. Over 60 killed and 115 injured.[42][43] Four attackers including a husband and wife team were involved.[44]

Paris (this doesn't necessarily fit the quadrant model but conflict between Christians and Muslims does christianity is second square islam is third)Three teams[21][45] launched six distinct attacks:[46] three suicide bombings in one attack, a fourth suicide bombing in another attack, and shootings at four locations in four separate attacks.[