Quadrant Model of Reality: Quadrant Model of Reality Book 33 Science and Religion

The quadrant theory is a theory of intelligent design describing that reality is organized around a pattern called the quadrant model pattern. Previous books discuss the nature of this pattern.

March 21 Facebook-11:00

Euclid had listed the first four perfect numbers: 6; 28; 496; and 8128 around 300 BC. A manuscript of 1456 AD, more than a thousand years later gave the fifth perfect number: 33,550,336. Gradually mathematicians found further perfect numbers (which are very rare). In 1652 the Polish polymath Jan Brożek noted that there was no perfect number between 104 and 107.[9]

Notice how the fourth is different. The first two are more similar- the duality. The third is different but still kind of similar. the fourth is way different and transcendent. The fifth is always questionable and ultratranscecndent. I discussed in previous books how the pattern of Mersenne primes and other very important types of number in number theory follow the same pattern.

The pattern of the quadrant model is that the first three are similar, and the forth is different. The first square is always weird and conservative. The second square is normal and conservative. The third square is normal and destructive. The fourth square is weird and destructive.

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

QMrThere are four necessary conditions for a dust explosion:[1]

A combustible dust

The dust is suspended in the air at a sufficiently high concentration

There is an oxidant (typically atmospheric oxygen)

There is an ignition source

In some traditional analyses of dust explosions, confinement is considered to be a fifth requirement; this is not an essential condition, but can greatly aggravate the physical damage that results.

QMrClassification[edit]

Diagram of a blast injury

Blast injuries are divided into four classes: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

Primary injuries[edit]

Primary injuries are caused by blast overpressure waves, or shock waves. These are especially likely when a person is close to an exploding munition, such as a land mine.[2] The ears are most often affected by the overpressure, followed by the lungs and the hollow organs of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal injuries may present after a delay of hours or even days.[2] Injury from blast overpressure is a pressure and time dependent function. By increasing the pressure or its duration, the severity of injury will also increase.[2]

In general, primary blast injuries are characterized by the absence of external injuries; thus internal injuries are frequently unrecognized and their severity underestimated. According to the latest experimental results, the extent and types of primary blast-induced injuries depend not only on the peak of the overpressure, but also other parameters such as number of overpressure peaks, time-lag between overpressure peaks, characteristics of the shear fronts between overpressure peaks, frequency resonance, and electromagnetic pulse, among others. There is general agreement that spalling, implosion, inertia, and pressure differentials are the main mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of primary blast injuries. Thus, the majority of prior research focused on the mechanisms of blast injuries within gas-containing organs and organ systems such as the lungs, while primary blast-induced traumatic brain injury has remained underestimated. Blast lung refers to severe pulmonary contusion, bleeding or swelling with damage to alveoli and blood vessels, or a combination of these.[3] It is the most common cause of death among people who initially survive an explosion.[4]

Secondary injuries[edit]

Secondary injuries are caused by fragmentation and other objects propelled by the explosion.[5] These injuries may affect any part of the body and sometimes result in penetrating trauma with visible bleeding.[6] At times the propelled object may become embedded in the body, obstructing the loss of blood to the outside. However, there may be extensive blood loss within the body cavities. Fragmentation wounds may be lethal and therefore many anti-personnel bombs are designed to generate fragments.

Most casualties are caused by secondary injuries as generally a larger geographic area is affected by this form of injury than the primary blast site as debris can easily be propelled for hundreds to thousands of meters.[5][6] Some explosives, such as nail bombs, are deliberately designed to increase the likelihood of secondary injuries.[5] In other instances, the target provides the raw material for the objects thrown into people, e.g., shattered glass from a blasted-out window or the glass facade of a building.[5]

Tertiary injuries[edit]

Displacement of air by the explosion creates a blast wind that can throw victims against solid objects.[2] Injuries resulting from this type of traumatic impact are referred to as tertiary blast injuries. Tertiary injuries may present as some combination of blunt and penetrating trauma, including bone fractures and coup contre-coup injuries. Children are at a particularly higher risk of tertiary injury due to their relatively smaller body weight.[5]

Quaternary injuries[edit]

Quaternary injuries, or other miscellaneous named injuries, are all other injuries not included in the first three classes. These include flash burns, crush injuries, and respiratory injuries.[5]

Traumatic amputations quickly result in death, and are thus rare in survivors, and are often accompanied by significant other injuries.[5] The rate of eye injury may depend on the type of blast.[5] Psychiatric injury, some of which may be caused by neurological damage incurred during the blast, is the most common quaternary injury, and post-traumatic stress disorder may affect people who are otherwise completely uninjured.[5]

QMRTo people who are close to a blast incident, such as bomb disposal technicians, soldiers wearing body armor, deminers or individuals wearing little to no protection, there are four types of blast effects on the human body: overpressure (shock), fragmentation, impact and heat. Overpressure refers to the sudden and drastic rise in ambient pressure that can damage the internal organs, possibly leading to permanent damage or death. Fragmentation includes the shrapnel described above but can also include sand, debris and vegetation from the area surrounding the blast source. This is very common in anti-personnel mine blasts.[12] The projection of materials poses a potentially lethal threat caused by cuts in soft tissues, as well as infections, and injuries to the internal organs. When the overpressure wave impacts the body it can induce violent levels of blast-induced acceleration. Resulting injuries may range from minor to unsurvivable. Immediately following this initial acceleration, deceleration injuries can occur when a person impacts directly against a rigid surface or obstacle after being set in motion by the force of the blast. Finally, injury and fatality can result from the explosive fireball as well as incendiary agents projected onto the body. Personal protective equipment, such as a bomb suit or demining ensemble, as well as helmets, visors and foot protection, can dramatically reduce the four effects, depending upon the charge, proximity and other variables.

QMrThe visible spectrum of light from hydrogen displays four wavelengths, 410 nm, 434 nm, 486 nm, and 656 nm, that correspond to emissions of photons by electrons in excited states transitioning to the quantum level described by the principal quantum number n equals 2.[1] There are also a number of ultraviolet Balmer lines with wavelengths shorter than 400 nm.

This Balmer series was used by Bohr to discover the nature of the atom

QMR I put this as well as many other examples in number theory that are the quadrant model in previous books

Chemistry Chapter

QMrBased on the processes responsible for their formation, sedimentary rocks can be subdivided into four groups: clastic sedimentary rocks, biochemical (or biogenic) sedimentary rocks, chemical sedimentary rocks and a fourth category for "other" sedimentary rocks formed by impacts, volcanism, and other minor processes.

QMrCurling is a sport in which players slide stones on a sheet of ice towards a target area which is segmented into four concentric circles. It is related to bowls, boules and shuffleboard. Two teams, each with four players, take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones, also called rocks, across the ice curling sheet towards the house, a circular target marked on the ice.[2] Each team has eight stones. The purpose is to accumulate the highest score for a game; points are scored for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the conclusion of each end, which is completed when both teams have thrown all of their stones. A game usually consists of eight or ten ends.

QMRIn a triangle, four basic types of sets of concurrent lines are altitudes, angle bisectors, medians, and perpendicular bisectors:

A triangle's altitudes run from each vertex and meet the opposite side at a right angle. The point where the three altitudes meet is the orthocenter.

Angle bisectors are rays running from each vertex of the triangle and bisecting the associated angle. They all meet at the incenter.

Medians connect each vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side. The three medians meet at the centroid.

Perpendicular bisectors are lines running out of the midpoints of each side of a triangle at 90 degree angles. The three perpendicular bisectors meet at the circumcenter.

Biology Chapter

QMRDengue vaccine is a vaccine to prevent dengue fever in humans. The development of vaccine for dengue fever began as early as 1929, but has been hindered by incomplete knowledge of the disease pathogenesis and by the need to simultaneously create a stable immunity against all four dengue serotypes. Several vaccine candidates are in development including live attenuated, inactivated, DNA and subunit vaccines. Live attenuated vaccine candidates are the furthest along in development.[1] Dengvaxia was approved for use in four countries in December 2015.

CYD-TDV is a live attenuated tetravalent chimeric vaccine made using recombinant DNA technology by replacing the PrM (pre-membrane) and E (envelope) structural genes of the yellow fever attenuated 17D strain vaccine with those from each of the four dengue serotypes.[2][3] Ongoing phase III trials in Latin America and Asia involve over 31,000 children between the ages of 2 and 14 years. In the first reports from the trials, vaccine efficacy was 56.5% in the Asian study and 64.7% in the Latin American study in patients who received at least one injection of the vaccine.[4][5] Efficacy varied by serotype. In both trials vaccine reduced by about 80% the number of severe dengue cases.[6] An analysis of both the Latin American and Asian studies at the 3rd year of follow-up showed that the efficacy of the vaccine was 65.6% in preventing hospitalization in children older than 9 years of age, but considerably greater (81.9%) for children who were seropositive (indicating previous dengue infection) at baseline.[7] The vaccination series consists of three injections at 0, 6 and 12 months.[3] The vaccine was approved in Mexico, Philippines, and Brazil in December 2015, expected to be the first among the 20 countries in the coming weeks. Tradenamed Dengvaxia, it is approved for use for those aged nine and older and can prevent all four serotypes.[8]

QMRHPV vaccines are used to prevent HPV infection and therefore cervical cancer.[1] They are recommended for women who are 9 to 25 years old who have not been exposed to HPV. However, since it is unlikely that a woman will have already contracted all four viruses, and because HPV is primarily sexually transmitted, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has recommended vaccination for women up to 26 years of age.

QMrGardasil is a prophylactic HPV vaccine, meaning that it is designed to prevent HPV infections. For maximum effect, it is recommended that girls receive the vaccine prior to becoming sexually active. However, women who were already infected with one or more of the four HPV types targeted by the vaccine (6, 11, 16, or 18) were protected from clinical disease caused by the remaining HPV types in the vaccine.

QMrMeningococcal vaccine refers to any of the vaccines used to prevent infection by Neisseria meningitidis.[1] Different versions are effective against some or all of the following types of meningococcus: A, C, W135, and Y. The vaccines are between 85 and 100% effective for at least two years.[1] They result in a decrease in meningitis and sepsis among populations where they are widely used.[2][3] They are given either by injection into a muscle or just under the skin.[1]

The World Health Organization recommends that countries with a moderate or high rate of disease or with frequent outbreaks should routinely vaccinate.[1][4] In countries with a low risk of disease, they recommend that high risk groups should be immunized.[1] In the African meningitis belt efforts to immunize all people between the ages of one and thirty with the meningococcal A conjugate vaccine are ongoing.[4] In Canada and the United States the vaccines effective against all four types of meningococcus are recommended routinely for teenagers and others who are at high risk.[1] They are also required for people travelling to Mecca for Hajj.[1]

QMRFour diseases were responsible for 98% of vaccine-preventable deaths: measles, Haemophilus influenzae serotype b, pertussis, and neonatal tetanus

QMRTypes[edit]

Vaccines work by presenting a foreign antigen to the immune system to evoke an immune response, but there are several ways to do this. Four main types are currently in clinical use:

An inactivated vaccine consists of virus or bacteria that are grown in culture and then killed using a method such as heat or formaldehyde. Although the virus or bacteria particles are destroyed and cannot replicate, the virus capsid proteins or bacterial wall are intact enough to be recognized and remembered by the immune system and evoke a response. When manufactured correctly, the vaccine is not infectious, but improper inactivation can result in intact and infectious particles. Since the properly produced vaccine does not reproduce, booster shots are required periodically to reinforce the immune response.

In an attenuated vaccine, live virus or bacteria with very low virulence are administered. They will replicate, but locally or very slowly. Since they do reproduce and continue to present antigen to the immune system beyond the initial vaccination, boosters may be required less often. These vaccines may be produced by passaging, for example, adapting a virus into different host cell cultures, such as in animals, or at suboptimal temperatures, allowing selection of less virulent strains, or by mutagenesis or targeted deletions in genes required for virulence. There is a small risk of reversion to virulence, which is smaller in vaccines with deletions. Attenuated vaccines also cannot be used by immunocompromised individuals. Reversions of virulence were described for a few attenuated viruses of chickens (infectious bursal disease virus, avian infectious bronchitis virus, avian infectious laryngotracheitis virus [3], avian metapneumovirus [4])[24]

Virus-like particle vaccines consist of viral protein(s) derived from the structural proteins of a virus. These proteins can self-assemble into particles that resemble the virus from which they were derived but lack viral nucleic acid, meaning that they are not infectious. Because of their highly repetitive, multivalent structure, virus-like particles are typically more immunogenic than subunit vaccines (described below). The human papillomavirus and Hepatitis B virus vaccines are two virus-like particle-based vaccines currently in clinical use.

A subunit vaccine presents an antigen to the immune system without introducing viral particles, whole or otherwise. One method of production involves isolation of a specific protein from a virus or bacterium (such as a bacterial toxin) and administering this by itself. A weakness of this technique is that isolated proteins may have a different three-dimensional structure than the protein in its normal context, and will induce antibodies that may not recognize the infectious organism. In addition, subunit vaccines often elicit weaker antibody responses than the other classes of vaccines.

A number of other vaccine strategies are under experimental investigation. These include DNA vaccination and recombinant viral vectors.

QMrEugenia uniflora is a large shrub or small tree with a conical form, growing slowly to 8 meters in height. When bruised, crushed or cut, the leaves and branches have a spicy resinous fragrance, which can cause respiratory discomfort in susceptible individuals. New leaves are bronze, copper or coppery-pinkish in color, maturing to a deep glossy green, up to 4 cm long. During winter the leaves turn red.

Flowers have four white petals and are borne on slender long stalks, with a conspicuous central cluster of white stamens ending in yellow anthers. Flowers develop into ribbed fruits 2 to 4 cm in diameter, starting out as green, then ranging through orange, scarlet and maroon as they ripen.

Uses[edit]

Fruit[edit]

The edible fruit is a botanical berry. The taste ranges from sweet to sour, depending on the cultivar and level of ripeness (the darker red to black range is quite sweet, while the green to orange range is strikingly tart). Its predominant food use is as a flavoring and base for jams and jellies. The fruit is high in vitamin C and a source of vitamin A.

QMrPicota is the name given to four varieties (cultivars) of sweet cherry grown from Prunus avium L.[1] within the Jerte, Ambroz and La Vera mountain valleys in the north of the province of Cáceres, in the Autonomous Community of Extremadura, Spain.[2] Picota varieties include; ‘Ambrunés’, ‘Pico Limón Negro’, ‘Pico Negro’ and ‘Pico Colorado’.[1]

QMRIn 1737, Carl Linnaeus used four genera to include the species of modern Prunus—Amygdalus, Cerasus, Prunus and Padus—but simplified it to Amygdalus and Prunus in 1758.[3] Since then, the various genera of Linnaeus and others have become subgenera and sections, as it is clearer that all the species are more closely related. Liberty Hyde Bailey says:[4]

QMrHi Ho! Cherry-O is a children's put and take board game currently published by Hasbro[1] in which two to four players spin a spinner in an attempt to collect cherries. The original edition, designed by Hermann Wernhard and first published in 1960 by Whitman Publishers,[citation needed] had players compete to collect 10 cherries. During an update in 2007,[2] the rules were updated to include a cooperative play variant, where players cooperate to remove all fruit from the board before a bird puzzle is completed.

QMRGaited horses are horse breeds that have selective breeding for natural gaited tendencies, that is, the ability to perform one of the smooth-to-ride, intermediate speed, four-beat horse gaits, collectively referred to as ambling gaits.[1]

QMRBefore the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypothesis were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes, labeled the "Tarpan", "Forest horse", Draft and "Oriental", each of which was hypothesized to have adapted to their environment prior to domestication.[2] However, more recent studies suggest that all domesticated horses originated from a single wild species and that the different body types of horses were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication,[3] or possibly landrace adaptation.

QMRGrandparents are the parents of a person's father or mother – paternal or maternal. Every sexually-reproducing creature who is not a genetic chimera has a maximum of four genetic grandparents, eight genetic great-grandparents, sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents

16 is the squares of the quadrant model

QMrIn 1991, the National Museum archaeological team discovered anthropomorphic secondary burial jars in Ayub Cave, Barangay Pinol, Maitum, Sarangani Province, Mindanao, Philippines. The jars are commonly known today as Maitum jars. They are made of earthenware, and are characterized by their design that suggests human figures with complete or partial facial features of the first inhabitants in Mindanao. Furthermore, they give emphasis to the Filipinos’ popular belief of life after death.

Since the eyes are believed to be expressive, the eyes portrayed in Maitum jars are given high regard in describing the dead. The eyes are classified to four major shapes: (1) Almond, (2) Ovaloid, (3) Round, and (4) Rectangular.

QMrPhysical Characteristics[edit]

Even though the burial jars are similar to that of the pottery found in Kulaman Plateau, Southern Mindanao and many more excavation sites here in the Philippines, what makes the Maitum jars uniquely different is how the anthropomorphic features depict “specific dead persons whose remains they guard”.

So far, there have been four classified kinds of cover and lid: (1) Anthropomorphic motif or head, (2) Trunconical with simple appliquéd design, (3) Simple ovaloid with four ear handles, and (4) Trunconical with adz shape and round spinning shape motif

Psychology Chapter

QMrRichard M. Weaver was a rhetorical and cultural critic well known for his contributions to the new conservatism. He focused on the ethical implications of rhetoric and his ideas can be seen in "Language is Sermonic" and "The Ethics of Rhetoric." According to Weaver there are four types of argument, and through the argument a person habitually uses the critic can see the rhetorician's worldview. Those who prefer the argument from genus or definition are idealists. Those who argue from similitude see the connectedness between things and are used by poets and religious individuals. The argument from consequence sees a cause and effect relationship. Finally the argument from circumstance considers the particulars of a situation and is an argument preferred by liberals.

QMRThe "nine dots" puzzle. The goal of the puzzle is to link all 9 dots using four straight lines or fewer, without lifting the pen and without tracing the same line more than once. One solution appears below.

Four better angels (Chapter 9)[edit]

Pinker examines four motives that "can orient [humans] away from violence and towards cooperation and altruism." He identifies:

Empathy: which "prompts us to feel the pain of others and to align their interests with our own."

Self-Control: which "allows us to anticipate the consequences of acting on our impulses and to inhibit them accordingly."

The Moral Sense: which "sanctifies a set of norms and taboos that govern the interactions among people in a culture." These sometimes decrease violence but can also increase it "when the norms are tribal, authoritarian, or puritanical."

Reason: which "allows us to extract ourselves from our parochial vantage points."

QMrThe Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined is a 2011 book by Steven Pinker, in which he argues that violence in the world has declined both in the long run and in the short run and suggests explanations as to why this has occurred.[1]

The book's title was taken from the ending of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln's first inaugural address. Pinker uses the phrase as a metaphor for four human motivations — empathy, self-control, the "moral sense," and reason — that, he writes, can "orient us away from violence and towards cooperation and altruism."[2]:xxv

QMRThe World Health Organization distinguishes four types of child maltreatment: physical abuse; sexual abuse; emotional and psychological abuse; and neglect.[2]

QMrLenore E. Walker presented the model of a Cycle of abuse which consists of four phases. First, there is a buildup to abuse when tension rises until a domestic violence incident ensues. During the reconciliation stage, the abuser may be kind and loving and then there is a period of calm. When the situation is calm, the abused person may be hopeful that the situation will change. Then, tensions begin to build, and the cycle starts again.[157]

QMRMichael P. Johnson argues that there are four major types of intimate partner violence (Johnson's Typology),[158] a finding supported by subsequent research.[159][160][161] Distinctions are made among the types of violence, motives of perpetrators, and the social and cultural context based upon patterns across numerous incidents and motives of the perpetrator.[159] Types of violence identified by Johnson:

Common couple violence (CCV) is not connected to general control behavior, but arises in a single argument where one or both partners physically lash out at the other.[159]

Intimate terrorism (IT) may also involve emotional and psychological abuse. Intimate terrorism is one element in a general pattern of control by one partner over the other. Intimate terrorism is more likely to escalate over time, not as likely to be mutual, and more likely to involve serious injury.[159] IT batterers include two types: "Generally-violent-antisocial" and "dysphoric-borderline". The first type includes people with general psychopathic and violent tendencies. The second type are people who are emotionally dependent on the relationship.[14][162] Support for this typology has been found in subsequent evaluations.[163][164]

Violent resistance (VR), sometimes thought of as self-defense, is violence perpetrated by victims against their abusive partners.[159]

Mutual violent control (MVC) is rare type of intimate partner violence occurring when both partners act in a violent manner, battling for control.[159]

QMrChild abuse is the physical, sexual or emotional maltreatment or neglect of a child or children.[109] In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Department for Children and Families (DCF) define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child.[110] Child abuse can occur in a child's home, or in the organizations, schools or communities the child interacts with. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect, physical abuse, psychological or emotional abuse, and sexual abuse.

QMRJohnson argues that there are four major types of intimate partner violence,[14][5] a finding supported by some[15] but rejected by others.[16] The types of violence identified by Johnson are:

Common couple violence (CCV).[15]

Intimate terrorism (IT).[15][17]

Violent resistance (VR).[15]

Mutual violent control (MVC): Johnson describes this as a couple who "could be viewed as two intimate terrorists battling for control".[15]

QMRMichael P. Johnson argues for four major types of intimate partner violence (Johnson's Typology),[39] which is supported by subsequent research and evaluation, as well as independent researchers.[40][41][42] Distinctions are made among the types of violence, motives of perpetrators, and the social and cultural context based upon patterns across numerous incidents and motives of the perpetrator.[40]

QMRViolence cannot be attributed to a single factor. Its causes are complex and occur at different levels. To represent this complexity, the ecological, or social ecological model is often used. The following four-level version of the ecological model is often used in the study of violence:

The first level identifies biological and personal factors that influence how individuals behave and increase their likelihood of becoming a victim or perpetrator of violence: demographic characteristics (age, education, income), genetics, brain lesions, personality disorders, substance abuse, and a history of experiencing, witnessing, or engaging in violent behaviour.[42][43]

The second level focuses on close relationships, such as those with family and friends. In youth violence, for example, having friends who engage in or encourage violence can increase a young person’s risk of being a victim or perpetrator of violence. For intimate partner violence, a consistent marker at this level of the model is marital conflict or discord in the relationship. In elder abuse, important factors are stress due to the nature of the past relationship between the abused person and the care giver.

The third level explores the community context—i.e., schools, workplaces, and neighbourhoods. Risk at this level may be affected by factors such as the existence of a local drug trade, the absence of social networks, and concentrated poverty. All these factors have been shown to be important in several types of violence.

Finally, the fourth level looks at the broad societal factors that help to create a climate in which violence is encouraged or inhibited: the responsiveness of the criminal justice system, social and cultural norms regarding gender roles or parent-child relationships, income inequality, the strength of the social welfare system, the social acceptability of violence, the availability of weapons, the exposure to violence in mass media, and political instability.

QMrSelf-regulation theory (SRT) is a system of conscious personal management that involves the process of guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors, and feelings to reach goals. Self-regulation consists of several stages, and individuals must function as contributors to their own motivation, behavior, and development within a network of reciprocally interacting influences. Roy Baumeister, one of the leading social psychologists who have studied self-regulation, claims it has four components: standards of desirable behavior, motivation to meet standards, monitoring of situations and thoughts that precede breaking said standards, and lastly, willpower.[1] Baumeister along with other colleagues developed three models of self-regulation designed to explain its cognitive accessibility: self-regulation as a knowledge structure, strength, or skill. Studies have been done to determine that the strength model is generally supported, because it is a limited resource in the brain and only a given amount of self-regulation can occur until that resource is depleted.[2] SRT can be applied to impulse control, management of short-term desires, cognitive bias of illusion of control, pain, goal attainment and motivation, or illness behavior, and failure can be explained by either under- or mis-regulation. Self-regulation has gained a lot of attention from researchers, psychologists, and educators, which has allowed it to grow and supplement many other components. It has been through the help of the several contributors to make it a relatable concept that has the ability to improve emotional well-being, achievement, initiative, and optimism.

Sociology Chapter

QMRWhen using the Boston Consulting Group Matrix, SBUs can appear within any of the four quadrants (Star, Question Mark, Cash Cow, Dog) as a circle whose area represents their size. With different colors, competitors may also be shown. The precise location is determined by the two axes, market Growth as the Y axis, Market Share as the X axis. Alternatively, changes over or two years can be shown by shading or other differences in design.xx.[1] Star products currently have high growth and high market-share. The Question Mark identifies products with low share but high growth. A Cash Cow has high share but low growth. Finally, Dog labels product which has low growth and low share.

The growth–share matrix (aka the product portfolio,[1] BCG-matrix, Boston matrix, Boston Consulting Group analysis, portfolio diagram) is a chart that was created by Bruce D. Henderson for the Boston Consulting Group in 1970 to help corporations to analyze their business units, that is, their product lines. This helps the company allocate resources and is used as an analytical tool in brand marketing, product management, strategic management, and portfolio analysis. Analysis of market performance by firms using its principles has recently called its usefulness into question.[2]

To use the chart, analysts plot a scatter graph to rank the business units (or products) on the basis of their relative market shares and growth rates.

Cash cows is where a company has high market share in a slow-growing industry. These units typically generate cash in excess of the amount of cash needed to maintain the business. They are regarded as staid and boring, in a "mature" market, yet corporations value owning them due to their cash generating qualities. They are to be "milked" continuously with as little investment as possible, since such investment would be wasted in an industry with low growth.

Dogs, more charitably called pets, are units with low market share in a mature, slow-growing industry. These units typically "break even", generating barely enough cash to maintain the business's market share. Though owning a break-even unit provides the social benefit of providing jobs and possible synergies that assist other business units, from an accounting point of view such a unit is worthless, not generating cash for the company. They depress a profitable company's return on assets ratio, used by many investors to judge how well a company is being managed. Dogs, it is thought, should be sold off.

Question marks (also known as problem children) are businesses operating with a low market share in a high growth market. They are a starting point for most businesses. Question marks have a potential to gain market share and become stars, and eventually cash cows when market growth slows. If question marks do not succeed in becoming a market leader, then after perhaps years of cash consumption, they will degenerate into dogs when market growth declines. Question marks must be analyzed carefully in order to determine whether they are worth the investment required to grow market share.

Stars are units with a high market share in a fast-growing industry. They are graduated question marks with a market or niche leading trajectory, for example: amongst market share front-runners in a high-growth sector, and/or having a monopolistic or increasingly dominant unique selling proposition with burgeoning/fortuitous proposition drive(s) from: novelty (e.g. Last.FM upon CBS Interactive's due diligence), fashion/promotion (e.g. newly prestigious celebrity branded fragrances), customer loyalty (e.g. greenfield or military/gang enforcement backed, and/or innovative, grey-market/illicit retail of addictive drugs, for instance the British East India Company's, late-1700s opium-based Qianlong Emperor embargo-busting, Canton System), goodwill (e.g. monopsonies) and/or gearing (e.g. oligopolies, for instance Portland cement producers near boomtowns),[citation needed] etc. The hope is that stars become next cash cows.

Stars require high funding to fight competitions and maintain a growth rate. When industry growth slows, if they remain a niche leader or are amongst market leaders they have been able to maintain their category leadership stars become cash cows, else they become dogs due to low relative market share.

QMRFollowing the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the country had four divisions: Chittagong Division, Dacca Division, Khulna Division and Rajshahi Division. In 1983, the English spelling of the Dacca Division (along with the name of the capital city) was changed into Dhaka to more closely match the Bengali pronunciation. In 1993, Barisal Division was split off from Khulna Division; in 1995, Sylhet Division was split off from Chittagong Division; and in 2010 (25 January), Rangpur Division was split off from Rajshahi Division, this latest creation consisting of the Rangpur and Dinajpur areas. In terms of area the newly formed Rangpur Division ranked fifth followed by Barisal and Sylhet division.[1] On 14 September 2015 Mymensigh was added as eighth division. In 2015 there started process to create two more divisions.

QMRThe Bangladesh Awami League styles itself as the leader of the "pro-liberation" forces in Bangladesh, promoting secular and social democratic sections of the political establishment in the country. The party constitution states, and in two cases defines the reason for, four fundamental principles in guiding its philosophy and policies.[5] They include:

Democracy

Socialism

Secularism

Nationalism

Before the 2008 general elections in Bangladesh, the Awami League announced in its manifesto, its "Vision 2021" and "Digital Bangladesh" action plans to transform Bangladesh into a fast-developing middle-income country by 2021.[6] The party uses the term "Shonar Bangla", or golden Bengal, to describe its vision for Bangladesh to become a modern developed nation. The term is reminiscent of Bangladesh's national anthem and a utopian vision in Bengali nationalism.

QMRSecularism (Bengali: ধর্ম নিরপেক্ষতা) is one of the four fundamental principles according to the original 1972 Constitution of Bangladesh. The secularism principle was removed from the Constitution in 1977 by Ziaur Rahman and Islam was declared the state religion. In 2010, the Bangladesh Supreme Court restored secularism as one of the basic tenets of the Constitution[1] but Islam remained the state religion.[2] Over 90% of Bangladeshis are Muslims, the rest being Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, and others.[3] People in Bangladesh observe various secular festivals at different times throughout the year. The ethos of secularism in South Asia is in many ways different from that of Western versions that assert complete separation of church and state. Rather, it is the freedom of individuals to practice the faith he or she desires without being subject to any form of state or communal discrimination.

Contents [hide]

1 Secularism in the Constitution

2 Impact of constitutional changes

3 History

3.1 Restoration by Supreme Court of secularism as state principle

4 See also

5 References

6 External links

Secularism in the Constitution[edit]

Secularism is one of the four fundamental principles that had been induced into the original Constitution of Bangladesh in 1972. The secularism principle was removed from the constitution in 1977 by the 5th amendment of the constitution by Ziaur Rahman and also declared Islam as the state religion. In 2010, Bangladesh Supreme Court declared the 5th amendment illegal and restored secularism as one of the basic tenets of the Constitution[4]

At present The Constitution of Bangladesh declares Secularism as one of the four fundamental principle of the state policy in Article-8 of Part-II[5] and also declares Islam as the state religion in Article-2A of Part-I.[6] In Article 12 of Part -II of the constitution which was restored by the 15th amendment states -

The principle of secularism shall be realised by the elimination of -

Communalism in all forms;

the granting by the state of political status in favour of any religion;

the abuse of religion for political purposes;

any discrimination against, or persecution of, persons practicing a particular religion."[7]

Scholar's Mate (also known as the four-move checkmate) is the checkmate achieved by the moves:

1. e4 e5 2. Qh5 Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6? 4. Qxf7#

The moves might be played in a different order or in slight variation, but the basic idea is the same: the queen and bishop combine in a simple mating attack on f7 (or f2 if Black is performing the mate).[39] There are also other ways to checkmate in four moves

QMRBasic checkmates[edit]

There are four fundamental checkmates when one side has only his king and the other side has only the minimum material needed to force checkmate, i.e. (1) one queen, (2) one rook, (3) two bishops on opposite-colored squares, or (4) a bishop and a knight. The king must help in accomplishing all of these checkmates. If the superior side has more material, checkmates are easier.[17]

The checkmate with the queen is the most common, and easiest to achieve. It often occurs after a pawn has queened. A checkmate with the rook is also common, but a checkmate with the two bishops or with a bishop and knight only occur relatively infrequently. The two bishop checkmate is fairly easy to accomplish, but the bishop and knight checkmate is difficult and requires precision.[citation needed]

QMRThe Strategic Position and Action Evaluation (SPACE) Matrix

The SPACE matrix is just a little bit more complex than the SWOT analysis. The SPACE matrix evaluates different variables and assigns them a score considering how important they are for the situation of the company. It analyzes four different areas (two internal to the company and two external) that will represent four quadrants in a graphic. The purpose of this matrix is to situate the company in one of these four quadrants and give a suggestion –according to which quadrant results- about what type of strategies a company should follow: conservative, aggressive, defensive or competitive. But, how do we come up with the quadrant where our company is located? The first step is to address each of the four areas of question: the internal strategic dimensions represented by the financial strength (FS) and the competitive advantage (CA); and the external strategic dimensions represented by the environmental stability (ES) and the industry strength (IS) (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Let’s see each of these categories:

Internal strategic dimensions

Financial strength (FS)

It includes everything that refers to the financials of the company. We can consider the Return on Investment (ROI), which is how much money is recovered from each unit of money invested, the liquidity of the company –it means how easy a company can make cash all his assets- and the cash flow. Each one of these variables is given a numeric value from 1 (worst) to 6 (best) according to our perception of how good the company is doing regarding that variable. If the company has a high ROI compared to the industry, the variable can have a 6; conversely, in the case of a Web based company that has not much concrete materials to sell, the liquidity will be low, let’s say 2. Experience is required to evaluate each factor as there is no procedure defined on how to do it. The result will mostly depend on knowledgeable people that can have an idea of how these variables weigh among each other within the company.

Competitive Advantage (CA)

This is the next variable considered in the internal strategic dimension. Market share, quality of the product, product life cycle, customer loyalty, the know-how and the power of company over its suppliers and intermediaries are some of the variables to be considered. As in the other internal strategic dimension, each variable considered is given a numerical value, but in this case from -1 (being the best) to -6 (being the worst).

External strategic dimensions

Industry strength (IS)

It considers external forces that belong to the industry where the company develops its activities. Variables as growth potential, profit potential, financial stability, resource utilization and productivity are considered. As well, in this dimension each of these variables is given a score that goes from 1 (worse) to 6 (best).

Environmental stability (ES)

Last, ES is considered. It refers to how stable is the market where the company operates. Things like rate of technological change, inflation, demand variability, price range of competing products, risks of the industry and the barriers to enter or exit the market are considered. The more stable is the market; more favorable is for the company to operate in it. A score from -1 (best) to -6 (worst) is given to each of the variables considered.

QMrMendelow's matrix

Stakeholder mapping

Stakeholder mapping can help deal with stakeholders' conflicting demands. It identifies stakeholder expectations and power and helps in establishing political priorities. The process involves making decisions on the following two issues.

How interested the stakeholder is to impress their expectations on the organisation's choice of strategies, i.e. how likely is the stakeholder to exercise power?

To what extent the stakeholder has power to impose its wants?

Mendelow's matrix

CIMAstudy

Mendelow proposed a matrix to help analyse stakeholders.

Understanding the matrix

The matrix is normally completed with regard to the stakeholder impact of a particular strategy.

The purpose is to assess:

whether stakeholder resistance is likely to inhibit the success of the strategy

what policies may ease the acceptance of the strategy?

The following strategies might be applicable to each quadrant:

Box A - Minimum effort

Their lack of interest and power makes them open to influence. They are more likely than others to accept what they are told and follow instructions.

Box B - Keep informed

These stakeholders are interested in the strategy but lack the power to do anything. Management needs to convince opponents to the strategy that the plans are justified; otherwise they will try to gain power by joining with parties in boxes C and D.

Box C - Keep satisfied

The key here is to keep these stakeholders satisfied to avoid them gaining interest and moving to box D. This could involve reassuring them of the outcomes of the strategy well in advance.

Box D - Key players / participation

These stakeholders are the major drivers of change and could stop management plans if not satisfied. Management, therefore, needs to communicate plans to them and then discuss implementation issues.

QMr1 August 2012 - four bomb explosion at various locations on JM Road, Pune injured 1 person[24]

QMrIndia subdivides terrorism in four major groups:[13][16]

Ethno-nationalist terrorism - This form of terror focuses either (a) on creating a separate State within India or independent of India or in a neighboring country, or (b) on emphasising the views/response of one ethnic group against another. Violent Tamil Nationalist groups from India to address the condition of Tamils in Sri Lanka, as well as insurgent tribal groups in North East India are examples of ethno-nationalist terrorist activities.[5]

Religious terrorism - This form of terror focuses on religious imperatives, a presumed duty or in solidarity for a specific religious group, against one or more religious groups. Mumbai 26/11 terror attack in 2008 from an Islamic group in Pakistan is an example of religious terrorism in India.[17]

Left wing terrorism - This form of terror focuses on economic ideology, where all the existing socio-political structures are seen to be economically exploitative in character and a revolutionary change through violent means is essential.[5][18] The ideology of Marx, Engel, Mao, Lenin and others are considered as the only valid economic path. Maoist violence in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh are examples of left wing terrorism in India.[6]

Narco terrorism - This form of terror focuses on creating illegal narcotics traffic zones.[19] Drug violence in northwest India is an example of narco-terrorism in India.[7]

QMrOn the morning of 18 November 2014, two Palestinian men from Jerusalem entered Kehilat Bnei Torah synagogue, in the Har Nof neighborhood of Jerusalem, Israel, and attacked the praying congregants with axes, knives, and a gun. They killed four dual-nationality worshippers

QMROn November 5, 2014, California authorities arrested Chase Merritt in connection with the deaths of the McStay family after discovering his DNA in the McStay's car. His arrest was announced on November 7, 2014. Merritt was Joseph McStay's business partner.[3] Merritt is awaiting trial for four counts of murder, and the district attorney is seeking the death penalty. In July 2015, Merritt's defense attorney filed a request to have the case dismissed because of the wording used by the prosecution when the charges were filed.[28]

According to arrest warrant affidavits filed in the case, autopsies concluded that all four victims had been beaten to death with a blunt object, and investigators believe the murder weapon was a 3-pound Stanley brand sledgehammer, which was found in the grave where Summer McStay and one of her sons were buried. Investigators testified that they believe the victims were tortured before they were killed.[29]

QMrThe culture of domesticity (often shortened to "cult of domesticity" [1]) or cult of true womanhood[a] was a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the nineteenth century in the United States[2] and Great Britain. This value system emphasized new ideas of femininity, the woman's role within the home and the dynamics of work and family. "True women" were supposed to possess four cardinal virtues: piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness.[3][4] The women and men who most actively promoted these standards were generally white, Protestant, and lived in New England and the Northeastern United States.[5] The cult of domesticity revolved around the women being the center of the family; they were considered "The light of the home".According to Welter (1966), "true women" were to hold and practice the four cardinal virtues:[3]

Piety – Religion was valued because—unlike intellectual pursuits—it did not take a woman away from her "proper sphere," the home, and because it controlled women's longings.

Purity – Virginity, a woman's greatest treasure, must not be lost until her marriage night, and married women had to remain committed only to their husbands.

Submission – True women were required to be as submissive and obedient "as little children" because men were regarded as women's superiors "by God's appointment".

Domesticity – A woman's proper place was in the home and her role as a wife was to create a refuge for her husband and children. Cooking, needlework, making beds, and tending flowers were considered naturally feminine activities, whereas reading anything other than religious biographies was discouraged.

Physically, "true women" were described as delicate, soft and weak.[14] The characteristics of "true womanhood" were described in sermons and religious texts as well as women's magazines.[15] In the United States, Peterson's Magazine and Godey's Lady's Book were the most widely circulated women's magazines[10] and were popular among both women and men.[16] Magazines which promoted the values of the Cult of Domesticity fared better financially than those competing magazines which offered a more progressive view in terms of women's roles.[10] With a circulation of 150,000 by 1860,[17] Godey's reflected and supported the ideals of the Cult of True Womanhood.[10] The magazine's paintings and pictures illustrated the four virtues, often showing women with children or behind husbands. It also equated womanhood with motherhood and being a wife, declaring that the "perfection of womanhood (...) is the wife and mother".[18][19] The magazine presented motherhood as a woman's natural and most satisfying role, and encouraged women to find their fulfillment and their contributions to society strictly within the home.[20]

Reflecting the ideal of True Womanhood, Godey's considered mothers as crucial in preserving the memory of the American Revolution and in securing its legacy by raising the next generation of citizens.[21] Prescriptive literature advised women on how to transform their homes into domestic sanctuaries for their husbands and children.[22] Fashion was also stressed because a woman had to stay up to date in order to please her husband. Instructions for seamstresses were often included.

QMrWhat qualifies as postcolonial literature is debatable. The term postcolonial literature has taken on many meanings. The four subjects include:

Social and cultural change or erosion:[5] It seems that after independence is achieved, one main question arises; what is the new cultural identity?

Misuse of power and exploitation: Even though the large power ceases to control them as a colony, the settlers still seem to continue imposing power over the native.[5] The main question here is who really is in power, why, and how does an independence day really mean independence?

Colonial abandonment and alienation: This topic is generally brought up to examine individuals and not the ex-colony as a whole.[5] The individuals tend to ask themselves; in this new country, where do I fit in and how do I make a living?

Use of English language literature: It may be asked if the target of post-colonial studies, i.e. the analysis of post-colonial literature and culture, can be reached neglecting literary works in the original languages of post-colonial nations.

QMRI put this in an earlier book

The fourth is always different. The Zodiac coined his name in a series of taunting letters he sent to the press until 1974. His letters included four cryptograms or ciphers, three of which have yet to be solved. He lists four ways to kill somebody. The Zodiac sign is a cross/quadrant

QMRThe German sociologist Max Weber proposed an interpretation of social action that distinguished between four different idealized types of rationality. The first, which he called Zweckrational or purposive/instrumental rationality, is related to the expectations about the behavior of other human beings or objects in the environment. These expectations serve as means for a particular actor to attain ends, ends which Weber noted were "rationally pursued and calculated." The second type, Weber called Wertrational or value/belief-oriented. Here the action is undertaken for what one might call reasons intrinsic to the actor: some ethical, aesthetic, religious or other motive, independent of whether it will lead to success. The third type was affectual, determined by an actor's specific affect, feeling, or emotion—to which Weber himself said that this was a kind of rationality that was on the borderline of what he considered "meaningfully oriented." The fourth was traditional or conventional, determined by ingrained habituation. Weber emphasized that it was very unusual to find only one of these orientations: combinations were the norm. His usage also makes clear that he considered the first two as more significant than the others, and it is arguable that the third and fourth are subtypes of the first two.

QMRHofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural communication, developed by Geert Hofstede. It describes the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.[1]

Hofstede developed his original model as a result of using factor analysis to examine the results of a world-wide survey of employee values by IBM between 1967 and 1973. It has been refined since. The original theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values could be analyzed: individualism-collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity-femininity (task orientation versus person-orientation)

QMROne twelfth of the time from sunrise to sunset. As a consequence, hours on summer days were longer than on winter days, their length varying with latitude and even, to a small extent, with the local weather (since it affects the atmosphere's index of refraction). For this reason, these hours are sometimes called temporal, seasonal, or unequal hours. Romans, Greeks and Jews of the ancient world used this definition (although Jews of the Old Testament period did not have a word for hour and did not keep time this way);[4] as did the ancient Chinese and Japanese. The Romans and Greeks also divided the night into three or four night watches, but later the night (the time between sunset and sunrise) was also divided into twelve hours. When, in post-classical times, a clock showed these hours, its period had to be changed every morning and evening (for example by changing the length of its pendulum), or it had to keep to the position of the Sun on the ecliptic (see Prague Astronomical Clock).

QMRFour Hours in My Lai is a 1989 television documentary made by Yorkshire Television concerning the 1968 My Lai Massacre by the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War. The film includes interviews with soldiers at the massacre, and the later trials of those involved. The programme first broadcast on ITV as part of Yorkshire Television's First Tuesday documentaries.[1] Michael Bilton and Kevin Sim, who created the film, based their book of the same name off of the documentary; after release, the book was met with mixed reception.

QMRSociety[edit]

Nisga’a society is organized into four tribes:

G̱anada (Raven)

Gisḵ’aast (Killer Whale)

Lax̱gibuu (Wolf)

Lax̱sgiik (Eagle)

QMRThe Wichita people are a confederation of Midwestern Native Americans. Historically they spoke the Wichita language, a Caddoan language. They are indigenous to Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Today the four Wichita tribes — the Waco, Taovaya, Tawakoni, and the Wichita proper — are federally recognized with the Kichai people as the Wichita and Affiliated Tribes (Wichita, Keechi, Waco and Tawakoni).

QMRUrban tribes[edit]

People of the city of Rome itself, typically belonged to the four urban tribes,[3] which were the largest and had the least political power. These tribes were named for districts of the city.

Collina

Esquilina

Palatina

Suburana

QMRThe Pawnee, which included four tribes, lived in villages along the Platte River. In the mid-nineteenth century, they ceded all of their lands in Nebraska to the United States except one reservation; in 1876 they surrendered this tract and moved to Indian Territory. The battle of Massacre Canyon on August 5, 1873, was the last major battle between the Pawnee and the Sioux. About 70 Pawnee were killed, mostly women and children.[14]

QMRThe Pawnee are a Midwestern Native American tribe historically inhabiting territory on the Great plains along the Missouri river in present-day Nebraska and in northern Kansas. They are federally recognized as the Pawnee nation, now headquartered in Oklahoma. The tribal nation has four confederated bands: the Chaui, Kitkehakhi, Pitaharuet and Skiri.

QMRAnthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:

Hunter-gatherer bands, which are generally egalitarian.

Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.

Stratified tribal societies led by chieftains (see Chiefdom).

Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.

QMRThe Four Tribes of Tara consisted of the O'Harts, O'Kelly's, O'Connolly, and the O'Regan. The princes of Tara were also styled princes of Bregia, to and contained the districts about Tara, Trim, Navan, Athboy, part of Dublin north of the Liffey.

QMRSuccession in Tsimshian society is matrilineal, and one's place in society was determined by one's clan or phratry (defined as four equal parts). Four main Tsimshian clans form the basic phratry. The Laxsgiik (Eagle Clan) and Ganhada (Raven Clan) form one half. Gispwudwada (Killer Whale Clan) and Laxgibuu (Wolf Clan) form the other half. Prior to European contact, marriage in Tsimshian society could not take place within a half-group, for example between a Wolf and a Killer Whale. It was considered to be incest even if there was no blood relationship. Marriages were only arranged between people from clans in different halves: for example, between a Killer Whale and a Raven or Eagle.

QMrThe four major civil rights organizations are (SNCC, CORE, NAACP and SCLC

Religion Chapter

Terminology[edit]

The Chinese mytho-geography and cosmography of the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE) was based upon a round heaven and a square earth. Tianxia 天下 "[everywhere] under heaven; the world" encompassed Huaxia 華夏 "China" (also known as Hua, Xia, etc.) in the center surrounded by non-Chinese "barbarian" peoples. See the Hua–Yi distinction for details of this literally Sinocentric worldview.

The Siyi construct, or a similar one, was a logical necessity for the ancient tianxia system. Liu Junping and Huang Deyuan (2006:532) describe the universal monarch with combined political, religious, and cultural authorities: "According to the Chinese in the old times, heaven and earth were matched with yin and yang, with the heaven (yang) superior and the earth (yin) inferior; and the Chinese as an entity was matched with the inferior ethnic groups surrounding it in its four directions so that the kings could be valued and the barbarians could be rejected." The authors (2006:535) propose that Chinese ideas about the "nation" and "state" of China evolved from the "casual use of such concepts as "tianxia", "hainei"( four corners within the sea) and "siyi" 四夷 (barbarians in four directions)."

Located in the cardinal directions of tianxia were the sifang 四方 "Four Directions/Corners", situ 四土 "Four Lands/Regions", sihai 四海 "Four Seas", and Siyi 四夷 "Four Barbarians/Foreigners". The (c. 3rd century BCE) Erya (9, Wilkinson 2000: 710) defines sihai as " the place where the barbarians lived, hence by extension, the barbarians": "九夷, 八狄,七戎, 六蠻, 謂之四海" – "the nine Yi, eight Di, seven Rong, and six Man are called the four seas".

These Siyi directionally comprised Yi 夷 to the east of China, Man 蠻 in the south, Rong 戎 in the west, and Di 狄 in the north. Unlike the English language with one general word barbarian meaning "uncultured or uncivilized peoples", Chinese had many specific exonyms for foreigners. Scholars such as Herrlee Glessner Creel (1970: 197) agree that Yi, Man, Rong, and Di were originally the Chinese names of particular ethnic groups or tribes. During the Spring and Autumn Period (771–476 BC), these four exonyms were expanded into (Pu 2005: 45) "general designations referring to the barbarian tribes". The Russian anthropologist Mikhail Kryukov concluded.

Evidently, the barbarian tribes at first had individual names, but during about the middle of the first millennium B.C., they were classified schematically according to the four cardinal points of the compass. This would, in the final analysis, mean that once again territory had become the primary criterion of the we-group, whereas the consciousness of common origin remained secondary. What continued to be important were the factors of language, the acceptance of certain forms of material culture, the adherence to certain rituals, and, above all, the economy and the way of life. Agriculture was the only appropriate way of life for the Hua-Hsia. (Jettmar 1983: 229)

Yi, Man, Rong, and Di were further generalized into compounds (such as Rongdi, Manyi, and Manyirongdi) denoting "non-Chinese; foreigners; barbarians."

The Yi in Siyi had both specific denotations (e.g., Huaiyi 淮夷 "Huai River barbarians" and Xiyi 西夷 "western barbarians") and generalized references to "barbarian" (e.g., Siyi "Four Barbarians"). The sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank (1983: 440) says the name Yi "furnished the primary Chinese term for 'barbarian'," but "Paradoxically the Yi were considered the most civilized of the non-Chinese peoples.

The Old Chinese pronunciation of Modern Chinese yí 夷 is reconstructed as *dyər (Bernhard Karlgren), *ɤier (Zhou Fagao), *ləj (William H. Baxter), and *l(ə)i (Axel Schuessler). Schuessler (2007: 563) defines Yi as "The name of non-Chinese tribes, prob[ably] Austroasiatic, to the east and southeast of the central plain (Shandong, Huái River basin), since the Spring and Autumn period also a general word for 'barbarian'", and proposes a "sea" etymology, "Since the ancient Yuè (=Viet) word for 'sea' is said to have been yí, the people's name might have originated as referring to people living by the sea".

Oracle bone script for shi 尸 "corpse" and yi 夷 "barbarian"

The modern character 夷 for yi, like the Qin Dynasty seal script, is composed of 大 "big" and 弓 "bow" – but the earliest Shang Dynasty oracle bone script was used interchangeably for yi and shi 尸 "corpse", depicting a person with bent back and dangling legs (Hanyu Da Zidian 1986 1: 527). The archeologist and scholar Guo Moruo believed the oracle graph for yi denotes "a dead body, i.e., the killed enemy", while the bronze graph denotes "a man bound by a rope, i.e., a prisoner or slave".[1] Ignoring this historical paleography, the Chinese historian K. C. Wu (1982: 107-108) claimed that Yi 夷 should not be translated as "barbarian" because the modern graph implies a big person carrying a bow, someone to perhaps be feared or respected, but not to be despised.

Buddhism Chapter

QMRThe four parajikas (defeats) are rules entailing expulsion from the sangha for life. If a monk breaks any one of the rules he is automatically "defeated" in the holy life and falls from monkhood immediately. He is not allowed to become a monk again in his lifetime. Intention is necessary in all these four cases to constitute an offence. The four parajikas for bhikkus are:

Sexual intercourse: any voluntary sexual interaction between a bhikku and a living being, except for mouth-to-mouth intercourse which falls under the sanghadisesa.

Stealing: the robbery of anything worth more than 1/24 troy ounce of gold (as determined by local law).

Intentionally bringing about the death of a human being, even if it is still an embryo — whether by killing the person, arranging for an assassin to kill the person, inciting the person to die, or describing the advantages of death.[1]

Deliberately lying to another person that one has attained a superior human state, such as claiming to be an arahat when one knows one is not, or claiming to have attained one of the jhanas when one knows one has not.

The parajikas are more specific definitions of the first four of the Five Precepts.

QMRSiyi (Four Barbarians)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Siyi (disambiguation).

Siyi

Chinese name

Chinese 四夷

Literal meaning four barbarians

[show]Transcriptions

Korean name

Hangul 사이

[show]Transcriptions

Japanese name

Kanji 四夷

Hiragana しい

[show]Transcriptions

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Siyi was a derogatory Chinese name for various peoples bordering ancient China, namely, the Dongyi 東夷 "Eastern Barbarians", Nanman 南蠻 "Southern Barbarians", Xirong 西戎 "Western Barbarians", and Beidi 北狄 "Northern Barbarians".

QMrThe brahmavihāras (sublime attitudes, lit. "abodes of brahma") are a series of four Buddhist virtues and the meditation practices made to cultivate them. They are also known as the four immeasurables (Sanskrit: apramāṇa, Pāli: appamaññā).[1][2]

According to the Metta Sutta, Gautama Buddha held that cultivation of the four immeasurables has the power to cause the practitioner to be reborn into a "Brahmā realm" (Pāli: Brahmaloka).[3] The meditator is instructed to radiate out to all beings in all directions the states of:

loving-kindness or benevolence

compassion

empathetic joy

equanimity

The four immeasurables are also found in the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali (1.33),[4] a text composed long after the beginning of Buddhism and substantially influenced by Buddhism.[5][6] These virtues are also highly regarded by Buddhists as powerful antidotes to negative mental states (non-virtues) such as avarice, anger and pride.

Christianity Chapter

QMRFarewell Discourse

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with Muhammad's Farewell Sermon.

Jesus saying farewell to his eleven remaining disciples, from the Maesta by Duccio, 1308–1311.

In the New Testament, Chapters 14-17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell Discourse given by Jesus to eleven of his disciples immediately after the conclusion of the Last Supper in Jerusalem, the night before his crucifixion.[1]

The discourse is generally seen as having distinct components.[2] First, Jesus tells the disciples that he will be going away to the Father, that he will send the Holy Spirit to guide the disciples.[2] Jesus bestows peace on the disciples and commands them to love one another. The expression of the unity of love between Jesus and his Father, in the Spirit, as it applies to his disciples in the love of Christ, is a key theme in the discourse, manifested by several reiterations of the New Commandment: "love one another as I have loved you".[3]

The next part of the discourse contains the allegory of The Vine which positions Jesus as the vine (the source of life for the world) and the disciples as the branches, building on the pattern of discipleship in the gospels.[4][5] The Vine again emphasizes the love among the disciples, but Jesus then warns the disciples of upcoming persecutions: "If the world hates you, remember that they hated me before you".[1] "I have told you these things, so that in me you may have peace. In this world you will have trouble. But take heart! I have overcome the world." John 16:33

In the final part of the discourse (John 17:1-26) Jesus prays for his followers and the coming Church. This is the longest prayer of Jesus in any of the gospels, and is known as the Farewell Prayer or the High Priestly Prayer.[6][7] The key themes of the prayer are the glorification of the Father and petitions for the unity of the disciples through love.[2] Jesus prays to the Father that his followers "may all be one as we are one" and that "the love with which you love me may be in them, and I in them."[2][6]

Structure and overview[edit]

Papyrus 108 (second or third century) containing John 17:23-24 from the end of the Farewell discourse

Although chapters 13 to 17 of John may be viewed as a larger, monolithic unit, most of chapter 13 may be viewed as a preparation for the farewell, and the farewell prayer in chapter 17 as its conclusion.[8][9]

The discourse is preceded by 13:31-38 (just after Judas leaves the last supper), in which Jesus gives the remaining eleven disciples the New Commandment to "love one another" and predicts Peter's denial of knowing him during his upcoming crucifixion. The discourse starts after the literal cleansing (washing of feet) and the figurative cleansing of the community of disciples via the departure of Judas.[10]

The discourse may be separated into four components:[6][11]

First discourse: 14:1-31, The theme of this part is departure and return; peace and joy, and is similar to the third discourse. Jesus states that he will be going to the Father, but will send the "Comforter" for the disciples

Second discourse: 15:1-17. This part is also called the Vine and deals with Jesus' love and how Jesus is the source of life for the community. At the end of this, it leads to the discussion of the world's hatred in the next section.

Third discourse: 15:18-16:33. This section again deals with Jesus' departure and the Comforter which will come to the disciples; and contrasts Jesus' love with the world's hatred.

The "Farewell Prayer": 17:1-26. Here Jesus submits five specific petitions to the Father as he prays for his disciples and the community of followers.[6]

However, this four part structure is not subject to universal agreement among scholars, and at times, the third part is assumed to start at beginning of chapter 16 of John.[2] Some scholars use a three part structure in which chapters 15 and 16 form one unit.[4]

The statement "these things I have spoken to you" occurs several times throughout the discourse, and emphasizes that the words of farewell spoken by Jesus are not to be forgotten.[12] The statement "while I am still with you" then also underscores the importance of the final instructions given.[12]

This discourse is rich with Christological content, e.g. it reiterates the Pre-existence of Christ in John 17:5 when Jesus refers to the glory which he had with the Father "before the world was".[13]

The four elements of the discourse[edit]

Part 1: My peace I give unto you[edit]

Statue of Jesus giving his blessing, Notre-Dame Cathedral

The three components here are:[2]

Jesus says that he will go to the Father and reasserts his divine relationship with him (14:1-14)

Commandment of love, and the arrival of the Holy Spirit (14:15-24)

Jesus bestows peace and reassures the disciples not be fearful (14:25-31)

At the start of this part Jesus tells the disciples that he will go to the Father, causing them to be nervous about his departure. Yet he assures them that he will "go to prepare a place" for them in his Father's house and that they know that the way there is through him.[10] The statement in John 14:6:

"I am the way, and the truth, and the life: no one cometh unto the Father, but by me."

which identifies Jesus as the only path to the Father then formed part of the teachings in the early Christian community, with Apostle Peter stating in Acts 4:12:[10]

"And in none other is there salvation: for neither is there any other name under heaven, that is given among men, wherein we must be saved."

to identify Jesus as the only path to salvation.[10] Jesus then asserts his unity with the Father in John 14:7-9:[14]

"If you know me, then you will also know my Father" and "Whoever has seen me has seen the Father".

The statement in John 14:11 "I am in the Father, and the Father in me" further asserts the special relationship of Jesus and the father.[10]

The statement in John 14:26: "the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name" is within the framework of the "sending relationships" in John's gospel.[15] In John 9:4 (and also 14:24) Jesus refers to the father as "him that sent me", and in John 20:21 states "as the Father hath sent me, even so send I you" where he sends the disciples. In John 15:26 Jesus also sends the Spirit: "whom I will send unto you from the Father, [even] the Spirit of truth... shall bear witness of me"[15] In John's gospel, the Father is never sent, he is "the sender" of both Jesus and the Holy Spirit. Jesus also sends the Holy Spirit. The Spirit is never the sender, but is sent by both the Father and Jesus.[15]

The bestowing of peace by Jesus in 14:27 specifically contrasts it with political "worldly peace" by stating:[15]

"Peace I leave with you; my peace I give unto you: not as the world giveth, give I unto you."

Koestenberger states that this was likely to contrast the "Heavenly peace" of Jesus with attempts at worldly peace at the time such as the Pax Romana instituted by Emperor Augustus.[15] The use of the word peace (eleos in Greek) is rare in John's Gospel and apart from one other case in the Farewell Discourse (16:33) it is only used by the resurrected Jesus in John 20:19-26.[16]

Part 2: I am the vine, you the branches[edit]

Main article: The Vine

Christ the True Vine, 16th century Greek icon

This part is a meditation on Jesus as the source of life for the community and builds on the pattern of discipleship in the gospels.[4][5]

In the beginning Jesus states: "I am the true vine", leading to the use of the term The Vine to refer to this teaching.[4] The disciples (and hence the community) are then referred to as the branches that depend on the vine:

"I am the vine, ye are the branches: He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same beareth much fruit: for apart from me ye can do nothing." - John 15:5

The passages in John 15:9-10 then draw parallels between the relationship between Jesus and the disciples with that of The Father and Jesus:[5]

"as the Father hath loved me, I also have loved you"

"keep my commandments ... as I have kept my Father's commandments".

Later in the discourse, this pattern is repeated in John 17:18 in which Jesus "sends the disciples to the world", just as the Father had sent him to the world.[10]

This pattern of discipleship reemphasizes the Good Shepherd teachings in John 10:1-21 in which one "lays down his life" in obedience.[5][17]

The theme of the instruction then emphasizes that abiding in Jesus results in fruitfulness, and is way in withering away.[4] And Jesus now refers to his disciples as friends:

"Ye are my friends, if ye do the things which I command you."- John 15:14

This component of the discourse again ends in 15:17 by reiterating the importance of love: "These things I command you, that ye may love one another."[4]

Part 3: If the world hates you[edit]

Stained glass window with a quote from the Farewell Discourse: "In the world ye shall have tribulation."

In John 15:18-16:33 Jesus prepares his disciples for conflict and hatred by the world, reminding them he had also faced adversity:[1]

"If the world hateth you, ye know that it hath hated me before [it hated] you." ... "They hated me without a cause."

Warning the disciples of coming persecutions he says:[1]

"If they persecuted me, they will also persecute you"

This again draws parallels between Jesus and his disciples, as had been drawn earlier in the discourse.[4] In the First Epistle of John (3:13) the brethren are reminded of this again: "Marvel not, brethren, if the world hateth you".[4] Drawing parallels again, Jesus states in John 15:23:

"He that hateth me hateth my Father also"

But Jesus comforts the disciples by assuring them that he will send the "Spirit of Truth" to bear his witness:[1]

"But when the Comforter is come, whom I will send unto you from the Father, [even] the Spirit of truth, which proceedeth from the Father, he shall bear witness of me"

And Jesus adds that unless he departs the Holy Spirit will not arrive, and indicates that the continuation of his work in the world will be carried out by the Holy Spirit.[18]

Jesus also assures the disciples of the love of the Father for them, again drawing parallels:[4]

"Father himself loveth you, because ye have loved me, and have believed that I came forth from the Father."

"In the world ye have tribulation: but be of good cheer; I have overcome the world."

After these statements, Jesus begins a series of prayers for the disciples.

Part 4: Farewell prayer[edit]

See also: That they may all be one

Jesus at the Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci

John 17:1-26 is generally known as the Farewell Prayer or the High Priestly Prayer, given that it is an intercession for the coming Church.[6][19] It is by far the longest prayer of Jesus in any of the gospels.[7] While the earlier parts of the discourse are addressed to the disciples, this final part addresses the Father, as Jesus turns his eyes to heaven and prays.[6]

The prayer takes place at a unique time in the ministry of Jesus, at the end of his final instructions to his followers, and at the start of his Passion.[7] Once the prayer has ended, the events of Jesus' Passion and the end of his earthly life unfold rather quickly.[7] In the prayer, for one last time Jesus gives an account of his earthly ministry to the Father and by praying to him reiterates his total dependence on the Father.[7]

The prayer begins with Jesus' petition for his glorification by the Father, given that completion of his work and continues to an intercession for the success of the works of his disciples and the community of his followers.[6]

A key theme of the prayer is the glorification of the Father. In the first part Jesus talks with the Father about their relationship, thus indirectly reiterating that to the disciples.[2]

Then reflecting the nature of their relationship, Jesus asks the Father to glorify him as he has glorified the Father, as he had in his earthly ministry - referring to the theme of eternal life, stating in John 17:3:[2]

"And this is life eternal, that they should know thee the only true God"

The Farewell Prayer consists of the following five petitions:[6]

17:1-5: Petition for glorification based on the completion of his work

17:6-10: Petitions for his disciples

17:11-19: Petition for the preservation and sanctification of "his own" in the world

17:20-23: Petition for unity of "his own"

17:24-26: Petition for the union of "his own" with himself

The last two petitions are for unity, as characterized by:

"I have given them the glory that you gave me, that they may be one as we are one." - John 17:22

"I made known unto them thy name, and will make it known; that the love with which thou loves me may be in them, and I in them." - John 17:26

with the final petition being for the eternal unity of Jesus with his followers.[2]

Jesus (on the right) being accused by the Pharisees, the day after the Last Supper, by Duccio

The references to "thy name" in John 17:6 and John 17:26 emphasize the importance of the name of God in Christianity, which in Christian teachings (e.g. by Cyril of Alexandria) has been seen as a representation of the entire system of "divine truth" revealed to the faithful "that believe on his name" as in John 1:12.[20][21]

Islam Chapter

Hinduism Chapter

QMRVaraha has four arms, two of which hold the Sudarshana chakra (discus) and shankha (conch), while the other two hold a gada (mace), a sword, or a lotus or one of them makes the varadamudra (gesture of blessing). Varaha may be depicted with all of Vishnu'a attributes in his four hands: the Sudarshana chakra, the shankha, the gada and the lotus. Sometimes, Varaha may carry only two of Vishnu's attributes: a shankha and the gada personified as a female called Gadadevi. Varaha is often shown with a muscular physique and in a heroic pose. He is often depicted triumphantly emerging from the ocean as he rescues the earth.[1][4][6][7][8]

Judaism Chapter

QMRTalmud teachers of the 4th century associate quite familiarly with him. When he appeared to one on the street, the teacher reproached him with rushing upon him as upon a beast, whereupon the angel called upon him at his house. To another, he granted a respite of thirty days, that he might put his knowledge in order before entering the next world. To a third, he had no access, because he could not interrupt the study of the Talmud. To a fourth, he showed a rod of fire, whereby he is recognized as the Angel of Death (M. K. 28a). He often entered the house of Bibi and conversed with him (Ḥag. 4b). Often, he resorts to strategy in order to interrupt and seize his victim (B. M. 86a; Mak. 10a).

QMROf the four Jewish methods of execution, three are named in connection with the Angel of Death: Burning (by pouring hot lead down the victim's throat), slaughtering (by beheading), and throttling. The Angel of Death administers the particular punishment that God has ordained for the commission of sin.

The fourth is always different

QMrThe Bear Brook murders, also referred to as the Allenstown Four, comprise four unidentified murder victims discovered in 1985 and 2000 at Bear Brook State Park in Allenstown, New Hampshire.[1] This case has never been solved.

Other Religions Chapter

Large Rainbow compassing the Flag, four Mountains one White, Blue, Yellow and Black; Navajo Reservation outline in Copper Orange.

QMRThe flag of the Navajo Nation is the official flag of the Navajo Nation, a Native American Governed Nation in the Four Corners states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah.[1]

History[edit]

On May 21, 1968, the flag was adopted for the Navajo Nation, an Indian reservation in the Southwestern United States. This flag was designed by Jay R. Degroat, a student from Mariano Lake, New Mexico and was initially selected from 140 entries for the Navajo Flag Competition.

Description[edit]

A map of the Navajo Nation, with territories in three states, is featured prominently on the nation's flag. The Hopi Reservation is completely surrounded by the Navajo Nation.

On a pale buff, tan, or copper field (sources differ), four sacred mountains of four different colors (black, white, turquoise, and yellow from the Navajo creation myth) surround the center element of the flag, a map of the Navajo Nation with a white disk in the center.[2] The overall flag recalls sand painting, an art form used by the Navajos.

A rainbow symbolizing Navajo sovereignty appears over the seal.[3]

In 1995 the Navajo flag became the first Native American tribal flag in space when Bernard Harris carried it aboard the space shuttle Discovery.

Notice how Black God, the fourth holy person of the Navajo, is transcendent

QMRCreation of the Stars[edit]

The creation story of the Navajo people is recounted as part of a Blessingway Ritual: “The Sky and the Earth were placed after the People emerged from a series of previous worlds. Four Holy People – First Man, First Woman, Salt Woman, and Black God – [sat together and] planned the conditions of life on the surface of the earth.”[5] Still more, these four figures are collectively responsible, not just for the organization of all things terrestrial, but for the placement of the stars themselves. Of the four, however, because of his association with fire, the Navajo saw Black God as responsible for the creation, and sustaining of the celestial bodies.[5] As the story goes, First Man, First Woman, Salt Woman were sitting in a hogan (a Navajo hut made of wood and dirt) when Black God entered with the constellation of Pleiades affixed to his ankle. “When several of the Holy People commented on commented on the presence of this constellation, Black God stamped his foot vigorously, bringing the constellation to his knee. A second stamp… brought the starts to his hip.”[5] The Holy People were impressed by Black God’s display and nodded approvingly. Black God then stamped his foot a third and fourth time, until the constellation was lodged in his temple. Satisfied, Black God declared: “There it shall stay!” The Holy People were so captivated by Black God’s performance that they gave him the responsibility of creating constellations with which to adorn the “upper dark.” Black God acquiesced, carefully arranging his star crystals throughout the heavens until the night sky was beatified by his glittering constellations. Yet, the crystals had no light of their own, and the night sky remained dark. “To solve this problem, Black God placed some of his fire in the sky by providing an igniter star to radiate light for each constellation.” Black God went on to impart his fire unto the sun.[5]

QMRDinétah

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Petroglyph representation of a Navajo deity at an archaeological site in Dinétah. Largo Canyon area, New Mexico.

Dinétah is the traditional homeland of the Navajo tribe of Native Americans. In the Navajo language, the word "Dinétah" means "among the people" or "among the Navajo" (diné is the Navajo word that refers to the Navajo people; it also means "people" in the generic sense; -tah means "among, through, in the area of").[1] In the geographical sense, Dinétah encompasses a large area of northwestern New Mexico, southwestern Colorado, southeastern Utah, and northeastern Arizona. The boundaries are inexact, and are generally marked by mountain peaks which correspond to the four cardinal directions.

The traditional boundary of the land is demarcated by four mountains: Blanca Peak to the east, Mount Taylor to the south, the San Francisco Peaks to the west, and Hesperus Peak to the north.[full citation needed]

Cultural overview[edit]

The Navajo regard Dinétah as their ancestral homeland. The traditional Navajo creation story centers on the area, and Navajo place names within the region reflect its role in Navajo mythology.

While Dinétah generally refers to a large geographical area, the heart of the region is regarded to be the canyons of the Largo and Carrizo washes, south of the San Juan River in New Mexico. These canyons are located to the east and south of Farmington, New Mexico, and include Blanco, Largo, Carrizo and Gobernador Canyons.

The cultural significance of Dinétah is documented throughout Navajo oral history, and is supported by numerous archaeological and rock art sites. According to Navajo tradition, the infant Changing Woman (Asdzą́ą́ Nádleehé), one of the best known Navajo deities, was found by the Holy People (Diyin Dineʼé) on top of Gobernador Knob (Chʼóolʼį́ʼí), located within Dinétah area. The region is also indicated as the place to which the first four Navajo clans arrived after their migration from the western ocean.

QMRDiné Bahaneʼ (Navajo: "Story of the People"), the Navajo creation myth, describes the prehistoric emergence of the Navajo, and centers on the area known as the Dinétah, the traditional homeland of the Navajo. This story forms the basis for the traditional Navajo way of life. The basic outline of Diné Bahaneʼ begins with the Niłchʼi Diyin (Holy Wind) being created, the mists of lights which arose through the darkness to animate and bring purpose to the four Diyin Dineʼé (Holy People), supernatural and sacred in the different three lower worlds. All these things were spiritually created in the time before the Earth existed and the physical aspect of humans did not exist yet, but the spiritual did.

The First or Dark World was small and centered on an island floating in the middle of four seas. The inhabitants of the first world were the four Diyin Dineʼé, the two Coyotes, the four rulers of the four seas, mist beings and various insect and bat people, the latter being the Air-Spirit People. The supernatural beings First Woman and First Man came into existence here and met for the first time after seeing each other's fire. The various beings started fighting with one another and departed by flying out an opening in the east.

They journeyed to the Second or Blue World, Niʼ Hodootłʼizh, which was inhabited by various blue-gray furred mammals and various birds, including blue swallows. The beings from the First World offended Swallow Chief, Táshchózhii, and they were asked to leave. First Man created a wand of jet and other materials to allow the people to walk upon it up into the next world through an opening in the south.

In the Third or Yellow World, Niʼ Hałtsooí, there were two rivers that formed a cross and the Sacred Mountains but there was still no sun. More animal people lived here too. This time it was not discord among the people that drove them away but a great flood caused by Tééhoołtsódii when Coyote stole her two children.

When the people arrived in the Fourth or White World, Niʼ Hodisxǫs, it was covered in water and there were monsters (naayééʼ) living here. The Sacred Mountains were re-formed from soil taken from the original mountains in the Second World. First Man, First Woman, and the Holy People created the sun, moon, seasons, and stars. It was here that true death came into existence via Coyote tossing a stone into a lake and declaring that if it sank then the dead would go back to the previous world.

The first human born in the Fourth World is Asdzą́ą́ Nádleehé who, in turn, gives birth to the Hero Twins called Naayééʼ Neizghání and Tóbájíshchíní. The twins have many adventures in which they helped to rid the world of various monsters. Multiple batches of modern humans were created a number of times in the Fourth World and the Diyin Dineʼé gave them ceremonies which are still practiced today.

There is an extraordinary amount of repetitions of four and the quadrant model by the Navajo. Notice how the fourth is different and transcendent

I'm going to post the Navajo creation myth I already did it in a previous book but like I said I can't tell what sights I've seen so now I'm repeating lot

QMrThe Navajo-Churro, or Churro for short,[1] is a breed of domestic sheep originating with the Spanish Churra sheep obtained by the Navajo Indian, Hopi and other Native American tribes around the 16th century during the Spanish Conquest. The breed is renowned for its hardiness and adaptability to extremes of climate. Its wool consists of a protective topcoat and soft undercoat. Some rams have four fully developed horns, a trait shared with few other breeds in the world. The Navajo-Churro has also gained popularity for its low-maintenance reputation, resistance to disease, and lean meat. Some say they are very personable. Ewes often bear twins. This breed, also known as the American or Navajo Four-Horned sheep, is raised primarily for wool.[2]

QMRAccording to the Popol Vuh, a book compiling details of creation accounts known to the K'iche' Maya of the Colonial-era highlands, we are living in the fourth world.[43] The Popol Vuh describes the first three creations that the gods failed in making and the creation of the successful fourth world where men were placed. In the Maya Long Count, the previous creation ended at the start of a 14th b'ak'tun.

QMRThere are also four rarely used higher-order periods above the b'ak'tun: piktun, kalabtun, k'inchiltun, and alautun. All of these words are inventions of Mayanists. Each one consists of 20 of the lesser units.[50][51][52]

QMRYaluk

One of four Mopan 'Grandfathers' of the earth and chief lightning god.

The other soul, the wayjel, is an animal-spirit companion, shared with a chanul, a wild animal. Throughout each person's life, whatever happens to the animal spirit also happens to the person and vice versa. These animal-spirit companions, consisting of jaguars, ocelots, coyotes, and smaller animals such as squirrels and opossums, are kept by the ancestral gods in four corrals inside the "Senior Large Mountain" in the east side of the world. If the animal spirit is let off its corral by the ancestral gods, the person is in mortal danger and must undergo a lengthy ceremony to round up the chanul and return it to its corral.[1] Only human beings have a wayhel soul.[9]:p.249

Each town is associated to a sacred mountain. The god Manojel-Tojel created humans by leading them out of the caves of the original hills.[9]:p.237 According to myth, each one of the patron-gods "installed himself in a hill, by order of the gods of the four corners of the earth".[clarification needed][1]:p.35

QMRThe Tzotzil conceive the World as a square, at whose center is the "navel", a mound of earth located in the ceremonial center. The world rests on the shoulders of the Vashak, analogous to the Four-Corner Gods or Sky-Bearers of the ancient Maya. This cosmic model is reflected in the ceremonial circuits around houses and fields performed by priests, which proceed counterclockwise around the four corners and end in the center, where offerings are made to the gods. The Tzotzil Underworld inhabited by a race of dwarfs, created by the gods during their attempts to create mankind.[1]

QMRRitualistic mysticism, particularly concerning the creation of the twenty named days (uinal); the ritual of the ‘Four Burners’ (ahtoc); and the birth of the maize, or ‘divine grace’ (the so-called 'Ritual of the Angels').[5]

QMRCerro de las Mesas, meaning "hill of the altars" in Spanish, is an archaeological site in the Mexican state of Veracruz, in the Mixtequilla area of the Papaloapan River basin. It was a prominent regional center from 600 BCE to 900 CE, and a regional capital from 300 CE to 600 CE.[1]

Cerro de las Mesas is home to many stele — artistic stone slabs — several of which contain portrait carvings. Four of these stele — numbers 5, 6, 8, and 15 — contain what are likely to be pieces of Epi-Olmec or Isthmian script.[4]

QMRTres Zapotes is a Mesoamerican archaeological site located in the south-central Gulf Lowlands of Mexico in the Papaloapan River plain. Tres Zapotes is sometimes referred to as the third major Olmec capital (after San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán and La Venta), although Tres Zapotes' Olmec phase constitutes only a portion of the site’s history,[1] which continued through the Epi-Olmec and Classic Veracruz cultural periods.

The Epi-Olmec period site plan of Tres Zapotes, highlighting the four mound groups

Site layout and societal organization[edit]

Over 160 mounds, platforms, and similar structures have been identified at Tres Zapotes, most of these being low residential platforms.[15] The major Epi-Olmec period structures are the prosaically-named Groups 1, 2, and 3, and the similarly structured Nestepe Group (also known as Group 4). Group 2 is more or less in the center of the residential core with the other three spaced almost 1 km (1 mi) away from Group 2 and from each other.

This equidistant spacing likely reflects a decentralized political structure, each mound group the creation of a separate faction within Tres Zapotes society. This is in contrast to La Venta, for example, where the heavily centralized public architecture reflected a centralized rulership.[16] At La Venta three of the four colossal heads were grouped together at the entrance to the ceremonial precinct while the fourth was at the edge of the large central plaza. The two Tres Zapotes heads were not in the central Group 2, but rather Monument A was located in Group 1 and Monument Q in the Nestepe Group.

Tres Zapotes's four mound groups are similar in design to those of Cerro de las Mesas, featuring a large plaza surrounded by several mounds, including a pyramidal or conical mound on the west end and a long mound on the north. The longer mounds likely supported administrative buildings and/or elite residences. The smaller mounds featured the residences of the lesser elites and temples.[6]

Although similar in composition, the mound groups varied widely in scale and complexity. The relatively simple Nestepe group's mounds were under 3 m (10 ft) tall and the plaza covered about 1½ hectares (3½ acres). On the other hand, Groups 2 and 3 featured mounds up to 12 m (39 ft) high with plazas covering 4 hectares. It is expected that this variation reflected differences in the various factions' access to labor and the duration of their period of influence.[2]

Notice how three of the four Olmec heads are together the fourth is different

QMROnly four Maya codices are known to have survived the conquistadors.[20] Most surviving texts are found on pottery recovered from Maya tombs, or from monuments and stelae erected in sites which were abandoned or buried before the arrival of the Spanish.

QMROnly three pre-Columbian books of Maya hieroglyphics (also known as a codex) and, perhaps, fragments of a fourth are known to have survived. Collectively, these works are known as the Maya codices.

Rain[edit]

A large part of the most important Maya book, the Dresden Codex, is dedicated to the Chaacs, their locations, and activities.[5] It illustrates the intimate relationship existing between the Chaacs, the Bacabs, and the aged goddess, Ixchel. The main source on the 16th-century Yucatec Maya, Bishop Diego de Landa, combines the four Chaacs with the four Bacabs and Pauahtuns into one concept. The Bacabs were aged deities governing the subterranean sphere and its water supplies.

Rain rituals[edit]

Among the rituals for the rain deities, the Yucatec Cha-Chaac ceremony for asking for rain is a ceremonial banquet for the rain deities. It includes four boys (one for each cardinal point) acting and chanting as frogs. Asking for rain and crops was also the purpose of 16th-century rituals at the karstic wells, or cenotes, of Yucatán. Young men and women were lowered into these wells and left to drown there, so as to make them enter the realm (and possibly, become the escorts) of the rain deities. Alternatively, they were thrown into the wells later to be drawn up again, and give oracles

QMRChaac (also spelled Chac or, in Classic Mayan, Chaahk [t͡ʃaːhk]) is the name of the Maya rain deity. With his lightning axe, Chaac strikes the clouds and produces thunder and rain. Chaac corresponds to Tlaloc among the Aztecs.

Rain deities and rain makers[edit]

Like other Maya gods, Chaac is both one and manifold. Four Chaacs are based in the cardinal directions and wear the directional colors. In 16th-century Yucatán, the directional Chaac of the east was called Chac Xib Chaac 'Red Man Chaac', only the colors being varied for the three other ones.[1]

QMRBacab (Mayan pronunciation: [ɓaˈkaɓ]) is the generic Yucatec Maya name for the four prehispanic aged deities of the interior of the earth and its water deposits. The Bacabs have more recent counterparts in the lecherous, drunken old thunder deities of the Gulf Coast regions. Among the Classic Maya, Bakab was an important quadripartite deity associated with urban architecture.[1]

The Bacabs are also referred to as Pauahtuns.[pronunciation?]

Contents [hide]

1 Yucatec traditions

1.1 Myth

1.2 Ritual

2 Gulf Coast traditions

3 Earlier representations

4 See also

5 Notes

6 References

Yucatec traditions[edit]

Myth[edit]

The Bacabs "were four brothers whom God placed, when he created the world, at the four points of it, holding up the sky so that it should not fall. [...] They escaped when the world was destroyed by the deluge." [2] Their names were Hobnil, Cantzicnal, Saccimi, and Hosanek.

According to Francisco Hernández (quoted by Las Casas and Diego López de Cogolludo), Bacab was the son of the creator god, Itzamna, and of the goddess Ixchebelyax; he had once been humbled, killed, and revived.

The Bacabs played an important role in the cosmological upheaval associated with Katun 11 Ahau, when Oxlahuntiku 'Thirteen-god' was humbled by Bolontiku 'Nine-god'. According to the Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel, "then the sky would fall, it would fall down, it would fall down upon the earth, when the four gods, the four Bacabs, were set up, who brought about the destruction of the world."[3]

Ritual[edit]

The veneration of the Bacabs was closely connected to that of the so-called Year Bearers and their prognostics. Each Bacab ruled one of the directions and the associated Year Bearer day (one of four New Year days), as follows:

Name Direction Color Years

Cantzicnal North White Muluc

Hosanek South Yellow Cauac

Hobnil East Red Kan

Saccimi West Black Ix

The Bacabs were invoked in connection with rain and agriculture, since they were intimately associated with the four Chaacs, or rain deities, and the Pauahtuns, or wind deities, all located in the four directions. The Maya of Chan Kom referred to the four skybearers as the four Chacs (Redfield and Villa Rojas).

Since they were Year Bearer patrons, and also because of their meteorological qualities, the Bacabs were important in divination ceremonies; they were approached with questions about crops, weather, or the health of bees (Landa).

In addition, the "Four Gods, Four Bacabs" were often invoked in curing rituals that had the four-cornered world and its beaches for a theatre (which is the basic reason why the most important early-colonial collection of Yucatec curing texts, the Ritual of the Bacabs, has been named after them).

Gulf Coast traditions[edit]

Of the 'Grandfathers' of the Gulf Coast corresponding to the Bacabs, the most powerful one is responsible for opening the rainy season. The four earth-carrying old men are sometimes conceived as drowned ancestors who are serving for one year; then, other drowned men are substituted for them. Together with this comes the concept that the powerful 'Grandfather' only grows old over the course of the year.

Earlier representations[edit]

In earlier representations (which are not restricted to the Yucatán), the Bacabs who carry the sky are represented by old men carrying the sky-dragon. They can have the attributes of a conch, a turtle, a snail, a spider web, or a bee 'armour'. In the rain almanacs of the Post-Classic Dresden Codex, the old man with the conch and the turtle is put on a par with Chaac. This old man corresponds to god N in the Schellhas-Zimmermann-Taube classification, a god of thunder, mountains, and the interior of the earth.

In Classic Maya iconography, the Bacab occurs in various stereotypical situations:

Fourfold, the Bacabs are repeatedly shown carrying the slab of a throne or the roof of a building. In this, young, princely impersonators can substitute for them (see fig.), a fact reminiscent of the drowned ancestors serving as earth-carriers mentioned above. On a damaged relief panel from Pomona, four of these young Bacab impersonators appear to have held the four Classic Year Bearer days in their hands.[4]

A Bacab inhabiting a turtle (perhaps representing the earth) is part of the scenes with the resurrection of the Maya maize god.

Still unexplained is a recurring scene depicted on Chama vases, in which a young man holds the Bacab, half-hidden in his conch, by the wrist, apparently to sacrifice him with a knife.

The Bacab has a peculiar netted element as a distinguishing attribute serving as a headdress, which might conceivably belong to the sphere of the hunt or of beekeeping. It recurs as a superfix in his hieroglyphical names; its reading is uncertain. Hieroglyphically, one finds conflations of Itzamna (god D) and Bacab (god N), recalling the mythological filiation of the Bacab mentioned above.

The theatrical impersonation of deities and animals, a general Mesoamerican practice, also characterized pre-Hispanic Mayan performances and included the wayob (were-animals).[23] Ritual humor (a vehicle for social criticism) could be part of these events, involving such actors as opossums, spider monkeys, and the aged Bacabs, with women sometimes being cast in erotic roles.[24] Often, impersonation meant ritual representation on a state level. On the royal stelae - that is, at five-tun or k'atun celebrations - the king wears the heads of important deities and forces of nature for a headdress or a mask, while carrying a sceptre in the form of the lightning deity. The heads are frequently those of the rain deity (Chaac) and of an aquatic serpent. On the other hand, the reigning queen, or queen consort, usually represents the principal maize goddess, that is, a female Tonsured Maize God. Young men, perhaps princes, hold the four Year Bearer days in their hands[25] or are shown carrying a throne, thus impersonating the four deities carrying the earth (Bacabs); they may also substitute for the principal rain deity (Chaac). Hieroglyphic expressions of the concept of impersonation involve many other deities as well.[26] In some cases, impersonation may relate to the individual’s identity with, or transformation into, a phenomenon of nature.

QMRCalendar[edit]

Main article: Maya calendar

The Maya calendar, connected to networks of sacrificial shrines, is fundamental for ritual life. The rites of the 260-day cycle are treated below ('Sciences of Destiny'). Among the highland Maya, the calendrical rites of the community as a whole relate to the succession of the 365-day years, and to the so-called 'Year Bearers' in particular, that is, the four named days that can serve as new year days. Conceived as divine lords, these Year Bearers were welcomed on the mountain (one of four) which was to be their seat of power, and worshipped at each recurrence of their day in the course of the year.[27]

The calendrical rites include the five-day marginal period at the end of the year. In 16th-century Yucatán, a straw puppet called 'grandfather' (mam) was set up and venerated, only to be discarded at the end of the marginal period, or Uayeb (Cogolludo). In this same interval, the incoming patron deity of the year was installed and the outgoing one removed. Through annually shifting procession routes, the calendrical model of the four 'Year Bearers' (New Year days) was projected onto the four quarters of the town.[28] Landa's detailed treatment of the New Year rites - the most important description of a pre-Hispanic Maya ritual complex to have come down to us - corresponds on essential points to the schematic depiction of these rites in the much earlier Dresden Codex.

Like the Year Bearers, the thirteen twenty-year periods (katuns) of the Short Count were viewed as divine lords in their own right and worshipped accordingly. The katuns had specific divine patrons (as mentioned in the Chilam Balam books) and their own priests.[29]

QMRCreation of mankind[edit]

The Popol Vuh gives a sequence of four efforts at creation: First were animals, then wet clay, wood, then last, the creation of the first ancestors from maize dough. To this, the Lacandons add the creation of the main kind groupings and their 'totemic' animals.[3] The creation of humankind is concluded by the Mesoamerican tale of the opening of the Maize (or Sustenance) Mountain by the Lightning deities.[4]

QMRPart of the first page of Codex Mendoza, depicting the founding of Tenochtitlan.

The page shows Tenochitlan divided into four quadrants

QMRThere are only three codices whose authenticity is beyond doubt. These are:

The Madrid Codex, also known as the Tro-Cortesianus Codex (112 pages, 6.82 metres (22.4 feet));

The Dresden Codex also known as the Codex Dresdensis (74 pages, 3.56 metres (11.7 feet));[5]

The Paris Codex, also known as the Peresianus Codex (22 pages, 1.45 metres (4.8 feet)).

The authenticity of the so-called Grolier Codex, the fourth codex, also known as the Grolier Fragment, is disputed (see below).

The fourth is always different

Dresden Codex[edit]

Main article: Dresden Codex

The Dresden Codex (Codex Dresdensis) is held in the Sächsische Landesbibliothek (SLUB), the state library in Dresden, Germany. It is the most elaborate of the codices, and also a highly important specimen of Maya art. Many sections are ritualistic (including so-called 'almanacs'), others are of an astrological nature (eclipses, the Venus cycles). The codex is written on a long sheet of paper that is 'screen-folded' to make a book of 39 leaves, written on both sides. It was probably written just before the Spanish conquest.[according to whom?] Somehow it made its way to Europe and was bought by the royal library of the court of Saxony in Dresden in 1739. The only exact replica, including the huun, made by a German artist is displayed at the Museo Nacional de Arqueología in Guatemala City, since October, 2007.

Between 1880 and 1900, Dresden librarian Ernst Förstemann succeeded in deciphering the Maya numerals and the Maya calendar and realized that the codex is an ephemeris.[6] Subsequent studies have decoded these astronomical almanacs, which include records of the cycles of the Sun and Moon, including eclipse tables, and all of the naked-eye planets.[7] The "Serpent Series", pp. 61–69, is an ephemeris of these phenomena that uses a base date of 1.18.1.8.0.16 in the prior era (5,482,096 days).[8][9]

Madrid Codex[edit]

Main article: Madrid Codex (Maya)

Rain-bringing snakes, Madrid Codex

The Codex was discovered in Spain in the 1860s; it was divided into two parts of differing sizes that were found in different locations.[10] The Codex receives its alternate name of the Tro-Cortesianus Codex after the two parts that were separately discovered.[11] Ownership of the Troano Codex passed to the Museo Arqueológico Nacional ("National Archaeological Museum") in 1888.[12] The Museo Arqueológico Nacional acquired the Cortesianus Codex from a book-collector in 1872, who claimed to have recently purchased the codex in Extremadura.[13] Extremadura is the province from which Francisco de Montejo and many of his conquistadors came,[10] as did Hernán Cortés, the conqueror of Mexico.[14] It is therefore possible that one of these conquistadors brought the codex back to Spain;[10] the director of the Museo Arqueológico Nacional named the Cortesianus Codex after Hernán Cortés, supposing that he himself had brought the codex back.[14]

The Madrid Codex is the longest of the surviving Maya codices.[12] The content of the Madrid Codex mainly consists of almanacs and horoscopes that were used to help Maya priests in the performance of their ceremonies and divinatory rituals. The codex also contains astronomical tables, although less than are found in the other two generally accepted surviving Maya codices.[10] A close analysis of glyphic elements suggests that a number of scribes were involved in its production, perhaps as many as eight or nine, who produced consecutive sections of the manuscript; the scribes were likely to have been members of the priesthood.[15]

Some scholars, such as Michael Coe and Justin Kerr,[16] have suggested that the Madrid Codex dates to after the Spanish conquest but the evidence overwhelmingly favours a pre-conquest date for the document. It is likely that the codex was produced in Yucatán.[10] J. Eric Thompson was of the opinion that the Madrid Codex came from western Yucatán and dated to between 1250 and 1450 AD. Other scholars have expressed a differing opinion, noting that the codex is similar in style to murals found at Chichen Itza, Mayapan and sites on the east coast such as Santa Rita, Tancah and Tulum.[17] Two paper fragments incorporated into the front and last pages of the codex contain Spanish writing, which led Thompson to suggest that a Spanish priest acquired the document at Tayasal in Petén.[18]

Paris Codex[edit]

Main article: Paris Codex

The Paris Codex (also or formerly the Codex Peresianus) contains prophecies for tuns and katuns (see Maya Calendar), as well as a Maya zodiac, and is thus, in both respects, akin to the Books of Chilam Balam. The codex first appeared in 1832 as an acquisition of France's Bibliothèque Impériale (later the Bibliothèque Nationale, or National Library) in Paris. Three years later the first reproduction drawing of it was prepared for Lord Kingsborough, by his Lombardian artist Agostino Aglio. The original drawing is now lost, but a copy survives among some of Kingsborough's unpublished proof sheets, held in collection at the Newberry Library, Chicago.[19]

Although occasionally referred to over the next quarter-century, its permanent "rediscovery" is attributed to the French orientalist León de Rosny, who in 1859 recovered the codex from a basket of old papers sequestered in a chimney corner at the Bibliothèque Nationale where it had lain discarded and apparently forgotten.[20] As a result, it is in very poor condition. It was found wrapped in a paper with the word Pérez written on it, possibly a reference to the Jose Pérez who had published two brief descriptions of the then-anonymous codex in 1859.[21] De Rosny initially gave it the name Codex Peresianus ("Codex Pérez") after its identifying wrapper, but in due course the codex would be more generally known as the Paris Codex.[21] De Rosny published a facsimile edition of the codex in 1864.[22] It remains in the possession of the Bibliothèque Nationale.

Grolier Codex[edit]

Main article: Grolier Codex

While the three codices above were known to scholars since the 19th century, the Grolier Codex only surfaced in the 1970s. The codex, said to have been found in a cave, is really a fragment of 11 pages. It is currently in a museum in Mexico, but is not on display to the public (scanned photos of it are available on the web). Each page shows a hero or god, facing to the left. At the top of each page is a number, and down the left of each page is what appears to be a list of dates. The pages are much less detailed than in the other codices, and hardly provide any information that is not already in the Dresden Codex. Mayanists continue to debate its authenticity (see below, 'Forgeries').[23]

QMRAztec marriage practices were similar to those of other Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Mayans. Aztecs married at a later age, during their late teens and early twenties, whereas in Mayan culture it was not unusual for marriages to be arranged by parents for a son and daughter who were still children. Aztec marriages were initiated by the parents of the potential groom. After consulting with the extended kinship group, the parents would approach a professional matchmaker (ah atanzah), who would approach the potential bride's family. The parents of the young woman would advise the matchmaker whether or not they accepted the proposal. Brides were expected to be virgins before marriage, although young people of both sex were advised to be celibate.[2]

The marriage celebration was a four-day event, and the wedding ceremony took place on the first day. The bride would wear fine robes. Her kinswomen would decorate her arms and legs with red feathers, and paint her face with a paste containing small shimmering crystals. The ceremony would take place at the house of the groom's parents. A fire would be lit in the hearth, and incense would be burned as an offering to the gods. The groom's parents would give presents (robes and mantles) to the bride's parents. The ritual for finalizing the marriage involved the matchmaker tying the groom's cape to the bride's skirt, and then the groom's mother would give the bride and groom each four mouthfuls of tamales. Four days of feasting followed the ceremony.

QMRIn Aztec cosmology, the four corners of the universe are marked by "the four Tlalocs" (Classical Nahuatl: Tlālōquê [tɬaːˈloːkeʔ]) which both hold up the sky and function as the frame for the passing of time

The Aztec Calendar Stone Physical description[edit]

Detail of the two innermost circles of the monolith

The sculpted motifs that cover the surface of the stone refer to central components of the Mexica cosmogony.

Central disk[edit]

In the center of the monolith is the face of the solar deity, Tonatiuh,[7] which appears inside the glyph for "movement" (Nahuatl: ollin), the name of the current era. The central figure is shown holding a human heart in each of his clawed hands, and his tongue is represented by a stone sacrificial knife (Tecpatl).

Four previous suns or eras[edit]

The four squares that surround the central deity represent the four previous suns or eras, which preceded the present era, 4 Movement (Nahuatl: Nahui Ollin). Each era ended with the destruction of the world and humanity, which were then recreated in the next era.

The top right square represents 4 Jaguar (Nahuatl: 'Nahui Ocelotl'), the day on which the first era ended, after having lasted 676 years, due to the appearance of monsters that devoured all of humanity.

The top left square shows 4 Wind (Nahuatl: 'Nahui Ehecatl'), the date on which, after 364 years, hurricane winds destroyed the earth, and humans were turned into monkeys.

The bottom left square shows 4 Rain (Nahuatl: 'Nahui Quiahuitl'). This era lasted 312 years, before being destroyed by a rain of fire, which transformed humanity into turkeys.

The bottom right square represents 4 Water (Nahuatl: 'Nahui Atl'), an era that lasted 676 years and ended when the world was flooded and all the humans were turned into fish.

Placed among these four squares are three additional dates, 1 Flint, 1 Rain, and 7 Monkey, and a Xiuhuitzolli, or ruler's turquoise diadem, glyph. It has been suggested that these dates may have had both historical and cosmic significance, and that the diadem may form part of the name of the Mexica ruler Moctezuma.[8]

QMREstimates of the scope of the sacrifices[edit]

Some post-conquest sources report that at the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs sacrificed about 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days. This number is considered an exaggeration. According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed in the ceremony.[39] The higher estimate would average 14 sacrifices per minute during the four-day consecration. Four tables were arranged at the top so that the victims could be jettisoned down the sides of the temple.[40] Nonetheless, according to Codex Telleriano-Remensis, old Aztecs who talked with the missionaries told about a much lower figure for the reconsecration of the temple, approximately 4,000 victims in total.

QMRIn Aztec mythology, the Creator-Gods are the only four sons of the creator couple Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl "Lord and Lady of Duality", "Lord and Lady of the Near and the Close", "Father and Mother of the Gods", "Father and Mother of us all", who received the gift of the creation to create other living beings without childbearing, they are residing atop a mythical thirty heaven Ilhuicatl-Omeyocan"the place of duality".[1]

Each of the four sons takes a turn as Sun, these suns are the sun of earth, the sun of air, the sun of fire, the sun of water (Tlaloc, rain god replaces Xipe-Totec). Each world is destroyed. The present era, the Fifth Sun is ushered in when a lowly god, Nanahuatzin sacrifices himself in fire and becomes Tonatiuh, the Fifth Sun. In his new position of power he refuses to go into motion until the gods make sacrifice to him. In an elaborate ceremony, Quetzalcoatl cuts the hearts out of each of the gods and offers it to Tonatiuh (and the moon Meztli). All of this occurs in the ancient and sacred, pre-Aztec city of Teotihuacan. It is predicted that eventually, like the previous epochs, this one will come to a cataclysmic end.

Names Description

Tezcatlipoca (Tezcatlipōca) Smoking Mirror God of providence

Xipe-Totec1 (Xīpe-Tōtec) Our Lord The Flayed One God of force

Quetzalcoatl (Quetzalcohuātl) Feathered Serpent God of wisdom2

Huitzilopochtli (Huītzilopōchtli) Left-handed Hummingbird God of will3

Also recognized as Camaxtle.

Quetzalcoatl was also related to gods of the wind, of Venus, of the dawn, of merchants and of arts, crafts and knowledge. He was also the patron god of the Aztec priesthood, of learning and knowledge, patron of priests, the inventor of the calendar and of books, and the protector of goldsmiths and other craftsmen. As the morning and evening star, Quetzalcoatl was the symbol of death and resurrection. A feathered serpent deity has been worshipped by many different ethno-political groups in Mesoamerican history.

Huitzilopochtli was also a tribal god and a legendary wizard of the Aztecs. Originally he was of little importance to the Nahuas, but after the rise of the Aztecs, the Nahuals reformed their religion and put Huitzilopochtli at the same level as Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca, making him a solar god. Huitzilopochtli is presented as the deity who guided the long migration the Aztecs undertook from Aztlan, their traditional home, to the Valley of Mexico.

Tezcatlipoca[edit]

Tezcatlipoca (bottom), god of providence in the Codex Borgia.

Tezcatlipoca was generally represented with a stripe of black paint across his face and an obsidian mirror in place of one of his feet. The post-Classic (after ad 900) Maya-Quiche people of Guatemala revered him as a lightning god under the name Hurakan ("One Foot"). Other representations show Tezcatlipoca with his mirror on his chest. In it he saw everything; invisible and omnipresent, he knew all the deeds and thoughts of humans.

By Aztec times (14th–16th century ad), Tezcatlipoca's manifold attributes and functions had brought him to the summit of the divine hierarchy, where he ruled together with Huitzilopochtli, Tlaloc, and Quetzalcoatl. Called Yoalli Ehecatl ("Night Wind"), Yaotl ("Warrior"), and Telpochtli ("Young Man"), he was said to appear at crossroads at night to challenge warriors. He presided over the telpochcalli ("young men's houses"), district schools in which the sons of the common people received an elementary education and military training. He was the protector of slaves and severely punished masters who ill-treated "Tezcatlipoca's beloved children". He rewarded virtue by bestowing riches and fame, and he chastised wrongdoers by sending them sickness (as leprosy) or by reducing them to poverty and slavery. The main rite of Tezcatlipoca's cult took place during Toxcatl, the fifth ritual month. Every year at that time the priest selected a young and handsome war prisoner. For one year he lived in princely luxury, impersonating the god. Four beautiful girls dressed as goddesses were chosen as his companions. On the appointed feast day, he climbed the steps of a small temple while breaking flutes that he had played. At the top he was sacrificed by the removal of his heart.

Xipe-Totec[edit]

Tonacatecuhtli (adove-left), Xipe-Totec (adove-right) and Xiuhtecuhtli (below) in the Codex Borgia.

Representations of Xipe-Totec first appeared at Xollalpan, near Teotihuacan, and at Texcoco, in connection with the Mazapan culture—that is, during the post-Classic Toltec phase (9th–12th century ad). The Aztecs adopted his cult during the reign of Axayacatl (1469–81). During Tlacaxipehualiztli ("Flaying of Men"), the second ritual month of the Aztec year, the priests killed human victims by removing their hearts. They flayed the bodies and put on the skins, which were dyed yellow and called teocuitlaquemitl ("golden clothes"). Other victims were fastened to a frame and put to death with arrows; their blood dripping down was believed to symbolize the fertile spring rains. A hymn sung in honour of Xipe-Totec called him Yoalli Tlauana ("Night Drinker") because beneficent rains fell during the night; it thanked him for bringing the Feathered Serpent, who was the symbol of plenty, and for averting drought.

Quetzalcoatl[edit]

One important body of myths describes Quetzalcoatl as the priest-king of Tula, the capital of the Toltecs. He never offered human victims, only snakes, birds, and butterflies. But the god of the night sky, Tezcatlipoca, expelled him from Tula by performing feats of black magic. Quetzalcoatl wandered down to the coast of the "divine water" (the Atlantic Ocean) and then immolated himself on a pyre, emerging as the planet Venus. According to another version, he embarked upon a raft made of snakes and disappeared beyond the eastern horizon. The legend of the victory of Tezcatlipoca over the Feathered Serpent probably reflects historical fact. The first century of the Toltec civilization was dominated by the Teotihuacan culture, with its inspired ideals of priestly rule and peaceful behaviour. The pressure of the northern immigrants brought about a social and religious revolution, with a military ruling class seizing power from the priests. Quetzalcoatl's defeat symbolized the downfall of the Classic theocracy. His sea voyage to the east should probably be connected with the invasion of Yucatán by the Itza, a tribe that showed strong Toltec features. Quetzalcoatl's calendar name was Ce Acatl (One Reed). As the god of learning, of writing, and of books, Quetzalcoatl was particularly venerated in the calmecac, religious colleges annexed to the temples, in which the future priests and the sons of the nobility were educated. Outside of Tenochtitlan, the main centre of Quetzalcoatl's cult was Cholula, on the Puebla plateau.

Huitzilopochtli[edit]

Representations of Huitzilopochtli usually show him as a hummingbird or as a warrior with armour and helmet made of hummingbird feathers. In a pattern similar to that found in many hummingbirds, his legs, arms, and the lower part of his face were painted one color (blue) and the upper half of his face was another (black). He wore an elaborate feathered headdress and brandished a round shield and a turquoise snake. Huitzilopochtli is presented as the deity who guided the long migration the Aztecs undertook from Aztlan, their traditional home, to the Valley of Mexico. During the journey his image, in the form of a hummingbird, was carried upon the shoulders of priests, and at night his voice was heard giving orders. The Aztecs believed that the sun god needed daily nourishment (tlaxcaltiliztli) in the form of human blood and hearts and that they, as people of the sun, were required to provide Huitzilopochtli with his sustenance.

The legend of Huitzilopochtli is recorded in the Mexicayotl Chronicle. His sister, Coyolxauhqui, tried to kill their mother because she became pregnant in a shameful way (by a ball of feathers). Her offspring, Huitzilopochtli, learned of this plan while still in the womb, and before it was put into action, sprang from his mother's womb fully grown and fully armed. He then killed his sister Coyolxauhqui and many of his 400 brothers. He tossed his sister's head into the sky, where it became the moon, so that his mother would be comforted in seeing her daughter in the sky every night. He threw his other brothers and sisters into the sky, where they became the stars.[2] For the reconsecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, dedicated to Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed about 20,400 prisoners over the course of four days. While accepted by some scholars, this claim also has been considered Aztec propaganda. There were 19 altars in the city of Tenochtitlan.

QMRJust inside of the entrance, on the east side, there is a sculpture of a serpent’s head on which rests the remains of a statue of an Eagle Warrior. To the west, there is another sculpture in the shape of a large pedestal, symbolizing a tlapanhuéhuetl (war drum). Above this is a sculpture of a cipactli, which is a primeval being, occasionally called a “monster of the earth.” The cipactli is holding up a person, of which only the sandals remain.[14] It is thought the two statues functioned as standards. Further inside is a bench that surrounds a space similar to a hemicycle.[13] The horseshoe bench has four sculptures, the most outstanding one being an eagle that faces the entrance. Two others are also of eagles while the fourth is a jaguar.[14] The jaguar statue has its skin spread out as if it were a mounted trophy.[11] Behind the eagles there is a cuauhxicalli or sacred vessel in which to put the hearts of sacrifice victims, who then turn into messengers of the sun. The orientation of the building relates to the movement of the stars. Before it was covered with a thatched roof to preserve it, openings in the walls provoked light phenomena at certain times such as at the summer solstice.[10]

QMRThe Aztecs would view craftsmanship and extraordinary work as something very valuable. The Aztecs would build their houses similar to mountains. They did this because they believed the mountains protected the rain from coming in and hitting their buildings. The great city Tenochtitlan is a great example of Aztec Architecture. It is split into four sides, each side having an architectural value. Tenochtitlan was riddled (full) with houses and architectural values. The city had a grid surrounding the four sides. Each side having a platform with stairs.

QMRIn the ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan, the most important temple was the Great Temple which was a double pyramid with two temples on top. One was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli this temple was called Coatepetl "snake mountain", and the other temple was dedicated to Tlaloc. Below the Tlatoani were the high priests of these two temples. Both high priests were called by the title Quetzalcoatl – the high priest of Huitzilopochtli was Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui and the high priest of Tlaloc was Quetzalcoatl Tlaloc Tlamacazqui.[5] Other important temples were located in the four divisions of the town: for example the temple called Yopico in Moyotlan which was dedicated to Xipe Totec. Furthermore all the Calpullis had special temples dedicated to the patron gods of the calpulli.[6] Priests were educated at the Calmecac if they were from noble families and in the Telpochcalli if they were commoners.

QMRTlacochcalcatl (Nahuatl pronunciation: [t͡ɬakotʃˈkaɬkat͡ɬ] "The man from the house of darts") was an Aztec military title or rank; roughly equivalent to the modern title of General. In Aztec warfare the tlacochcalcatl was second in command only to the tlatoani and he usually lead the Aztec army into battle when the ruler was otherwise occupied. Together with the tlacateccatl (general), he was in charge of the Aztec army and undertook all military decisions and planning once the tlatoani had decided to undertake a campaign.

The tlacochcalcatl was also in charge of the tlacochcalco. Tlacochcalco ("in the house of darts"[1]) was the name of four armories placed at the four entries to the ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan. These mains armories were stocked with new weapons every year (during the festival of Quecholli), and one account by the Spanish conquistador Andrés de Tapia estimates the number of weapons found in each of the four armories to be 500 cartloads"[2])

QMREarly in the history of the empire, Tenochtitlan developed a four-member military and advisory Council which assisted the Huey tlatoani in his decision-making: the tlacochcalcatl; the tlaccatecatl; the ezhuahuacatl;[52] and the tlillancalqui. This design not only provided advise for the ruler, it also served to contain ambition on the part of the nobility, as henceforth Huey Tlatoani could only be selected from the Council. Moreover, the actions of any one member of the Council could easily be blocked by the other three, providing a simple system of checks on the ambition higher officials. These four Council members were also generals, members of various military societies. The ranks of the members were not equal, with the tlacochcalcatl and tlaccatecatl having a higher status than the others. These two Councillors were members of the two most prestigious military societies, the cuauhchique ("shorn ones") and the otontin ("Otomies").[53][54]

QMRAnthropomorphic wooden cult figurines, sometimes called pole gods, have been found at many archaeological sites in Central and Northern Europe. They are generally interpreted as cult images, in some cases presumably depicting deities, sometimes with either a votive or an apotropaic (protective) function. Many have been preserved in peat bogs. The majority are more or less crudely worked poles or forked sticks; some take the form of carved planks. They have been dated to periods from the Mesolithic to the Early Middle Ages, including the Roman Era and the Migration Age. The majority have been found in areas of Germanic settlement, but some are from areas of Celtic settlement and from the later part of the date range, Slavic settlement. A typology has been developed based on the large number found at Oberdorla, Thuringia, at a sacrificial bog which is now the Opfermoor Vogtei open-air museum.

Forms and material[edit]

Modern emulation of a Type 1 figurine beside the lake at Oberdorla

Günter Behm-Blancke classified the anthropomorphic figurines into four groups based on the finds at Oberdorla:

Type 1. Poles or posts, sometimes equipped with a phallus, as at Oberdorla; a variant form from Possendorf, Weimar, (now lost)[21] has a carved head and attached raised arms.[22]

Type 2. Formed from a forked stick, with a head carved out at the top. Those found at Oberdorla are all female; in North Germany and Scandinavia, ithyphallic male figures are also found, such as the Broddenbjerg idol from near Viborg, Denmark and the more artistically developed male and female Braak Bog Figures from Schleswig-Holstein.[9] Sizes range from approximately 1 to 3 metres (3 ft 3 in to 9 ft 10 in).[23]

Type 3. Carved from a broad plank cut in silhouette with blank faces, males with rectangular bodies, females with breasts or shoulders indicated by a slanted cut, broad hips and vulva. Found at Oberdorla and at the Wittemoor timber trackway (corduroy road) in Berne, Lower Saxony, these are thought to have had an apotropaic (protective) purpose.[24][25]

Type 4. Carved from a squared piece of timber with an inclined head and a base, similar to a herm. One of this type was found at Oberdorla, in a late La Tène context.[24]

Most of the figures which have been preserved are of oak, which was probably preferred for its endurance in the mostly wet locations where they were deposited.

QMrDuring the Fear Itself storyline, Howard forms a team called the Fearsome Four with She-Hulk, Frankenstein's Monster and Nighthawk to stop the Man-Thing when he goes on a rampage in Manhattan, due to the fear and chaos he senses on the citizens. They later discover a plot by Psycho-Man to use Man-Thing's volatile empathy to create a weapon.[76]

Quadrant Model of Reality

Sunday, April 10, 2016

Quadrant Model of Reality Book 33 Science and Religion

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