Biology Chapter
QMRWilliam Beebe's hypothetical "Tetrapteryx" with four wings, 1915
QMRImplications[edit]
William Beebe's hypothetical "Tetrapteryx" with four wings, 1915
The unique wing arrangement found in Microraptor raised the question of whether the evolution of flight in modern birds went through a four-winged stage, or whether four-winged gliders like Microraptor were an evolutionary side-branch that left no descendants. As early as 1915, naturalist William Beebe had argued that the evolution of bird flight may have gone through a four-winged (or tetrapteryx) stage.[19] Chatterjee and Templin did not take a strong stance on this possibility, noting that both a conventional interpretation and a tetrapteryx stage are equally possible. However, based on the presence of unusually long leg feathers in various feathered dinosaurs, Archaeopteryx, and some modern birds such as raptors, as well as the discovery of further dinosaur with long primary feathers on their feet (such as Pedopenna), the authors argued that the current body of evidence, both from morphology and phylogeny, suggests that bird flight did shift at some point from shared limb dominance to front-limb dominance, and that all modern birds may have evolved from four-winged ancestors, or at least ancestors with unusually long leg feathers relative to the modern configuration.[4]
QMRThe four compass directions are the four squares of the quadrant. The ultra transcendent fifth direction up is the transcendent fifth, down is the ultra transcendent sixth Sigalovada Sutta is the 31st Sutta described in the Digha Nikaya ("Long Discourses of Buddha").[1] It is also known as the Sīgāla Sutta,[2] the Sīgālaka Sutta,[3] the Siṅgālovāda Sutta,[4] and the Sigālovāda Suttanta ("The Sigāla Homily").[5]
Buddhaghosa has referred to this sutta as "the Vinaya [Buddhist code of discipline] of the householder."[6] In modern times, Bhikkhu Bodhi has identified this sutta as the "most comprehensive Nikāya text" which pertains "to the happiness directly visible in this present life."[7
QMRIn avian evolution[edit]
It has been suggested the feathered dinosaur Microraptor glided, and perhaps even flew, on four wings, which were held in a biplane-like arrangement. This was made possible by the presence of flight feathers on both the forelimbs and hindlimbs of Microraptor, and it has been suggested the earliest flying ancestors of birds may have possessed this morphology, with the monoplane arrangement of modern birds evolving later.[
QMRThe woman then palpates her breasts with the pads of her fingers to feel for lumps (either superficial or deeper in tissue) or soreness. There are several common patterns, which are designed to ensure complete coverage. The vertical strip pattern involves moving the fingers up and down over the breast. The pie-wedge pattern starts at the nipple and moves outward. The circular pattern involves moving the fingers in concentric circles from the nipple outward. Some guidelines suggest mentally dividing the breast into four quadrants and checking each quadrant separately. The palpation process covers the entire breast, including the "axillary tail" of each breast that extends toward the axilla (armpit). This is usually done once while standing in front of the mirror and again while lying down.
QMRQuality meets Maturity
Maturity alone does not give enough detail about the quality of a particular IP design. For example, the IP may have been tested and have all views, but may not have a robust specification or design. Maturity indicates completeness of the IP that can be represented as a workflow composed of a list of deliverables. Quality indicates the excellence of the IP that can be represented with checklists. Both the workflow and checklist methods of input can be used to calculate a maturity and quality score.
The combination of quality and maturity together present the best picture of an IP’s suitability for usage in a SoC. In the student analogy, a university student will have high maturity and could have a “C” average score indicating low quality, but still will not be the most accomplished student. On the other hand, a 1st grade student will have low maturity and could have an “A” average score indicating high quality, but still will not be the most accomplished student. Ideally, the most accomplished student would be a PhD student with high maturity and an “A” average score indicating high quality.
For IP blocks, the best ones to use would have both high maturity and high quality. If either maturity or quality is low, then there is risk in using the IP for a particular design.
Figure 3 shows a quadrant diagram illustrating the relationship of Maturity to Quality on the predicted outcome of an IP. If given a choice, a SoC team would choose to have all of its IP in the quadrant with both high Maturity and high Quality.
Fig.3: Quadrant Diagram of Quality & Maturity
Psychology Chapter
QMRLast week, I wrote an article called ‘The Myth of Inspiration’, in which I revealed one of the most limiting ideas that I see many people suffering from; the mistaken belief that they need to feel inspired before they take action. This misguided idea keeps people in the zone of passivity, waiting for metaphorical lightning to strike so they can start moving forward. In this week’s article, I’ll be revealing why and how passivity can actually be a source of power and inspiration, and how you can get it to work for you rather than against you…
The alternative to the inspiration myth (what I call ‘the perspiration reality’) involves taking action even when you’re not feeling inspired, secure in the knowledge that inspiration will show up when you need it. When you’re not feeling inspired, (as my dear friend, Stillpower author Garret Kramer says), “Stay in the game.”
But there are times when it pays to be ‘passive’. Many of the great discoveries through history have come as the result of an insight, fresh new thinking that shows up when the thinker is in a state of contemplation, reflection or meditation. So how does this reconcile with ‘the perspiration reality’? Many of my clients appreciate the following diagram, which I call The Inspired Productivity Quadrant.
The quadrant describes four zones, which I describe below:
The zone of Rumination (passive)
People oscillate between periods of clarity, and periods of getting caught up in their thinking. When we’re caught up in our thoughts, it’s almost always an example of what I call ‘superstitious thinking’, the mistaken belief that our feelings are coming from somewhere other than our thinking in the moment.
The zone of rumination is unhelpful and unproductive. Nevertheless, we all end up there from time to time. Here are some of the signals that let you know a person may be caught up in the zone of rumination:
- Using their habitual thought-patterns to try and think their way out of a problem
- Caught up in ‘analysis paralysis’ as they try and create a foolproof plan
- Worry and anxiety about a future or past situation
- Caught up in dissatisfaction and “I’ll be happy when…” thinking
- Feeling frustrated as they wait for inspiration to strike
We have seasons, just like the rest of nature. We’re not all 100% productive 100% of the time. Here are a couple of tips for when you find yourself in the zone of rumination. These aren’t ‘how tos’, but rather some perspectives you might like to consider if you should find yourself struggling:
- Give up on your habitual patterns of superstitious thinking. The feeling of stress / anxiety / frustration is often a reliable indicator that you’ve slipped into superstitious, outside-in thinking. Just recognising this fact can often help you loosen your grip on it.
- Look away from your thinking and towards what’s creating it; the principle of thought. We’re always living in the feeling of our thinking, and we’re connected to an infinite source of fresh new thinking. Looking to the universal nature of thought is often more fruitful than struggling with habitual thought patterns.
- Jump into uninspired action…
2. The zone of Uninspired Action (active)
The zone of uninspired action is the ‘perspiration reality’ I referred to earlier. Getting into action gives you something to be doing and focusing on. Your mind is a self-correcting system, so you’re going to get new thinking sooner or later. When you’re taking action, it’s surprising how often new thinking shows up. When a person’s in the zone of uninspired action, there’s sometimes a sense of strain, struggle and ‘slogging away at it’. That’s OK. Stay in the game. (For more on this, check out last week’s tip, “The Myth of Inspiration”). A couple of tips for navigating the zone of uninspired action:
- If you’re particularly caught up in your thinking, do your best to avoid making any important decisions / having those really important conversations.
- Pay attention to the subtle (or not so subtle) signals of your wisdom / intuition. Stop and rest when it occurs to you to do so. If it strikes you that having a break (eg. going for a walk, relaxing etc) would be a good idea, go with it.
- You may even find yourself pausing and easing into the zone of reflection…
3. The zone of Reflection (passive)
The zone of reflection is a powerful source of fresh new thinking, a zone of renewal and regeneration. Newton’s theory of universal gravitation, Archimedes’ eureka moment and Steve Jobs’ insights about the future of the music business all came in moments of reflection, when they weren’t actively ‘thinking’ about the matter at hand. There are countless ways of entering a state of reflection and contemplation. I’ve had numerous examples from clients over the years (including walking, sitting by the ocean, riding, meditating, reading, listening to certain music, sitting in the bath etc.)
As you continue exploring the inside-out nature of life, and the principles behind clarity, you’ll find yourself being guided into the zone of reflection more easily and spontaneously. (For more on the zone of reflection, check out 'The 5 Reasons Why You Don't Need to Meditate'). And from time to time, you’ll get struck with inspiration, an insight that shows you the way forward. When that happens, it’s time for inspired action…
4. The zone of Inspired Action (active)
The zone of inspired action is where you can’t seem to put a foot wrong, where everything’s falling into place and you feel guided and directed. Enjoy it when it comes, and stay in the game when it’s nowhere to be found. As you continue deepening your understanding of the principles behind clarity, you’ll find yourself in the zone of inspired action more often. And when you’re not there, you’ll know that it’s never far away.
QMRPsychological Types is Volume 6 in the Princeton / Bollingen edition of the The Collected Works of C. G. Jung.[1] It was also published in the U.K. by Routledge.[2] The original German language edition, Psychologische Typen, was first published by Rascher Verlag, Zurich in 1921.[3] Extensive detailed abstracts of each chapter are available online.[4]
In the book Jung categorized people into primary types of psychological function. He proposed four main functions of consciousness:
Two perceiving functions: Sensation and Intuition
Two judging functions: Thinking and Feeling
The functions are modified by two main attitude types: extraversion and introversion. Jung theorized that the dominant function characterizes consciousness, while its opposite is repressed and characterizes unconscious behavior.
The eight psychological types are as follows:
Extraverted sensation
Introverted sensation
Extraverted intuition
Introverted intuition
Extraverted thinking
Introverted thinking
Extraverted feeling
Introverted feeling
In Psychological Types, Jung describes in detail the effects of tensions between the complexes associated with the dominant and inferior differentiating functions in highly and even extremely one-sided types.
Myers and Briggs came later and added the perceptive and judging function which ultimately yielded the 16 types
QMRClinical psychologists provide psychotherapy, psychological testing, and diagnosis of mental illness. They generally train within four primary theoretical orientations: psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive-behavioral (CBT), and systems or family therapy. Many continue clinical training in post-doctoral programs in which they might specialize in disciplines such as psychoanalytic approaches or child and adolescent treatment modalities.
Four main schools[edit]
The field is dominated in terms of training and practice by essentially four major schools of practice: psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral/cognitive behavioral, and systems or family therapy.[2]
Psychodynamic[edit]
Main article: Psychodynamic psychotherapy
The psychodynamic perspective developed out of the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud. The core objective of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious—to make the client aware of his or her own primal drives (namely those relating to sex and aggression) and the various defenses used to keep them in check.[55] The essential tools of the psychoanalytic process are the use of free association and an examination of the client's transference towards the therapist, defined as the tendency to take unconscious thoughts or emotions about a significant person (e.g. a parent) and "transfer" them onto another person (i.e., the therapist). Major variations on Freudian psychoanalysis practiced today include self psychology, ego psychology, and object relations theory. These general orientations now fall under the umbrella term psychodynamic psychology, with common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.[55]
Humanistic[edit]
Main article: Humanistic psychology
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, largely due to the person-centered therapy of Carl Rogers (often referred to as Rogerian Therapy) and existential psychology developed by Viktor Frankl and Rollo May.[2] Rogers believed that a client needed only three things from a clinician to experience therapeutic improvement: congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding.[57] By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just the fragmented parts of the personality.[58] This aspect of holism links up with another common aim of humanistic practice in psychotherapy, which is to seek an integration of the whole person, also called self-actualization. According to humanistic thinking,[59] each individual person already has inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept. The mission of the humanistic psychologist is to help the individual employ these resources via the therapeutic relationship.[citation needed]
Behavioral and cognitive behavioral[edit]
Main articles: Cognitive behavioral therapy and Behavior therapy
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) developed from the combination of cognitive therapy and rational emotive behavior therapy, both of which grew out of cognitive psychology and behaviorism. CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion), and how we act (behavior) are related and interact together in complex ways. In this perspective, certain dysfunctional ways of interpreting and appraising the world (often through schemas or beliefs) can contribute to emotional distress or result in behavioral problems. The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify the biased, dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies help clients transcend these in ways that will lead to increased well-being.[60] There are many techniques used, such as systematic desensitization, socratic questioning, and keeping a cognition observation log. Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including dialectical behavior therapy and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.[61]
Behavior therapy is a rich tradition. It is well-researched with a strong evidence base. Its roots are in behaviorism. In behavior therapy, environmental events predict the way we think and feel. Our behavior sets up conditions for the environment to feed back on it. Sometimes the feedback leads the behavior to increase (reinforcement), and sometimes the behavior decreases (punishment). Often behavior therapists are called applied behavior analysts. They have studied many areas from developmental disabilities to depression and anxiety disorders. In the area of mental health and addictions a recent article looked at APA's list for well-established and promising practices and found a considerable number of them based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning.[62] Multiple assessment techniques have come from this approach including functional analysis (psychology), which has found a strong focus in the school system. In addition, multiple intervention programs have come from this tradition including community reinforcement approach and family training for treating addictions, acceptance and commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, integrative behavioral couples therapy including dialectical behavior therapy and behavioral activation. In addition, specific techniques such as contingency management and exposure therapy have come from this tradition.[citation needed]
Systems or family therapy[edit]
Main article: Family therapy
Systems or family therapy works with couples and families, and emphasizes family relationships as an important factor in psychological health. The central focus tends to be on interpersonal dynamics, especially in terms of how change in one person will affect the entire system.[63] Therapy is therefore conducted with as many significant members of the "system" as possible. Goals can include improving communication, establishing healthy roles, creating alternative narratives, and addressing problematic behaviors. Contributors include John Gottman, Jay Haley, Sue Johnson, and Virginia Satir.[citation needed]
The BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct similarly sets a high standard for psychologist. It is based on four principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.
QMRTrue Colors (personality) is a personality profiling system created by Don Lowry in 1979.[1] It was originally created to categorize four basic learning styles using the colors blue, orange, gold and green to identify the strengths and challenges of these core personality types.[2] According to this personality temperament theory, which is a refined version of the popular Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, everyone's personality consists of a combination of all four colors, with the dominant two colors representing the core of a person's personality temperament.[3] In general, green personality types are independent thinkers, gold personality types are pragmatic planners, orange personality types are very action-oriented, and blue personality types are very people-oriented.[4] The idea behind True Colors is that it does not pigeonhole people into one personality type over another with the understanding that one's personality might make adjustments based on his or her environment or associations. True Colors is a way to understand the behaviors and motivations of others relative to our own personalities to help mitigate potential conflict by learning to recognize personality differences and characteristics.[5] Mary Miscisin wrote the definitive guide to True Colors entitled "Showing Our True Colors"[6] After 10 years of additional research, development, story gathering and making additional distinctions Mary Miscisin has released an updated version of Showing Our True Colors called "Personality Lingo.[7]
Scientific Basis[edit]
There has been one significant study done of the True Colors system.[8] It found good correlation with standard personality measures, and subjects rated the predictions that are made about them by true colors as accurate. Subjects retested after a 30-50 day delay were given the same classification ~95% of the time. However the research was performed by an 11 year True Colors Certified Trainer; the research was not published in a peer reviewed journal; and there are no published replications. True Colors has not been validated by independent, unaffiliated research.
QMRThe Newcastle Personality Assessor (NPA) is a personality test designed to measure the test-taker's personality on five dimensions: Extroversion, Neuroticism, Conscientious, Agreeableness, and Openness.[1] The 10-questions assessor was developed by Daniel Nettle, a behavioral scientist at the Centre for Behaviour & Evolution, Newcastle University
QMREysenck initially conceptualized personality as two biologically-based independent dimensions of temperament, E and N, measured on a continuum, but then extending this to include a third, P.
E - Extraversion/Introversion: Extraversion is characterized by being outgoing, talkative, high on positive affect (feeling good), and in need of external stimulation. According to Eysenck's arousal theory of extraversion, there is an optimal level of cortical arousal, and performance deteriorates as one becomes more or less aroused than this optimal level. Arousal can be measured by skin conductance, brain waves or sweating. At very low and very high levels of arousal, performance is low, but at a better mid-level of arousal, performance is maximized. Extraverts, according to Eysenck's theory, are chronically under-aroused and bored and are therefore in need of external stimulation to bring them UP to an optimal level of performance. About 16 percent of the population tend to fall in this range. Introverts, on the other hand, (also about 16 percent of the population) are chronically over-aroused and jittery and are therefore in need of peace and quiet to bring them DOWN to an optimal level of performance. Most people (about 68 percent of the population) fall in the midrange of the extraversion/introversion continuum, an area referred to as ambiversion.[2]
N - Neuroticism/Stability: Neuroticism or emotionality is characterized by high levels of negative affect such as depression and anxiety. Neuroticism, according to Eysenck's theory, is based on activation thresholds in the sympathetic nervous system or visceral brain. This is the part of the brain that is responsible for the fight-or-flight response in the face of danger. Activation can be measured by heart rate, blood pressure, cold hands, sweating and muscular tension (especially in the forehead). Neurotic people — who have low activation thresholds, and unable to inhibit or control their emotional reactions, experience negative affect (fight-or-flight) in the face of very minor stressors — are easily nervous or upset. Emotionally stable people — who have high activation thresholds and good emotional control, experience negative affect only in the face of very major stressors — are calm and collected under pressure.
The two dimensions or axes, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability, define four quadrants. These are made up of:
Stable extraverts (sanguine qualities such as outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, leadership)
Unstable extraverts (choleric qualities such as touchy, restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive, irresponsible)
Stable introverts (phlegmatic qualities such as calm, even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive)
Unstable introverts (melancholic qualities such as quiet, reserved, pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious, moody)
Further research demonstrated the need for a third category of temperament:[3]
P - Psychoticism/Socialisation: Psychoticism is associated not only with the liability to have a psychotic episode (or break with reality), but also with aggression. Psychotic behavior is rooted in the characteristics of toughmindedness, non-conformity, inconsideration, recklessness, hostility, anger and impulsiveness. The physiological basis suggested by Eysenck for psychoticism is testosterone, with higher levels of psychoticism associated with higher levels of testosterone.
The following table describes the traits that are associated with the three dimensions in Eysenck's model of personality:
Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism
Aggressive Sociable Anxious
Assertive Irresponsible Depressed
Egocentric Dominant Guilt Feelings
Unsympathetic Lack of reflection Low self-esteem
Manipulative Sensation-seeking Tense
Achievement-oriented Impulsive Moody
Dogmatic Risk-taking Hypochondriac
Masculine Expressive Lack of autonomy
Tough-minded Active Obsessive
A fourth dimension, the L - Lie scale, was introduced later[4] in an attempt to measure to what extent subjects were deliberately attempting to control their scores.
QMRPsychometric testing and evaluation[edit]
Porter’s earliest known psychometric evaluations were performed with Rogers, and they measured the degree of directiveness or non-directiveness of a counselor using client-centered techniques.[9] The Person-Relatedness Test measured and validated Erich Fromm’s four non-productive orientations.[10] In 1967 he restructured the Person Relatedness Test and published it as LIFO.[11] In 1971, Porter abandoned LIFO and published the Strength Deployment Inventory, which modified Fromm’s ideas and incorporated Porter’s original concepts. In the early 1970s he introduced the Feedback Edition of the Strength Deployment Inventory and the Interpersonal Requirements Inventory (since retitled Expectations Edition of the Strength Deployment Inventory).
QMRRelationship awareness theory[edit]
Relationship awareness theory blended unique forms of psychological thought. The theory recognizes the behaviorist ideas of Edward Tolman, the empiricism of Kurt Lewin, Rogerian client-centered therapy and personality theories of Neo-Feudians Erich Fromm and Karen Horney.[12] The theory itself is founded on four premises:
Behavior is driven by motivation[edit]
Porter drew from Tolman’s concept that “Behavior traits arise from purposive striving for gratification, mediated by concepts or hypotheses about how to obtain those gratifications.” [13] When combined with his research into Fromm’s non-productive orientations and his frame of reference from University of Chicago peers Rogers and Maslow, Porter concluded that the primary motive all people share is a desire to feel worthwhile about themselves – and that each person is motivated to achieve feelings of self-worth in different ways. Those different ways were first expressed by Sigmund Freud as psychic energy being stuck or fixed at various stages of the infant’s relationship with the mother. They were then modified by Fromm and expressed as non-productive orientations of adults in society. Porter took Fromm’s Freudian frame of reference and modified it based on the principle that the primary drive is for self-worth, or self-actualization. Hence, relationship awareness theory highlights seven distinct motivational value systems (which can be traced through Freud and Fromm) and describes them in terms of positive strivings for self-worth by adults in relationships. Porter was the first known psychometrician to use colors (red, green and blue) as shortcuts to communicate the results of a personality test.[14]
Motivation changes in conflict[edit]
This premise is Porter’s work and perhaps his most significant contribution to the field of psychology. Based on his observations with clients and ongoing research into the results of his own psychometrics, he stated, “When we are free to pursue our gratifications, we are more or less uniformly predictable, but in the face of continuing conflict or opposition we undergo changes in motivations that link into different bodies of beliefs and concepts that are, in turn, expressed in yet different behavior traits.”[15] Porter’s description of the conflict sequence suggests that people experience changes in their motivation predictably and sequentially in up to three stages. The first stage characterized by a concern for one’s self, the problem and the other person; the second by a concern for one’s self and the problem and the third by a concern only for the self. The theory further states that the universal productive motive of behavior in conflict is to preserve personal integrity and self-worth.
Personal weaknesses are overdone strengths[edit]
Porter accepted Fromm’s premise that strengths taken to excess become weaknesses.[16] While Fromm’s work focused on describing the four non-productive orientations and advocating a fifth “productive orientation”, Porter combined Fromm’s ideas with the first premise (striving for self-worth) and concluded that what Fromm described as non-productive behavior was in fact ineffective behavior being driven by positive motivation.
Clarity and face validity enhance self-discovery[edit]
Porter stated that “The more clearly the concepts in a personality theory approximate how one experiences oneself, the more effectively they serve as devices for self-discovery.”[17] This premise is consistent with Rogerian or person-centered approaches; it further connects with Rogerian thought by suggesting that the use of the theory should have congruence. Just as Rogers suggests that a person should have congruence between, their experience, awareness, and communication,[18] Porter suggests that a psychometric test should communicate to the user in such a way that it heightens the awareness of the life-experience of the test-taker and becomes useful to the test-taker regarding making behavioral choices. Consistent with Porter’s other significant works, the emphasis was placed on practical application in relationships, not on diagnostic or predictive capabilities. The Strength Deployment Inventory, Porter’s psychometric test based on relationship awareness theory, provides the test-taker with a description of motivation and related behavior set in the context of relationships under two conditions: when things are going well and when faced with conflict. The theory claims that one of the primary causes of conflict is the overdoing or perceived overdoing of strengths in relationships; because people experience these overdone strengths as potential threats to self-worth. He suggested that personal filters influence perception; that people tend to use their own motivational values as a standard when evaluating the behavior of others and that the more different two people’s motivational values are from each other, the more likely they would each be to perceive the behaviors of the others as overdone.
QMRSocial Cognition and Object Relations SCOR[22] scale. This assesses four different dimensions of object relations: Complexity of Representations of People, Affect-Tone of Relationship Paradigms, Capacity for Emotional Investment in Relationships and Moral Standards, and Understanding of Social Causality.
QMRKeirsey Temperament Sorter developed by David Keirsey is influenced by Isabel Myers sixteen types and Ernst Kretschmer's four types.
QMRRecent empirical literature on folk psychology has shown that people's theories regarding intentional actions involve four distinct factors: beliefs, desires, causal histories, and enabling factors.[7] Here, beliefs and desires represent the central variables responsible for the folk theories of intention.
QMRLevels of anima development[edit]
Jung believed anima development has four distinct levels, which he named Eve, Helen, Mary and Sophia. In broad terms, the entire process of anima development in a man is about the male subject opening up to emotionality, and in that way a broader spirituality, by creating a new conscious paradigm that includes intuitive processes, creativity and imagination, and psychic sensitivity towards himself and others where it might not have existed previously.[citation needed]
Eve[edit]
The first is Eve, named after the Genesis account of Adam and Eve. It deals with the emergence of a man's object of desire.
Helen[edit]
The second is Helen, an allusion to Helen of Troy in Greek mythology. In this phase, women are viewed as capable of worldly success and of being self-reliant, intelligent and insightful, even if not altogether virtuous. This second phase is meant to show a strong schism in external talents (cultivated business and conventional skills) with lacking internal qualities (inability for virtue, lacking faith or imagination).
Mary[edit]
The third phase is Mary, named after the Christian theological understanding of the Virgin Mary (Jesus' mother). At this level, women can now seem to possess virtue by the perceiving man (even if in an esoteric and dogmatic way), in as much as certain activities deemed consciously unvirtuous cannot be applied to her.
Sophia[edit]
The fourth and final phase of anima development is Sophia, named after the Greek word for wisdom. Complete integration has now occurred, which allows women to be seen and related to as particular individuals who possess both positive and negative qualities. The most important aspect of this final level is that, as the personification "Wisdom" suggests, the anima is now developed enough that no single object can fully and permanently contain the images to which it is related.
Levels of animus development[edit]
Jung focused more on the man's anima and wrote less about the woman's animus. Jung believed that every woman has an analogous animus within her psyche, this being a set of unconscious masculine attributes and potentials. He viewed the animus as being more complex than the anima, postulating that women have a host of animus images whereas the male anima consists only of one dominant image.
Jung stated that there are four parallel levels of animus development in a woman.[3]
Man of mere physical power[edit]
The animus "first appears as a personification of mere physical power - for instance as an athletic champion or muscle man, such as 'the fictional jungle hero Tarzan'".[4]
Man of action or romance[edit]
In the next phase, the animus "possesses initiative and the capacity for planned action...the romantic man - the 19th century British poet Shelley; or the man of action - America's Ernest Hemingway, war hero, hunter, etc."[5]
Man as a professor, clergyman, orator[edit]
In the third phase "the animus becomes the word, often appearing as a professor or clergyman...the bearer of the word - Lloyd George, the great political orator".[5]
Man as a helpful guide to understanding herself[edit]
"Finally, in his fourth manifestation, the animus is the incarnation of meaning. On this highest level he becomes (like the anima) a mediator of...spiritual profundity".[6] Jung noted that "in mythology, this aspect of the animus appears as Hermes, messenger of the gods; in dreams he is a helpful guide." Like Sophia, this is the highest level of mediation between the unconscious and conscious mind.[citation needed]
QMRIn Hinduism, the Mother of all creation is called "Gayatri". Gayatri is the name of one of the most important Vedic hymns consisting of twenty-four syllables. One of the sacred texts says, "The Gayatri is Brahma, Gayatri is Vishnu, Gayatri is Shiva, the Gayatri is Vedas" and Gayatri later came to be personified as a goddess. She is shown as having five heads and is usually seated within a lotus. The four heads of Gayatri represent the four Vedas and the fifth one represents the almighty deity. In her ten hands, she holds all the symbols of Lord Vishnu. She is another consort of Lord Brahma.
QMRIn Carl Jung's theories of psychological type the cognitive functions (sometimes known as mental functions) are defined as different ways of perceiving and judging. They are defined as "thinking", "feeling", "sensation" and "intuition".
The model in which the four cognitive functions combine to form different psychological types was conceived by Jung in his pioneering work Psychological Types (1921, ISBN 0-691-09770-4). Jung also posited that the functions formed a hierarchy within a person's psychological dynamics — the most developed function is referred to as the "dominant", with the remaining three filling the roles as "auxiliary" and "inferior" functions.
Jung never meant for eight cognitive functions but four basic functions, thinking, feeling, intuition, and sensation. (Jung, C.G. [1921] (1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.)
A summary of Jung's ideas regarding functions and types is described in the following table.
General Attitude Type Extraverted Types
Rational/Irrational Attitude type Judging Types Perceiving Types
Function Type Extraverted Thinking Types Extraverted Feeling Types Extraverted Sensation Types Extraverted Intuitive Types
Auxiliary Function Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling
Primary:
Most differentiated in the extraverted consciousness Thinking Thinking Feeling Feeling Sensation Sensation Intuition Intuition
Auxiliary:
Less differentiated and assisting the primary Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling
Inferior:
Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of introverted unconscious Intuition Sensation Intuition Sensation Feeling Thinking Feeling Thinking
Inferior:
Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of introverted unconscious Feeling Feeling Thinking Thinking Intuition Intuition Sensation Sensation
General Attitude Type Introverted Types
Rational/Irrational Attitude type Judging Types Perceiving Types
Function Type Introverted Thinking Types Introverted Feeling Types Introverted Sensation Types Introverted Intuitive Types
Auxiliary Function Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling
Primary:
Most differentiated in the introverted consciousness Thinking Thinking Feeling Feeling Sensation Sensation Intuition Intuition
Auxiliary:
Less differentiated and assisting the primary Sensation Intuition Sensation Intuition Thinking Feeling Thinking Feeling
Inferior:
Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of extraverted unconscious Intuition Sensation Intuition Sensation Feeling Thinking Feeling Thinking
Inferior:
Mostly undifferentiated. Can fall under the influence of extraverted unconscious Feeling Feeling Thinking Thinking Intuition Intuition Sensation Sensation
Psychological functions[edit]
The four psychological functions may be subjugated to the control of consciousness, which can take two attitudes:
Extraversion: "a strong, if not exclusive, determination by the object."[1] Consciously, in an extravert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the extraverted 'general attitude of consciousness': "Now, when the orientation to the object and to objective facts is so predominant that the most frequent and essential decisions and actions are determined, not by subjective values but by objective relations, one speaks of an extraverted attitude. When this is habitual, one speaks of an extraverted type. If a man so thinks, feels, and acts, in a word so lives, as to correspond directly with objective conditions and their claims, whether in a good sense or ill, he is extraverted." [2]
Introversion: "a turning inwards of the libido, whereby a negative relation of subject to object is expressed. Interest does not move towards the object, but recedes towards the subject."[1] Consciously, in an introvert, the four basic cognitive functions follow the introverted 'general attitude of consciousness'. "Everyone whose attitude is introverted thinks, feels, and acts in a way that clearly demonstrates that the subject is the chief factor of motivation while the object at most receives only a secondary value." [1]
The difference between extraversion and introversion comes from the source of the decisive factor in forming motivation and developing ideas, whether it is objective (i.e. the external environment) or subjective (the collective unconscious, or "processes inherent in the psyche"[1]). When discussing function types, Jung ascribed movements of the libido in both directions for each function in each function type, but with one direction being that final judge.
The four basic psychological functions, thought (or intellect), feeling, sensation, and intuition are "basic functions" that can be briefly defined as follows.
Thinking[edit]
According to Jung, thinking is "that psychological function which, in accordance with its own laws, brings given presentations into conceptual connection." Jung also made distinction between active and passive thinking: "The term 'thinking' should, in my view, be confined to the linking up of representations by means of a concept, where, in other words, an act of judgment prevails, whether such act be the product of one's intention or not The faculty of directed thinking, I term intellect: the faculty of passive, or undirected, thinking, I term intellectual intuition." The former, active thought, is what Jung considered a 'judging function'.[3]
Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted thinking and introverted thinking to mean other than the function of thought as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively, but specific set of skills:
Extraverted thinking (Te)[edit]
Extraverted thinking is the thinking function that is objective (being extraverted) and typically employs inductive reasoning.[4] Extraverted thinking often places information such as facts in high order; Te is a process that is concerned with organisation and hierarchy of phenomena.
Although Te prefers data that is concrete and empirical in nature, the information only needs to be external and other phenomena that cannot be reduced to some form of objective nature will be ignored by the Te function. Te also employs a level of goal-setting and results within its function properties.[5]
Introverted thinking (Ti)[edit]
Introverted thinking is the thinking function that is subjective (being introverted) and typically employs deductive reasoning.[4] Ti is concerned with the general idea of phenomena and will attempt to explain a logical problem with subjective information. It contains a set of 'logical principles' that wishes to 'abstract' a system or structure to its bare principles. Hence, Ti is highly analytical; it also enforces a level of independence and individuality within its cognitive framework.[6]
Feeling[edit]
Jung defined feeling as "primarily a process that takes place between the ego and a given content, a process, moreover, that imparts to the content a definite value in the sense of acceptance or rejection [...] Hence feeling is also a kind of judging, differing, however, from an intellectual judgment, in that it does not aim at establishing an intellectual connection but is solely concerned with the setting up of a subjective criterion of acceptance or rejection." [7] Also Jung made distinctions between feeling as a judging function, and emotions (affect): "Feeling is distinguished from affect by the fact that it gives rise to no perceptible physical innervations."[8]
Later, some interpreted Jung's extraverted feeling and introverted feeling to mean other than the function of feeling as represented in extraverts and introverts respectively, but specific set of skills:
Extraverted feeling (Fe)[edit]
Extraverted feeling (Fe) is the feeling function that is primarily concerned with connection and commonality to others. Since it is extraverted and objective, it encapsulates the system of 'value' outward in the form of common courtesy and etiquette.[9]
Overall, Fe is concerned with phenomena to be harmonious with its external environment. Jung writes of extraverted feelers as those where feeling "loses its personal character -- it becomes feeling per se; it almost seems as though the personality were wholly dissolved in the feeling of the moment. Now, since in actual life situations constantly and successively alternate, in which the feeling-tones released are not only different but are actually mutually contrasting, the personality inevitably becomes dissipated in just so many different feelings."[10]
Introverted feeling (Fi)[edit]
Introverted feeling (Fi) is the feeling function that is primarily concerned with authenticity, personal values and individuality. This is because it is focused inwardly and because of this, a dominant or auxiliary user of Fi can be quite reluctant to share their values, or be indifferent towards causes that are of no interest to the Fi user.[10]
Fi is often seen as very hard to elucidate since so little of it is openly displayed. Jung writes of feeling in introverted feelers "[As feeling] continually seeking an image which has no existence in reality, but which it has seen in a kind of vision. It glides unheedingly over all objects that do not fit in with its aim. It strives after inner intensity, for which the objects serve at most as a stimulus. The depth of this feeling can only be guessed—it can never be clearly grasped. It makes people silent and difficult of access; it shrinks back like a violet from the brute nature of the object in order to fill the depths of the subject. It comes out with negative judgments or assumes an air of profound indifference as a means of defence."
Sensation[edit]
Jung presented sensation as "that psychological function which transmits a physical stimulus to perception. [...] not only to the outer stimuli, but also to the inner, i.e. to changes in the internal organs. Primarily, therefore, sensation is sense-perception, i.e. perception transmitted via the sense organs and 'bodily senses' (kinaesthetic, vaso-motor sensation, etc.)." Also, since the process of conscious perception is a psychological phenomenon representing a physical phenomenon, and not the physical phenomenon itself, he adds: "On the one hand, it is an element of presentation, since it transmits to the presenting function the perceived image of the outer object; on the other hand, it is an element of feeling, because through the perception of bodily changes it lends the character of affect to feeling."[1]
Extraverted sensation (Se)[edit]
Extraverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in a realistic and concretist way. Like extraverted thinking, Se concerns itself with the facts; however, this is not for sake of logical fulfillment or completion, but for sake of receiving the highest physiological pleasure as possible. Extraverted sensation has little time for hidden meanings—most phenomena are self-explanatory to the Se psyche.[12]
Since an Se type's source of reward gravitates around perceiving and feeling external phenomena, a user of Se often has a good sense of aesthetic—whether this be the taste of food, or a new trend in clothing.[11]
Due to this mindset, Jung writes of the Se type's morality, "For true enjoyment, [the extraverted sensation type] has its own special morality, its own moderation and lawfulness, its own unselfishness and devotedness. It by no means follows that he is just sensual or gross, for he may differentiate his sensation to the finest pitch of æsthetic purity without being the least unfaithful, even in his most abstract sensations, to his principle of objective sensation."[12]
Introverted sensation (Si)[edit]
Introverted sensation is the sensing function that perceives phenomena in such a way as extraverted sensation does above, but in a subjective manner. As Jung notes that all introverted functions focus on the past, Si compares phenomena with past experiences[13] and is very detailed in what it detects,[11] thus creating a level of conscientiousness and procedure in their work.[14]
Intuition[edit]
Intuition is also presented as a basic psychological function as hunches and visions provide an alternative means of perception to sensation: "It is that psychological function which transmits perceptions in an unconscious way. Everything, whether outer or inner objects or their associations, can be the object of this perception. Intuition has this peculiar quality: it is neither sensation, nor feeling, nor intellectual conclusion, although it may appear in any of these forms."[15]
Extraverted intuition (Ne)[edit]
Extraverted intuition is the type of intuition that introspects in an extraverted and objective manner—thus, the extraverted intuitive type is the 'brainstormer', one who introspects many possibilities for certain situations. Because of this, the extraverted intuitive is known to have quite flighty judgement and a lack of decisiveness.[11] Unlike its extraverted irrational counterpart, extraverted sensation, extraverted intuition looks for not what is but what may be.[16]
Introverted intuition (Ni)[edit]
Introverted intuition is the intuition that acts in an introverted manner. Introverted intuition is a function that is often described as hard to explain,[17] due to its highly inward and intangiable nature. The introverted intuition type has the ability to 'thread' multiple sources of phenomena into a certain view or vision.[18] This is contrary to its opposite, extraverted sensation, which sees things as they comes and in a very concrete manner.[17] The lack of this extraverted sensation can often make the Ni type a very dogged character, ignoring what is apparent and focusing on their synthesised worldview.[19
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator[edit]
Myers' Dichotomies
Extraversion Introversion
Sensing iNtuition
Thinking Feeling
Judging Perceiving
Bold letters are used as shorthand labels
Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometric testing whose ideas remain controversial within psychology, formalised these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ESFP" type is someone whose preferences are extraversion, sensing, feeling and perceiving).
Controversy over attitudes[edit]
Myers interpreted Jung as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. In support of Myers' (and/or Briggs') interpretation, in one sentence Jung seems to state that the "three inferior" functions of an (extreme) extravert are introverted. The "most differentiated function is always employed in an extraverted way, whereas the inferior functions are introverted" (Jung, [1921] 1971:par. 575).
Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect.[citation needed] Jungians interpret Jung as explicitly stating that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance.[citation needed] More recently, typologists such as John Beebe and Linda Berens have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functions—equivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudes—with the four in the opposite attitude to that measured known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious.
There is controversy even within the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), co-founded by Myers, regarding the attitude of the tertiary relative to the dominant. "The MBTI Qualifying Program", a binder given out during official training, puts the tertiary in the opposite attitude to the dominant on page 13; however, The Manual, which gives official instructions on how to use the test, has the tertiary in the same attitude on page 31. Charles Martin, former vice president of research at CAPT, writes the following on page 22 of the binder, "In what attitude is the tertiary? Isabel Myers read Jung to say that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior are all in the same attitude and opposite the dominant. Others (Harold Grant) read: tertiary is in the same attitude as the dominant."[citation needed]
To summarize Jung views, as discussed in Psychological Types and maintained until his death,[20] Jung posited that each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" where every conscious act is directed by the tendency to follow introversion for introverts and extraversion for extraverts. Jung's definition of the general attitude was not limiting the individual from experiencing the opposing attitude, but offers the "decisive determination".[21] The primary, or most developed, differentiated, and conscious function, is entirely positioned in the service of the conscious attitude of introversion or extraversion, but even if all other functions can be conscious and made to follow the general attitude, they are of less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious.[22][23] Later in the book, Jung describes the auxiliary function as being capable of some significant development or differentiation, if it remains less differentiated of that of the primary.[24] His views on the primary and auxiliary functions both being of enough differentiation to be considered conscious and set aside with the primary as opposed to the most inferior two functions can be noted as early as Psychological Types.[25]
Furthermore, the evidence given by Myers [26] for the orientation of the auxiliary function relies on one sentence from Jung:
"For all the types appearing in practice, the principle holds good that besides the conscious main function there is also a relatively unconscious, auxiliary function which is in every respect different from the nature of the main function."[20]
And in using this phrase to set an opposing attitude for the auxiliary function, Myers disregarded that in Jungian language, functions are separate from their orientation, as orientation is a property of consciousness as a whole, and also disregarded the examples Jung gave immediately afterwards in the text that do not speak of attitude:
"From these combinations well-known pictures arise, the practical intellect for instance paired with sensation, the speculative intellect breaking through with intuition, the artistic intuition which selects. and presents its images by means of feeling judgement, the philosophical intuition which, in league with a vigorous intellect, translates its vision into the sphere of comprehensible thought, and so forth."[27]
And also disregards the context and language Jung used in speaking of the four functions:
"I differentiate these functions from one another, because they are neither mutually relatable nor mutually reducible. The principle of thinking, for instance, is absolutely different from the principle of feeling, and so forth."[20]
Carl Jung[edit]
Carl Jung developed the theory of cognitive processes in his book Psychological Types in which he defined only four psychological functions which can take introverted or extraverted attitudes, as well as a judging (rational) or perceiving (irrational) attitude determined by the primary function (judging if thinking or feeling, and perceiving if sensation or intuition).[20] He used the terms dominant, auxiliary, and inferior. Each individual follows a "general attitude of consciousness" in which the function is conscious. The more the function is conscious the more it is introverted for introverts and extraverted for extraverts.[21] The less differentiation and are hence strongly affected by the opposing attitude of the unconscious,[clarification needed] and manifest in "happening" to the person and not under conscious control.[clarification needed][22][23][24] Therefore, there is a significant difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the orientation of the functions.
Also, there is a difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the designation of "inferior" function. While the MBTI clearly designates only the fourth function as the inferior, Jung uses a more flexible definition. "As a consequence of this one-sided development, one or more functions are necessarily retarded. These functions may properly be called inferior ..." (Jung, [1921] 1971:Def. Inferior Function, par. 763).
Isabel Myers[edit]
A diagram of the cognitive functions of each Myers-Briggs type. A type's background color represents its Dominant function, and its text color represents its Auxiliary function.
Isabel Myers created the original type table. In her table, diametrically opposite personality types (that is, those with no traits in common among the dichotomies) are separated by one block along diagonals.
Type ISITEJ ISIFEJ INIFEJ INITEJ
Dominant or first Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
Auxiliary or second Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
Tertiary or third Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
Inferior or fourth Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
Type ISETIP ISEFIP INEFIP INETIP
Dominant or first Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
Auxiliary or second Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
Tertiary or third Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
Inferior or fourth Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
Type ESETIP ESEFIP ENEFIP ENETIP
Dominant or first Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
Auxiliary or second Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
Tertiary or third Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
Inferior or fourth Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
Type ESITEJ ESIFEJ ENIFEJ ENITEJ
Dominant or first Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
Auxiliary or second Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
Tertiary or third Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
Inferior or fourth Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
John Beebe[edit]
Though John Beebe has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. Just as in Myers's table, personality types whose primary four functions are completely opposite are separated by one block along diagonals. The same does not apply to the four "shadow" functions, however.
Type
ISITEJ
ISIFEJ
INIFEJ
INITEJ
1st - Hero/Heroine Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
2nd - Good Parent Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
3rd - Puer/Puella Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
4th - Anima/Animus Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
5th - Opposing Personality Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
6th - Senex/Witch Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
7th - Trickster Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
8th - Daemon Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
Type
ISETIP
ISEFIP
INEFIP
INETIP
1st - Hero/Heroine Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
2nd - Good Parent Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
3rd - Puer/Puella Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
4th - Anima/Animus Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
5th - Opposing Personality Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
6th - Senex/Witch Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
7th - Trickster Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
8th - Daemon Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
Type
ESETIP
ESEFIP
ENEFIP
ENETIP
1st - Hero/Heroine Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
2nd - Good Parent Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
3rd - Puer/Puella Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
4th - Anima/Animus Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
5th - Opposing Personality Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
6th - Senex/Witch Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
7th - Trickster Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
8th - Daemon Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
Type
ESITEJ
ESIFEJ
ENIFEJ
ENITEJ
1st - Hero/Heroine Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
2nd - Good Parent Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
3rd - Puer/Puella Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
4th - Anima/Animus Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
5th - Opposing Personality Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
6th - Senex/Witch Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
7th - Trickster Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
8th - Daemon Extraverted Feelings Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
Linda Berens[edit]
The layout of Linda Berens's type table is unique and her terminology differs from that of Beebe; however, the ordering of cognitive processes in her and Beebe's models are the same.
Engineer
Coordinator
Type
ENETIP
INETIP
ENITEJ
INITEJ
1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition
2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking
3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling
4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing
5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition
6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking
7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling
8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing
Mediator
Guide
Type
ENEFIP
INEFIP
ENIFEJ
INIFEJ
1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition
2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling
3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking
4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing
5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition
6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling
7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking
8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing
Expediator
Monitor
Type
ESETIP
ISETIP
ESITEJ
ISITEJ
1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing
2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking
3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling
4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition
5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Sensing Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Sensing
6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Thinking Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Thinking
7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling
8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Intuition Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Intuition
Improvisor
Conservator
Type
ESEFIP
ISEFIP
ESIFEJ
ISIFEJ
1st - Leading/Dominant Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing
2nd - Supporting/Overprotective Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling
3rd - Relief/Unsettling Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking
4th - Aspirational/Projective Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition
5th - Opposing/Backup Introverted Sensing Extraverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Extraverted Sensing
6th - Critical/Discovery Extraverted Feeling Introverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Introverted Feeling
7th - Deceiving/Comedic Introverted Thinking Extraverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking
8th - Devilish/Transformative Extraverted Intuition Introverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Introverted Intuition
Lenore Thomson[edit]
Lenore Thomson offers yet another model of the cognitive functions. In her book, Personality Type: An Owners Manual, Thomson advances a hypothesis of a modular relationship of the cognitive functions paralleling left-right brain lateralization. In this approach the Judging functions are in the front-left and back-right brain and the Perception functions in the back-left and front-right brain. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference.
Brain Types by Lenore Thomson
Front of Left Brain Front of Right Brain
Extraverted Thinking
&
Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition
&
Extraverted Sensing
Introverted Sensation
&
Introverted Intuition Introverted Feeling
&
Introverted Thinking
Back of Left Brain Back of Right Brain
Type
ISITEJ
ISIFEJ
INIFEJ
INITEJ
Dominant Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
Secondary Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
Left-brain Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
alternatives Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
Right-brain Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
double agents Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
Tertiary Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
Inferior Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
Type
ISETIP
ISEFIP
INEFIP
INETIP
Dominant Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
Secondary Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
Right-brain Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
alternatives Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
Left-brain Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
double agents Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
Tertiary Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
Inferior Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
Type
ESETIP
ESEFIP
ENEFIP
ENETIP
Dominant Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
Secondary Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
Right-brain Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
alternatives Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
Left-brain Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
double agents Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
Tertiary Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
Inferior Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
Type
ESITEJ
ESIFEJ
ENIFEJ
ENITEJ
Dominant Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking
Secondary Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition
Left-brain Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Thinking Extraverted Feeling
alternatives Introverted Intuition Introverted Intuition Introverted Sensing Introverted Sensing
Right-brain Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition
double agents Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking
Tertiary Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Intuition Extraverted Sensing Extraverted Sensing
Inferior Introverted Feeling Introverted Thinking Introverted Thinking Introverted Feeling
Brain Types by Lenore Thomson
Front of Left Brain Front of Right Brain
Extraverted Thinking
&
Extraverted Feeling Extraverted Intuition
&
Extraverted Sensing
Introverted Sensation
&
Introverted Intuition Introverted Feeling
&
Introverted Thinking
Back of Left Brain Back of Right
QMRThe Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), is a self-report personality test developed over several decades of empirical research by Raymond B. Cattell, Maurice Tatsuoka and Herbert Eber. The 16PF provides a measure of normal personality and can also be used by psychologists, and other mental health professionals, as a clinical instrument to help diagnose psychiatric disorders, as well as help with prognosis and therapy planning. The 16PF instrument provides clinicians with a normal-range measurement of anxiety, adjustment, emotional stability and behavioral problems.[1][2] It can also be used within other areas of psychology, such as career and occupational selection.[3]
16 is the squares of the quadrant model
QMRFour temperaments is a proto-psychological theory that suggests that there are four fundamental personality types, sanguine (optimistic and social), choleric (short-tempered or irritable), melancholic (analytical and quiet), and phlegmatic (relaxed and peaceful). Most formulations include the possibility of mixtures of the types.
The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 – c. 370 BC) incorporated the four temperaments into his medical theories as part of the ancient medical concept of humorism, that four bodily fluids affect human personality traits and behaviors. Later discoveries in biochemistry have led modern medicine science to reject the theory of the four temperaments, although some personality type systems of varying scientific acceptance continue to use four or more categories of a similar nature.
History and development[edit]
Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory. It may have origins in ancient Egypt[1] or Mesopotamia,[2] but it was the Greek physician Hippocrates (460–370 BC) who developed it into a medical theory.He believed certain human moods, emotions and behaviors were caused by an excess or lack of body fluids (called "humors"): blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Next, Galen (AD 129 – c. 200) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation De temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. He classified them as hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the four elements.[3] There could also be "balance" between the qualities, yielding a total of nine temperaments. The word "temperament" itself comes from Latin "temperare", "to mix". In the ideal personality, the complementary characteristics or warm-cool and dry-moist were exquisitely balanced. In four less ideal types, one of the four qualities was dominant over all the others. In the remaining four types, one pair of qualities dominated the complementary pair; for example, warm and moist dominated cool and dry. These latter four were the temperamental categories Galen named "sanguine", "choleric", "melancholic" and "phlegmatic" after the bodily humors, respectively. Each was the result of an excess of one of the humors that produced, in turn, the imbalance in paired qualities.[4][5][6]
Choleric, sanguine, melancholic, and phlegmatic temperaments: 17c., part of the Grande Commande
In his Canon of Medicine (a standard medical text at many medieval universities), Persian polymath Avicenna (980–1037 AD) extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams."[7]
QMRFour approaches to the use of plants as medicine include:[74]
1. The magical/shamanic—Almost all societies, with the exception of cultures influenced by Western-style industrialization, recognize this kind of use. The practitioner is regarded as endowed with gifts or powers that allow him/her to use herbs in a way that is hidden from the average person, and the herbs are said to affect the spirit or soul of the person.
2. The energetic—This approach includes the major systems of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, and Unani. Herbs are regarded as having actions in terms of their energies and affecting the energies of the body. The practitioner may have extensive training, and ideally be sensitive to energy, but need not have supernatural powers.
3. The functional dynamic—This approach was used by early physiomedical practitioners, whose doctrine forms the basis of contemporary practice in the UK. Herbs have a functional action, which is not necessarily linked to a physical compound, although often to a physiological function, but there is no explicit recourse to concepts involving energy.
4. The chemical—Modern practitioners - called Phytotherapists - attempt to explain herb actions in terms of their chemical constituents. It is generally assumed that the specific combination of secondary metabolites in the plant are responsible for the activity claimed or demonstrated, a concept called synergy.
QMRNicholas Culpeper (1616–1654), described the humours as acting as governing principles in bodily health, with astrological correspondences,[8] and explained their influence upon physiognomy and personality.[9] Culpeper proposed that, while some people had a single temperament, others had an admixture of two, a primary and secondary temperament.[10] Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), Alfred Adler (1879–1937), Erich Adickes (1866–1925), Eduard Spranger (1914), Ernst Kretschmer (1920), and Erich Fromm (1947) all theorized on the four temperaments (with different names) and greatly shaped our modern theories of temperament. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based. The factors he proposed in his book Dimensions of Personality were Neuroticism (N), the tendency to experience negative emotions, and Extraversion (E), the tendency to enjoy positive events, especially social ones. By pairing the two dimensions, Eysenck noted how the results were similar to the four ancient temperaments.
Other researchers developed similar systems, many of which did not use the ancient temperament names, and several paired extroversion with a different factor, which would determine relationship/task-orientation. Examples are DiSC assessment, social styles, and a theory that adds a fifth temperament. One of the most popular today is the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, whose four temperaments were based largely on the Greek gods Apollo, Dionysus, Epimetheus and Prometheus, and were mapped to the 16 types of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). They were renamed as Artisan (SP), Guardian (SJ), Idealist (NF), and Rational (NT). Rather than using extroversion and introversion (E/I) and task/people focus, like other theories, KTS mapped the temperaments to "Sensing" and "Intuition" (S/N, renamed "concrete" and "abstract") with a new pair category, "cooperative" and "pragmatic" . When "Role-Informative" and "Role-Directive" (corresponding to orientation to people or to task), and finally E/I are factored in, the 16 types are attained. Finally, the Interaction Styles of Linda V. Berens combines Directing and Informing with E/I to form another group of "styles" which greatly resemble the ancient temperaments, and these are mapped together with the Keirsey Temperaments onto the 16 types.
Modern medical science has rejected the theories of the four temperaments, though their use persists as a metaphor within certain psychological fields.[11]
Relation of various four temperament theories
Classical Element Adler[12]
Melancholic Earth Avoiding
Phlegmatic Water Getting
Sanguine Air Socially useful
Choleric Fire Ruling
The four temperament types[edit]
Each of the four types of humors corresponded in ancient times to a different personality type. These were associated with a domination of various biological functions. Lievegoed suggested that the temperaments come to clearest manifestation in childhood, between approximately 6 and 14 years of age, after which they become subordinate (though still influential) factors in personality.[13]
Sanguine[edit]
The sanguine temperament is traditionally associated with air. People with this temperament tend to be lively, sociable, carefree, talkative, and pleasure-seeking. They may be warm-hearted and optimistic. They can make new friends easily, be imaginative and artistic, and often have many ideas.[14][15] They can be flighty and changeable; thus sanguine personalities may struggle with following tasks all the way through and be chronically late or forgetful.[16]
Pedagogically, they can be best reached through awakening their love for a subject and admiration of people.[16]
Choleric[edit]
The choleric temperament is traditionally associated with fire. People with this temperament tend to be egocentric and extroverted. They may be excitable, impulsive, and restless, with reserves of aggression, energy, and/or passion, and try to instill that in others. [14][15]
They tend to be task-oriented people and are focused on getting a job done efficiently; their motto is usually "do it now." They can be ambitious, strong-willed and like to be in charge. They can show leadership, are good at planning, and are often practical and solution-oriented.[14] They appreciate receiving respect and esteem for their work.[16]:20
Pedagogically, they can be best reached through mutual respect and appropriate challenges that recognize their capacities.[16]
Melancholic[edit]
Main article: Melancholia
The melancholic temperament is traditionally associated with the element of earth. People with this temperament may appear serious, introverted, cautious or even suspicious. They can become preoccupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world and are susceptible to depression and moodiness. They may be focused and conscientious. They often prefer to do things themselves, both to meet their own standards and because they are not inherently sociable. [15][14]
Pedagogically, they can be best met by awakening their sympathy for others and the suffering of the world.[16]
Phlegmatic[edit]
Phlegmatic by Lespagnandelle, part of the Grande Commande, Palace of Versailles
The phlegmatic temperament is traditionally associated with water. People with this temperament may be inward and private, thoughtful, reasonable, calm, patient, caring, and tolerant. They tend to have a rich inner life, seek a quiet, peaceful atmosphere, and be content with themselves. They tend to be steadfast, consistent in their habits, and thus steady and faithful friends.[14][15]
Pedagogically, their interest is often awakened by experiencing others' interest in a subject.[16]
People of this temperament may appear somewhat ponderous or clumsy. Their speech tends to be slow or appear hesitant.[14]
Decline in popularity[edit]
When the concept of the temperaments was on the wane, many critics dropped the phlegmatic, or defined it purely negatively, such as the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, as the absence of temperament. In the Five Temperaments theory, the classical Phlegmatic temperament is in fact deemed to be a neutral temperament, whereas the "relationship-oriented introvert" position traditionally held by the Phlegmatic is declared to be a new "fifth temperament." Gary Smalley has renamed these classifications into a more modern and relatable format based on commonly known animals. These he lists as the "otters", Geminis, (sanguines), "lions", Leos, (cholerics), "golden retrievers", Cancers, (phlegmatics), and "beavers", Pisces, (melancholics).[17]
Contemporary writings[edit]
In Waldorf education and anthroposophy, the temperaments are used to help understand personality. They are seen as avenues into teaching; as each child is considered to possess a unique blend of the four, they can be utilized to individualize the methods used with individual children and establishing a class balance, as well as to help with discipline.
Christian writer Tim LaHaye has attempted to repopularize the ancient temperaments through his books.[18][19][20]
Writer Florence Littauer describes the four personality types in her book Personality Plus.
See also Two-factor models of personality.
Decline in popularity[edit]
When the concept of the temperaments was on the wane, many critics dropped the phlegmatic, or defined it purely negatively, such as the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, as the absence of temperament. In the Five Temperaments theory, the classical Phlegmatic temperament is in fact deemed to be a neutral temperament, whereas the "relationship-oriented introvert" position traditionally held by the Phlegmatic is declared to be a new "fifth temperament." Gary Smalley has renamed these classifications into a more modern and relatable format based on commonly known animals. These he lists as the "otters", Geminis, (sanguines), "lions", Leos, (cholerics), "golden retrievers", Cancers, (phlegmatics), and "beavers", Pisces, (melancholics).[17]
Contemporary writings[edit]
In Waldorf education and anthroposophy, the temperaments are used to help understand personality. They are seen as avenues into teaching; as each child is considered to possess a unique blend of the four, they can be utilized to individualize the methods used with individual children and establishing a class balance, as well as to help with discipline.
Christian writer Tim LaHaye has attempted to repopularize the ancient temperaments through his books.[18][19][20]
Writer Florence Littauer describes the four personality types in her book Personality Plus.
See also Two-factor models of personality.
Cultural references[edit]
In 1946 George Balanchine choreographed a ballet he titled The Four Temperaments, set to music he commissioned from Paul Hindemith. The music, and thus the ballet, is in five parts: a theme and four variations titled Melancholic, Sanguine, Phlegmatic, and Choleric.
Émile Zola consciously employed the four temperaments in Thérèse Raquin.[21]
The Danish composer Carl Nielsen's Symphony #2 (1901-02), Op.16 entitled "The Four Temperaments" is structured upon the Four Temperaments.
QMRFive temperaments is a theory in psychology, that expands upon the Four Temperaments proposed in ancient medical theory.
The development of a theory of five temperaments begins with the Two-factor models of personality and the work of the late William Schutz, and his FIRO-B program. It is a measure of interpersonal relations orientations that calculates a person's behavior patterns based on the scoring of a questionnaire. Although FIRO-B does not speak in terms of "temperament", this system of analysis graded questionnaires on two scales in three dimensions of interpersonal relations. When paired with temperament theory, a measurement of five temperaments resulted.[1]
History and the ancient four temperaments[edit]
Five Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory of the Greek Historian Hippocrates (460-370 BC), who believed certain human behaviors were caused by body fluids (called "humors"): blood (sanguis), [yellow] bile (cholera or Gk. χολη, kholé) black bile (μελας, melas, "black", + χολη, kholé, "bile"); and phlegm. Next, Galen (131-200 AD) developed the first typology of temperament in his dissertation De Temperamentis, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna (980-1037) then extended the theory of temperaments to encompass "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams."[2]
This is also related to the classical elements of air, water, earth, and fire; as sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, and choleric, respectively. They made up a matrix of hot/cold and dry/wet taken from the Four Elements.[3][unreliable source?] There were also intermediate scales for balance between each pole, yielding a total of nine temperaments. Four were the original humors, and five were balanced in one or both scales.[4][5][unreliable source?]
Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) disregarded the idea of fluids as defining human behavior, and Maimonides (1135–1204), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), Alfred Adler (1879–1937), and Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) all theorized on the four temperaments and greatly shaped our modern theories of temperament. Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was one of the first psychologists to analyze personality differences using a psycho-statistical method (factor analysis), and his research led him to believe that temperament is biologically based.
Development of related "two factor" models and the regaining popularity of the ancient temperaments[edit]
Simple emoticons of the five temperaments: Sanguine (top right), Choleric (bottom right), Melancholy (bottom left), and Phlegmatic (centre), with the new temperament Supine (top left) and Phlegmatic blends in between.
From the beginning, with Galen's ancient temperaments, it was observed that pairs of temperaments shared certain traits in common.
sanguine quick, impulsive, and relatively short-lived reactions. (hot/wet)
phlegmatic a longer response-delay, but short-lived response. (cold/wet)
choleric short response time-delay, but response sustained for a relatively long time. (hot/dry)
melancholic (Also called "Melancholy") long response time-delay, response sustained at length, if not, seemingly, permanently. (cold/dry)[6]
Therefore, it was evident that the sanguine and choleric shared a common trait: quickness of response, while the melancholy and phlegmatic shared the opposite, a longer response. The melancholy and choleric, however, shared a sustained response, and the sanguine and phlegmatic shared a short-lived response. That meant that the Choleric and melancholy both would tend to hang on to emotions like anger, and thus appear more serious and critical than the fun-loving sanguine, and the peaceful phlegmatic. However, the choleric would be characterized by quick expressions of anger, while the melancholy would build up anger slowly, silently, before exploding. Also, the melancholy and sanguine would be sort of "opposites", as the choleric and phlegmatic, since they have opposite traits.
As the twentieth century progressed, numerous other instruments were devised measuring not only temperament, but also various individual aspects of personality and behavior, and several began using factors that would correspond to the delay and sustain behaviors; usually, forms of Extroversion and a developing category of people versus task focus (eventually embodied as "Agreeableness").
Examples include DiSC assessment system and Social styles. In both of these, the four behaviors or styles resembled the key characteristics of the ancient four temperaments: the Choleric's extroversion and seriousness; the Melancholy's introversion and seriousness; the Sanguine's extroversion and sociability, and the Phlegmatic's peacefulness.
As personality typing increased, Christian writer and speaker Tim LaHaye helped repopularize the ancient temperaments beginning in his books.[7][8][9]
Another addition to the two factor models was the creation of a 10 by 10 square grid developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane Mouton in their Managerial Grid Model introduced in 1964. This matrix graded from 0 to 9, the factors of "Concern for People" and "Concern for Production", allowing a moderate range of scores, which yielded five "leadership styles". The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) used a version of this with "Assertiveness" and "Cooperativeness" as the two factors, and an intermediate score in both scales likewise resulting in a fifth mode directly in the center of the grid.
The FIRO-B connection[edit]
FIRO-B was another such two-factor system, originally created by Dr. Schutz in 1958, using the same scales corresponding to extroversion/introversion and people/task focus. The difference now was that there were three such matrices. These three areas of interaction are Inclusion, Control, and Affection. Note that these areas include the two familiar scales: how you want to relate to others (called "expressed behavior"), and how you want them to relate to you (called "wanted behavior"). Scores in these scales range from 0 to 9. In 1977, "locator charts" were produced for each area by Leo Ryan, providing a map of the various scores, following the Managerial Grid model; with unofficial names assigned to different score ranges.
Schutz was emphatic that all FIRO scores in themselves "Are not terminal — they can and do change", and that they "Do not encourage typology" [10] (and thus contradicted the notion of inborn temperament). However, the four ancient temperaments were eventually mapped to the FIRO-B scales, including the three separate temperament grids for individuals' scores in each area.
A Melancholy tends to be an introverted loner, and in the area of "control" such a person would exhibit a low need to control others, and also have a low tolerance of control by others (i.e. "dependency"). In the areas of inclusion and affection, such people would display a low need to include or be close to others, and a low need to be included by others.
A Choleric, however, is an extroverted "leader"-type who, in the area of control, has a high need to control others, but a low tolerance of others controlling him. He also has a high need to include or be close to others, but a low level of "responsiveness" (used as another term for "wanted" behavior) to them. He tends to be a "user", and only relates to people according to his own terms, which are usually goal-oriented.
A Sanguine is an extrovert who has a high need to include and be close to others, but unlike the Choleric, the Sanguine genuinely likes being around people just for the sake of socialization. The Sanguine also "swings" between both control and dependency.
From four to five[edit]
The low scores in both "wanted" and "expressed" would correspond to the Melancholy. A high score in "expressed" with a low score in "wanted" corresponds to Choleric. A high score on both scales corresponds to the Sanguine.
So the temperaments were divided between introverts, extroverts, and in the other dimension, "relationship-oriented", and "task-oriented". In the older model, the fourth temperament, Phlegmatic, had generally been regarded as "introverted" like the Melancholy, yet more "agreeable", like the Sanguine. For example, the "slow response/short-lived sustain" of the original conception, where it shares one factor with the Sanguine, and the other with the Melancholy. In the other instruments using people/task-orientation, the type that holds the corresponding place in respect to the other types (such as Social Styles' "Amiable" or Adler's "Leaning") is also generally correlated with the Phlegmatic in comparisons.
However, while the Phlegmatic is not as extroverted as the Sanguine and Choleric, nor as serious as the Melancholy and Choleric; he is neither as introverted as the Melancholy, nor as relationship-oriented as the Sanguine. This created a problem whereby a "middle-of-the-road" temperament was needed to complete the list of temperaments. A new temperament was created as a neutral, balanced temperament. However, the new temperament's lack of expression and personality was similar to the Phlegmatic, so the traits the Phlegmatic and the fifth temperament shared were removed from the Phlegmatic, and the remaining traits were renamed to Supine while the fifth temperament became known as the Phlegmatic.
Comparison of fifth temperament to the phlegmatic[edit]
The Phlegmatic also is peaceful at heart, and is one reason the Phlegmatic had held the place in the older four temperament model the Supine holds in the five temperament model. The difference is that the Supine is more "needy" for acceptance (or control) from people, yet less able to initiate and express this need to them than the Phlegmatic. Supines are often frustrated because they expect people to know they want interaction, while the Phlegmatic expresses a moderate need, and wants only the same moderate amount in return.
Four temperament theories such as LaHaye's often depict the Phlegmatic as being very fearful (according to LaHaye, "he is a worrier by nature", which is what "keeps him from venturing out on his own to make full use of his potential)."[11]
Driving needs[edit]
Each of the four corner temperaments has a driving need that energizes its behavior.
For the Melancholic, the motivation is fear of rejection and/or the unknown. They have a low self-esteem and, figuring that others do not like them, they reject others first.[12]
The Supine also has low self-esteem, but is driven to try to gain acceptance by liking and serving others.[13]
The Sanguine is driven by the need for attention, and tries to sell themselves through their charm, and accepts others before those others can reject them. Their self-esteem crashes if they are nevertheless rejected. Yet, they will regain the confidence to keep trying to impress others.
The Choleric is motivated by their goals, in which other people are tools to be used.[14]
The Phlegmatic's lack of a motivation becomes their driving need: to protect their low energy reserve.[15]
QMRIn logic, a four-valued logic is any logic with four truth values. Multiple such logics were invented to deal with various practical problems.
Applications[edit]
Four-valued logic taught on technical schools is used to model signal values in digital circuits: the four values are 1, 0, Z and X. 1 and 0 stand for boolean true and false, Z stands for high impedance or open circuit and X stands for unknown value (e. g. still undefined part of the circuit design). This logic is itself a subset of 9-valued logic standard by the IEEE called IEEE 1164 and implemented e. g. in in VHDL's std_logic.
Another four-valued logic is Belnap's relevance logic. Its possible values are true, false, both (true and false), and neither (true nor false). Belnap's logic is designed to cope with multiple information sources such that if only true is found then true is assigned, if only false is found then false is assigned, if some sources say true and others say false then both is assigned, and if no information is given by any information source then neither is assigned.
There is also a SAE J1939 standard, used for CAN data transmission in heavy road vehicles, which has four logical (boolean) values: False, True, Error Condition, and Not installed (represented by values 0-3). Error Condition means there is a technical problem obstacling data acquisition. The logics for that is for example True and Error Condition=Error Condition. Not installed is used for a feature which does not exist in this vehicle, and should be disregarded for logical calculation. On CAN, usually fixed data messages are sent containing many signal values each, so a signal representing a not-installed feature will be sent anyway.
QMRThe Rieger–Nishimura lattice. Its nodes are the propositional formulas in one variable up to intuitionistic logical equivalence, ordered by intuitionistic logical implication.
QMRThe Four Temperaments is a ballet made by New York City Ballet co-founder and ballet master George Balanchine to music he commissioned from Paul Hindemith (the latter's eponymous 1940 music for string orchestra and piano) for the opening program of Ballet Society, immediate forerunner of City Ballet.
The work is divided into five parts, a theme and four variations, which reflect the temperaments. Balanchine downplayed the references to medieval "humors" that were believed to determine a person's temperament, saying the four personality types—melancholic, sanguinic, phlegmatic, and choleric—were merely points of departure for the creation of abstract music and dance.[1]
The première took place on Wednesday, 20 November 1946, at the Central High School of Needle Trades, New York City, with mise en scène by Kurt Seligmann and lighting by Jean Rosenthal. Leon Barzin conducted and the pianist was Nicholas Kopeikine. The City Ballet première was held in 1951 in practice clothes and without scenery; in 1964 it received new lighting at the New York State Theater, Lincoln Center, by David Hays. NYCB principal dancer Albert Evans chose to include The Four Temperaments in his farewell performance, Sunday, June 20, 2010.
The ballet can be read to be a creation story.[2]
QMRMichael Freeden identifies four broad types of individualist anarchism. He says the first is the type associated with William Godwin that advocates self-government with a "progressive rationalism that included benevolence to others." The second type is the amoral self-serving rationality of Egoism, as most associated with Max Stirner. The third type is "found in Herbert Spencer's early predictions, and in that of some of his disciples such as Donisthorpe, foreseeing the redundancy of the state in the source of social evolution." The fourth type retains a moderated form of Egoism and accounts for social cooperation through the advocacy of market. Freeden, Michael. Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829414-X. pp. 313-314.
Jump up ^
QMRThe Self in Jungian psychology is one of the Jungian archetypes, signifying the unification of consciousness and unconsciousness in a person, and representing the psyche as a whole.[1] The Self, according to Carl Jung, is realized as the product of individuation, which in his view is the process of integrating one's personality. For Jung, the Self is symbolized by the circle (especially when divided in four quadrants), the square, or the mandala.
QMRGender socialization Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are one’s friends, school, work and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways" (1999:76).
As parents are present in a child's life from the beginning, their influence in a child's early socialization is very important, especially in regards to gender roles. Sociologists have identified four ways in which parents socialize gender roles in their children: Shaping gender related attributes through toys and activities, differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the child, serving as primary gender models, and communicating gender ideals and expectations
QMRThe shadow is an unconscious complex defined as the repressed, suppressed or disowned qualities of the conscious self. According to Jung, the human being deals with the reality of the shadow in four ways: denial, projection, integration and/or transmutation
QMR Moore wroteKing, Warrior, Magician, Lover: Rediscovering the Archetypes of the Mature Masculine is an introductory overview of four key sources of energy at the archetypal level of the human psyche.
QMRMoore is probably most widely known as the senior author, with Douglas Gillette, of a series of five books on the in-depth structure of the male psyche, drawing on the account of the archetypal level of the human psyche developed by C.G. Jung.
King, Warrior, Magician, Lover: Rediscovering the Archetypes of the Mature Masculine is an introductory overview of four key sources of energy at the archetypal level of the human psyche.
The King Within: Accessing the King in the Male Psyche centers on the most important and most difficult source of energy for men to access.
The Warrior Within: Accessing the Knight in the Male Psyche centers on the source of energy that boys and men usually learn how to access relatively early in life, but it takes time and effort to learn how to access the optimally mature form of this source of energy in the human psyche.
The Magician Within: Accessing the Shaman in the Male Psyche centers on another form of energy that boys and men usually learn how to access at a relatively early age, but, once again, it takes time and effort to learn how to access the optimally mature form of this source of energy in the human psyche.
The Lover Within: Accessing the Lover in the Male Psyche centers on a very tricky source of energy in the human psyche.
According to Moore and Gillette, for each optimal orientation for each of these four key sources of energy, there are two corresponding "shadow" forms of the source of the energy—two ways for each of them to be misdirected for only one healthy or optimal way for each of them to be oriented. Just as the authors have given four key sources of energy in the human psyche very colorful names that seem to personify each source, so too the authors give each of the bipolar "shadow" forms very colorful names that seem to personify them.
Even though Moore stresses the positive potential of the archetypes of maturity, as he styles the healthy forms of the archetypes (as distinct from the "shadow" forms), he also stresses that archetypes are not friendly. By this he means that they can be dangerous because they can take over a person. So they are best approached with caution.
Moore has also noted that various forms of masculine behavior are immature, and so he thinks it is important for men today to develop guidelines for directing their own personal development and decision making.
Three
QMRLord Of The Four Quarters, by John Weir Perry
QMRSocionics, in psychology and sociology, is a theory of information processing and personality type, distinguished by its information model of the psyche (called "Model A") and a model of interpersonal relations. It incorporates Carl Jung's work on Psychological Types with Antoni Kępiński's theory of information metabolism. Socionics is a modification of Jung's personality type theory that uses eight psychic functions, in contrast to Jung's model, which used only four. These functions process information at varying levels of competency and interact with the corresponding function in other individuals, giving rise to predictable reactions and impressions—a theory of intertype relations.[1][2]
Family socionics[edit]
Socionics allocates 16 types of the relations — from most attractive and comfortable up to disputed. The understanding of a nature of these relations helps to solve a number of problems of the interpersonal relations, including aspects of psychological and sexual compatibility. The researches of married couples by Aleksandr Bukalov, Olga Karpenko and Galina Chykyrysova, have shown that the family relations submit to the laws, which are opened by socionics. The study of socionic type allocation in casually selected married couples confirmed the main rules of the theory of intertype relations in socionics.[87][88] So, the dual relations (full addition) make 45% and the intraquadral relations make 64% of investigated couples.
16 is the squares of the quadrant model
Carl Jung describes four psychological functions that are capable of becoming conscious, but to differing degrees in specific individuals:[113]
Sensation – all perceptions by means of the sense organs
Intuition – perception by way of the unconscious, or perception of unconscious events
Thinking (in socionics, logic) – interpretation of information based on whether it is correct or incorrect
Feeling (in socionics, ethics) – interpretation of information based on its ethical aspects
In addition to these four types, Jung defines a polarity between introverted and extraverted personalities. This distinction is based on how people invest energy rather into the inner, subjective, psychical world (usually called Seele, soul, by Jung) or instead the outer, objective, physical world (including one's body).
By Jung's rules 16 psychological types exist. But in his book "Psychological Types" he described in detail only 8 types, distinguished by the 8 possible dominant functions.
Contrary to Socionics and MBTI, Jung did not conclude that the types had two introverted functions and two extroverted functions. Instead outlining that extroverted personality types had a Dominant extroverted function, an Auxiliary introverted function, and two Inferior introverted functions that are necessarily retarded.[114]
Information elements[edit]
Socionics Information Elements and Dichotomies.png
In socionics, Jung's functions are always introverted or extroverted, and are referred to as functions of information metabolism.[115] These functions are said to process information aspects. To understand what an information aspect is, it is necessary to understand information metabolism as Augustinavičiūtė understood it.
Augustinavičiūtė states that the perception of the world through the human mind uses eight elements of information metabolism (mental functions), each of which reflects one particular aspect of objective reality.[116] In her works she describes aspects of the world based on physical quantities such as potential and kinetic energy, space, time, and their properties.
Often other socionists have equated the information elements with their definition according to fundamental physical concepts as well (Matter-Time-Energy-Space) (N. Medvedev,[117] V. Ermak[118]). Matter compared to Thinking, Energy to Feeling, Space to Sensing, Time to Intuition. Given the division of aspects of the absolute between Extroverted ("black") and Introverted ("white"), being four times two, their number is eight.
The 8 socionics symbols (Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg) were introduced by Augustinavičiūtė while working with Jung's typology[119][clarification needed] and remain the dominant method of denoting the functions and the corresponding information aspects that they process. Other notation systems also enjoy some use, such as Victor Gulenko's 8 Latin letters (P, E, F, I, L, R, S, and T, correspondingly). Among western enthusiasts, Myers-Briggs notation (Te, Fe, Se, Ne, Ti, Fi, Si, and Ni, correspondingly) is popular.
Element Abstracted definition English Acronym Symbol Description
Extraverted logic (thinking) external dynamics of objects Te Socionics symbol Te.svg Te is efficiency of an action, technical processes, the accomplishment of work, the efficient and prudent use of resources, factual accuracy, and the acquisition of relevant and useful information. Te understands the difference between effective and ineffective behavior when performing a procedure or accomplishing a task, and aspires to increase the frequency of productive outcomes within a system.
Extraverted ethics (feeling) internal dynamics of objects Fe Socionics symbol Fe.svg Fe is responsible for the perception of an emotional state in an individual and the bodily and linguistic expression of emotions. Fe is able to influence others' emotional condition and to communicate its own, "infecting" others. Fe is used especially in generating and recognizing excitement and enthusiasm.
Extraverted sensing external statics of objects Se Socionics symbol Se.svg Se is responsible for the perception, control, defense, and acquisition of space, territory, and control. It observes outward appearances, estimates whether forces are in alignment or conflict, and uses strength of will and power-based methods to achieve purposes. Se understands territory and physical aggression. It is also the function of contact and apprehension of qualia.
Extraverted intuition internal statics of objects Ne Socionics symbol Ne.svg Ne is responsible for understanding the essence (permanent but not obvious traits) of a thing, estimating the potential and latent capabilities for people and things, and visualizing the likely outcome of events. It is responsible for the sense of interest or boredom. Ne will speculate as to why an event occurs, but sees the specific event as static and unalterable.
Introverted logic (thinking) external statics of fields Ti Socionics symbol Ti.svg Ti is responsible for understanding logic and structure, categorizations, ordering and priorities, logical analysis and distinctions, logical explanations. Ti interprets information according to how it fits into a validating system. Ti is particularly aware of logical consistency and how concepts relate to each other in meaning and structure, independently of particular purposes.
Introverted ethics (feeling) internal statics of fields Fi Socionics symbol Fi.svg Fi is responsible for understanding the quality, nature, and proper maintenance of personal relations; makes moral judgments; and aspires to humanism and kindness. Fi has a strong understanding of the social hierarchy and how people feel about each other, their attitudes of like or dislike, enthrallment or disgust, repulsion or attraction, enmity or friendship.
Introverted sensing external dynamics of fields Si Socionics symbol Si.svg Si is responsible for perception of physical sensations; questions of comfort, coziness, and pleasure; and a sense of harmony and acclimation with one's environment (especially physical). Si understand how well a person or thing's behavior agrees with its nature as well as the differences between comfortable behaviors and positions and uncomfortable ones.
Introverted intuition internal dynamics of fields Ni Socionics symbol Ni.svg Ni is responsible for the estimation of the passage of time, the understanding of a course of processes in time, and forecasting. Ni understand how things may change and evolve over time and throughout history. Ni is acutely aware of events that are occurring outside of the immediate perception of the moment, and sees events as part of a continuous flow. Ni perceives the possible ramifications of future events and notices ties to the past. Ni observes behavioral patterns and can assess a person's character.
The 16 types[edit]
Socionics divides people into 16 different types, called sociotypes. They are most commonly referred to by their two strongest functions, which in socionics are called the leading function (Jung's dominant) and the creative function (Jung's auxiliary). The creative function is opposite to the leading function in extraversion and rationality. For example, if the dominant function is introverted logic (a rational and introverted function), the secondary function must be irrational and extraverted, which means it must be either extraverted sensing or extraverted intuition.
Aušra Augustinavičiūtė usually used names like sensory-logical introvert (SLI) to refer to the types. In SLI the leading function is introverted sensing and the creative function is extraverted logic. She also introduced the practice of referring to types by the name of a famous person of the type (although types of these persons are not universally agreed upon, especially about "Napoleon"). For example, she called the SLI Gabin and the SEI Dumas. Also sometimes names such as Craftsman or Mediator are used to express the social role of the type—a convention introduced by socionist Viktor Gulenko in 1995.[120] Given the formal similarities present between Socionics and the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) abbreviations frequently used in English, some prefer to distinguish socionic type names from Myers–Briggs' names by writing the last letter (J or P) in lower case (for example, ENTp, ESFj)—a practice introduced by Sergei Ganin.[121] This is because the relationship between socionics and Myers–Briggs and Keirseyan types is controversial.
Some socionists state that "main spheres of application of socionics are almost the same as for the Myers–Briggs Type Theory", and that observed differences in correlation "represent characteristic stereotypes of the socionics and the Keirsey typology.[122] Others state that MBTI and socionics "correlate in roughly 30% of cases," and that "there are many subtle differences".[123][clarification needed] J and P in Socionics and Myers–Briggs are completely different:[124] in Myers–Briggs, J and P stands for the first extraverted function (J—extraverted thinking or feeling, P—extraverted sensing or intuition); in Socionics, J and P stands for the first function (J—rational (thinking and feeling), P—irrational (sensing and intuition)). This formal conversion is carried out in accordance with the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator.
In dividing the socion according to the four Jungian dichotomies, from this is formed 16 socionic types. The following tables provide a list of types with the names most commonly used in socionics:
4-letter
type acronym
(MBTI) 4-letter
type acronym
(socionics) Four functions
(Jung[125]) Four functions
(MBTI) Two functions
(socionics) Formal name Type alias Social role
ESTJ ESTj Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg Te Si Ne Fi Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg Logical Sensory Extravert (LSE) Stierlitz Administrator / Director
ENTJ ENTj Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg Te Ni Se Fi Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg Logical Intuitive Extravert (LIE) Jack London Enterpriser / Pioneer
ESFJ ESFj Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg Fe Si Ne Ti Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg Ethical Sensory Extravert (ESE) Hugo Bonvivant / Enthusiast
ENFJ ENFj Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg Fe Ni Se Ti Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg Ethical Intuitive Extravert (EIE) Hamlet Mentor / Actor
ESTP ESTp Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg Se Ti Fe Ni Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg Sensory Logical Extravert (SLE) Zhukov Legionnaire / Conqueror
ESFP ESFp Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg Se Fi Te Ni Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg Sensory Ethical Extravert (SEE) Napoleon / Caesar Politician / Ambassador
ENTP ENTp Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg Ne Ti Fe Si Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg Intuitive Logical Extravert (ILE) Don Quixote Seeker / Inventor
ENFP ENFp Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg Ne Fi Te Si Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg Intuitive Ethical Extravert (IEE) Huxley Psychologist / Reporter
ISTJ ISTp Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg Si Te Fi Ne Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg Sensory Logical Introvert (SLI) Gabin Craftsman / Mechanic
INTJ INTp Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg Ni Te Fi Se Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg Intuitive Logical Introvert (ILI) Balzac Critic / Mastermind
ISFJ ISFp Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg Si Fe Ti Ne Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg Sensory Ethical Introvert (SEI) Dumas Mediator / Peacemaker
INFJ INFp Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg Ni Fe Ti Se Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg Intuitive Ethical Introvert (IEI) Yesenin Lyricist / Romantic
ISTP ISTj Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg Ti Se Ni Fe Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg Logical Sensory Introvert (LSI) Maxim Gorky Inspector / Pragmatist
ISFP ISFj Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg Fi Se Ni Te Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg Ethical Sensory Introvert (ESI) Dreiser Guardian / Conservator
INTP INTj Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg Ti Ne Si Fe Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg Logical Intuitive Introvert (LII) Robespierre Analyst / Scientist
INFP INFj Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg Fi Ne Si Te Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg Ethical Intuitive Introvert (EII) Dostoyevsky Humanist / Empath
Mathematics[edit]
Socionics, being Base-16, can be used with bitwise operations after Base-2 reduction
Relation Base 16 Base 10 Base 2 Type
Ident. 0 0 0000 ENTp
Quas. 1 1 0001 ENTj
Cong. 2 2 0010 ENFp
Requ. 3 3 0011 ENFj
Coop. 4 4 0100 ESTp
Requ. 5 5 0101 ESTj
Sego. 6 6 0110 ESFp
Actv. 7 7 0111 ESFj
Extn. 8 8 1000 INTp
Mirr. 9 9 1001 INTj
Mira. A 10 1010 INFp
Supr. B 11 1011 INFj
Semi. C 12 1100 ISTp
Supr. D 13 1101 ISTj
Dual. E 14 1110 ISFp
Conf. F 15 1111 ISFj
Since socionics is mathematically Base-16 and also a psychology of personality in the same way as the typology of Carl Jung and Myers–Briggs, it shares a similar degree of mathematical consistency, while enduring the same serious shortcomings in the experimental justification of these theories.
Taking this, socionics also differs from other typologies in that it also includes a complementary Base-16 relationship set, with the intent of penning to paper the key social dynamic traits between grouped combinations of socionic types. Therefore, socionics could be considered to be within the realm of the science of social dynamics, intended to describe social behavior according to mathematical applications of Base-16, group theory, set logic, and reduction of the Gulenko-Jungian notation for socionics types to hexadecimal and Base-2 bitwise operation. While this mathematical approach is strictly theoretical and has been criticized for lack of empirical testing,[128] systems theory has been the tool of socionics theorist, such as Gregory Reinin to derive theorical dichotomies within socionics theory. In 1985 Aušra Augustinavičiūtė acknowledged the mathematical theories of Reinin and wrote a book titled The Theory of Reinin's Traits to describe the mathematical processes of socionics theory. Mathematical methods have been a standard part of socionics theory since this time.
Studies of Elena Udalova show that at least three of Reinin's Traits are distinguishable and can be used for detection of a sociotype. Those include: statics/dynamics (having appropriate functions in their mental track), questims/declatims (tending to raise questions or declare opinions), and aristocrats/democrats (understanding inequality or equality of people). Not all names of Reinin's Traits reflect their actual meaning very well, but they were defined historically and now seem to be fixed.
The methodology of deriving socionic relationships from two socionic types is similar to the enumeration of 16 possible boolean algebraic functions from two binary output and input variable types, with truth tables and during construction of logic gates in electronics.[129]
Blocks of the psyche[edit]
According to Augustinavičiūtė, the functions are paired in four blocks: the ego block, the super-ego block, the id block, and the super-id block. The ego block contains the leading (1) and creative (2) functions, the super-ego block contains the role (3) and vulnerable (4) functions, the super-id block contains the suggestive (5) and mobilizing (6) functions, while the id block contains the observant (7) and demonstrative (8) functions.
The functions within the ego and super-ego blocks are said to be conscious (or "mental") functions, while those within the id and super-id blocks are said to be unconscious (or "vital"). The functions residing within the ego and id blocks are strong functions which are used naturally and well, while the functions of the super-ego and super-id blocks are weak functions and are used with difficulty. (In addition, using super-ego functions is stressful.)
1 2
4 3
6 5
7 8
ego
super-ego
super-id
id
strong
weak
weak
strong
The 16 types in Model A[edit]
ILE
Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg
Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg
Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg
Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg
SEI
Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg
Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg
Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg
Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg
ESE
Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg
Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg
Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg
Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg
LII
Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg
Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg
Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg
Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg
EIE
Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg
Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg
Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg
Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg
LSI
Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg
Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg
Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg
Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg
SLE
Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg
Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg
Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg
Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg
IEI
Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg
Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg
Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg
Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg
SEE
Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg
Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg
Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg
Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg
ILI
Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg
Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg
Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg
Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg
LIE
Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg
Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg
Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg
Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg
ESI
Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg
Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg
Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg
Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg
LSE
Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg
Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg
Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg
Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg
EII
Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg
Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg
Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg
Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg
IEE
Socionics symbol Ne.svg Socionics symbol Fi.svg
Socionics symbol Ti.svg Socionics symbol Se.svg
Socionics symbol Te.svg Socionics symbol Si.svg
Socionics symbol Ni.svg Socionics symbol Fe.svg
SLI
Socionics symbol Si.svg Socionics symbol Te.svg
Socionics symbol Fe.svg Socionics symbol Ni.svg
Socionics symbol Fi.svg Socionics symbol Ne.svg
Socionics symbol Se.svg Socionics symbol Ti.svg
Intertype relations[edit]
Socionics postulates that the way information is communicated between different types results in different interaction styles, called intertype relations. Each intertype relation has its bad and good qualities, though duality is generally considered to be the most psychologically comfortable as a long-term relationship. In total there are 16 relationship roles for each type (14 when not counting the split roles in the supervision and benefit relationship). All relations beside Request and Supervision are symmetric. Request and Supervision relations are asymmetric and have 2 roles: Request - Requester and Request recipient, Supervision - Supervisor and Supervisee. Each cell in the table shows who the type in the left column is to the type in the top row.
Key: Du - Duality; Ac - Activation; Sd - Semi-duality; Mg - Mirage; Mr - Mirror; Id - Identity; Cp - Cooperation; Cg - Congenerity; QI - Quasi-Identity; Ex - Extinguishment; Se - Super-ego; Cf - Conflict; Rq+ - Requester; Rq- - Request recipient; Sv+ - Supervisor; Sv- - Supervisee
Duality[edit]
Duality is a fundamental concept in Socionics. Dual relations are characterized by mutual benefit and support, and are generally viewed as optimal for friendship, intimacy, and marriage (though sociotype is not the only factor influencing this). The eight dual pairs are as follows:
LSE Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg — Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg EII
LIE Socionics symbol Te.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg — Socionics symbol Fi.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg ESI
ESE Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Si.svg — Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Ne.svg LII
EIE Socionics symbol Fe.svgSocionics symbol Ni.svg — Socionics symbol Ti.svgSocionics symbol Se.svg LSI
SLE Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg — Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg IEI
SEE Socionics symbol Se.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg — Socionics symbol Ni.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg ILI
ILE Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Ti.svg — Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Fe.svg SEI
IEE Socionics symbol Ne.svgSocionics symbol Fi.svg — Socionics symbol Si.svgSocionics symbol Te.svg SLI
In dual relations, the leading function of one partner is the suggestive function of the other, and the creative function of one partner is the mobilizing function of the other. Thus, the ego functions (the strongest and most socialized) of each correspond to the super-id functions of the other (the area where the person needs and expects assistance). Likewise, the super-ego block of one corresponds to the id of the other. In this relation, just 1 of 4 Jungian dichotomies is shared—rationality/irrationality. Duality interaction is generally rewarding and satisfying for both parties, providing inspiration and support. Duality is a central theme of the philosophy of socionics study: Augusta often stated her position that a person who is estranged from contact with a dual partner must cope by unnaturally distorting their personality, a phenomenon called "type masking". Relationships with conflictor types are cited as particularly troublesome: it is not uncommon for a person in a close relationship with their conflictor to develop an acute neurotic condition.[citation needed]
The duality system is demonstrated in the following diagram, which details function relationships between two duals, an ILE and an SEI: Socionics scheme duality ILE-SEI.gif
Groups of types[edit]
Quadras[edit]
A quadra is a group of four types in which only identity, dual, activity, and mirror relations occur. Quadras are distinguished by offering the greatest degree of psychological comfort among all groups containing four types. The feeling of comfort and harmony produced by the quadra is due to the fact that all types in the quadra seek to give expression to the shared set of information elements in their ego and super-id blocks and to de-emphasize the information elements in their super-ego and id blocks.[citation needed]
Similar to the harmony of types within the same quadra, opposing forces also exist. If one were to put the four quadras in a circle, alpha-beta-gamma-delta, the two quadras facing each other would be opposing quadras and consist entirely of quasi-identical, conflictor, super-ego, and extinguishment relations. A person surrounded by people of the opposing type will often feel uneasy and out of place, due to the fact that all the people around them either lead with or seek for their weakest function. That type of interaction is often the basis for inherent misunderstandings between seemingly similar people (as in the case of the quasi-identical) or two people who seem to offend each other at every turn (often found in conflicting relations).[citation needed]
The Quadras
1
Alpha
2
Beta
3
Gamma
4
Delta
ILE (ENTp)
SEI (ISFp/ISFJ)
ESE (ESFj)
LII (INTj/INTP)
EIE (ENFj)
LSI (ISTj/ISTP)
SLE (ESTp)
IEI (INFp/INFJ)
SEE (ESFp)
ILI (INTp/INTJ)
LIE (ENTj)
ESI (ISFj/ISFP)
LSE (ESTj)
EII (INFj/INFP)
IEE (ENFp)
SLI (ISTp/ISTJ)
Clubs[edit]
Clubs are groups that reflect spheres of activity.[citation needed] There are 4 clubs, each with 4 types:
Pragmatists (ST): ESTp, ESTj, ISTp, ISTj; or SLE, LSE, SLI, LSI
Researchers (NT): ENTp, ENTj, INTp, INTj; or ILE, LIE, ILI, LII
Socials (SF): ESFp, ESFj, ISFp, ISFj; or SEE, ESE, SEI, ESI
Humanitarians (NF): ENFp, ENFj, INFp, INFj; or IEE, EIE, IEI, EII
Temperaments[edit]
Viktor Gulenko's hypothesis of the existence of four temperaments in socionics is as follows.[131]
Extraverted Rational Temperament (Ej). Extraverted rational types, namely the ESE, EIE, LIE, and LSE, are characterized by energetic and proactive behavior. (close to choleric temperament)
Introverted Rational Temperament (Ij). Introverted rational types, namely the LII, LSI, ESI, and EII, are characterized by slow and methodical behavior. (close to phlegmatic temperament)
Extraverted Irrational Temperament (Ep). Extraverted irrational types, namely the ILE, SLE, SEE, and IEE, are characterized by impulsive and unpredictable behavior. (close to sanguine temperament)
Introverted Irrational Temperament (Ip). Introverted irrational types, namely the SEI, IEI, ILI, and SLI, are characterized by lack of motivation, inertia, and unstable moods and energy levels. (close to melancholic temperament)
Beside Gulenko's, there are several other theories of correlation between temperaments and socionic types, although almost all socionic authors support Eysenck's view that temperaments do correlate with the E/I factor.[citation needed]
In addition to Model A, two other models are in wide use by socionists. Model B, created by Aleksandr Bukalov, is designed to reconcile the socionics standpoint with the so-called "Model J" (Jung's outlook) and uses sixteen functional components instead of eight. The model uses the same eight functions as Model A, but further differentiates them by attributing positive and negative polarities to each.[132] Model B also refines Model A's strong/weak concept by attributing vectors of dimensionality to each function.[127] This allows it to describe with precision why some functions are relied on more than others.
The four dimensions are
Globality (also thought of as "time")
Situation
Cultural normatives
Experience
Experience is the lowest dimension; globality is the highest. The importance of the dimension system lies in its clarification of the differences between strong and weak functions. Although any type may learn information specific to any function with adequate study, only the strong functions have the vectors of situation which are required to create new knowledge. The types are thus reliant on each other in their search for understanding.[citation needed]
A common cross-legged position is with the lower part of both legs folded towards the body, crossing each other at the ankle or calf, with both ankles on the floor, sometimes with the feet tucked under the knees or thighs. The position is known in several European languages as tailor style, from the traditional working posture of tailors;[4] compare tailor's bunion. It is also named after various plains-dwelling nomads: in American English Indian style, in many European languages "Turkish style", and in Japanese agura (胡座 The sitting style of non-Han ethnics (particularly Turks, Mongols and other Central Asians.)?). In yoga it is known as sukhasana.
On a raised seat Edit
A skull and crossbones is a symbol consisting of a human skull and two long bones crossed together under the skull.[1] The design originates in the Late Middle Ages as a symbol of death and especially as a memento mori on tombstones.
In modern contexts, it is generally used as a warning of danger, usually in regard to poisonous substances, such as deadly chemicals.[2]
Unicode uses U+2620 ☠ skull and crossbones (HTML ☠)[3] for the symbol.
The skull-and-crossbone symbol in origin depicts the typical arrangement of skulls and humeri in ossuaries, as in the depicted example from Sedlec (Czech Republic).
The symbol originates with the medieval Danse Macabre symbolism. By the 15th century, the symbol had developed into its familiar form. It is used in military flags or insignia, expressing the recklessness or ferocity of the unit displaying it, since at least the 15th century and becomes associated with piracy in particular in the 18th. It came to be used specifically to mark the entrances of Spanish cemeteries. The use of the symbol to mark poison dates to the 19th century.
The skull and bones are often used in military insignia, e.g. in coats of arms of some military regiments.
Symbol for poison Edit
In 1829, New York State required the labeling of all containers of poisonous substances. The skull and crossbones symbol appears to have been used for that purpose since the 1850s. Previously a variety of motifs had been used, including the Danish "+ + +" and drawings of skeletons.
In the 1870s poison manufacturers around the world began using bright cobalt bottles with a variety of raised bumps and designs (to enable easy recognition in the dark) to indicate poison, but by the 1880s the skull and cross bones had become ubiquitous, and the brightly coloured bottles lost their association.
As the skull-and-crossbones symbol has also entered popular culture in the context of piracy, and since cartoonish pirates have become popular characters with children, there have been concerns that the "poison" symbol might have the effect of attracting the curiosity of small children familiar with "pirates" as depicted as a toy or play theme. For this reason, in the United States there has been a proposal to replace the skull and crossbones by the "Mr. Yuk" symbol. However, Mr. Yuk and his graphic rendering are registered trademarks and service marks of his creator, the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh of UPMC, and the rendering itself is additionally protected by copyright. This means that the name and graphic image cannot be used without a license from the owner—unlike the Skull and crossbones, which is in the public domain.
The skull and crossbones was a common fraternal motif as a symbol of mortality and warning in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The symbol was adopted, for various reasons, by many sporting teams, clubs and societies in both America and Europe.
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