Quadrant Model of Reality Book 8 Science

CHAPTER XII: The Four Fields of Inquiry

The four personality types relate to the four fields of inquiry, which are Science, Religion, Art, and Philosophy.

*Square one: Science.  Science, like the Idealist, is abstract, concerned with belonging, and is somewhat weird, which is the nature of the first square.   Philosophers of science, including Kuhn and Popper, point out that science likes to consider itself objective, but is very much shaped by authority. Scientists are tempted to see only what they are looking for.  Science is sensation and perception.   An example of this occurred in observations of photos of the pyramids that showed evidence of cavities within them.   But nobody took note of that evidence.  An architect looking at the photos, being aware of the capacity to build something from the inside out, was the first to realize those cavities were used to build the pyramids.

Science, as well as the Idealist, is very much shaped by consensus and tradition.  Boltzmann, a scientist, proposed that atoms were real things, and people thought he was crazy.  Scientists are often afraid to shake up the status quo, tending instead to hold consensus-established views.  He ended up committing suicide.  Only after his death did the scientific community realize that he was right.  This occurs often in science; often proposals are considered by fellow scientists to be crazy, only later to be proven valid.  It is difficult to trust science because it is based on sensation and perception, which are limited and somewhat flawed.

Science is subjective, not objective.  Its initial findings are shaped by prejudices.  For a long time eugenics, the study of race, was very popular.  But after world war II such studies became politically incorrect and taboo.  Cultural norms shape science, which is very dependent on volunteer funding, so scientists are constantly trying to appeal to people and worrying about what others think.  Science and Idealists, are very into helping, like fighting cancer, or saving the environment.  Scientists are concerned with problems like the climate and asteroids, also examine weird stuff like aliens, often studying supernatural phenomena like astral projection.   Science, like  the Idealists, can be considered weird, often exploring beyond the boundaries of the normal, which some call “the spiritual”.  Physics is actually mostly about the study of invisible forces, which evidences this “spiritual” quality.  Fields like quantum mechanics are very weird, studying how thoughts affect reality. The first square is weird. The race associated with the first square is Asian, and Asians are associated with being good scientists.

*Square two: Religion.   Religion, like the Guardian is concerned with homeostasis, maintaining the status quo, and protecting order and stability.  Religions provide laws and ways of living designed to create harmony.  Religions are about belief, faith, behavior, and belonging (Quadrant 2).  Religions often separate people along ethnic lines. For instance, in Europe different ethnic groups adopted different religions; northern Germany adopted protestantism, while southern Germany adopted catholicism.  It can be argued that this separation was due to ethnic differences. In Asia different ethnic groups adopted alternate forms of Buddhism.  In Arab lands different ethnic groups adopted alternate forms of Islam. So belonging is very tied into religion.

Religions tend to be very concerned with behavior--distinguishing right from wrong. Like the Guardian, religions are concerned with morality and maintaining order, a fundamental characteristic of the second square.   Religion and art are often considered to be completely separate, however, being in the first two squares they form a duality, remaining interconnected.  Science has always informed religion, and religion has always informed science.  The big bang theory was proposed by a priest.  Mendel, who discovered punnet square genetics, was a monk. Science also tries to explain religion.   Scientists studying ancient astronaut possibilities try to explain the Bible and other holy texts as products of alien visitations to earth. The second square race is White, and Whites are most associated with religion. Even most Muslims are White, even the one's that say they are Arabs, because Arabs are White genetically, although it can be argued that they are brown and some more than others.

*Square three: Art.   Art corresponds to the Artisan; it is about thinking, emotion, doing, and dreaming (Quadrant 3).  Art includes painting, music, dance, and literature.  Van Goh declared that he painted his dreams.   Artists often claim that they express their emotions through their art.  Music has been described as emotion in sound form.  Art makes people think.  It can be destructive by causing people to question their assumptions and the status quo, as it deals with subjects such as race and religion. The third square has the nature of being destructive.  Like the Artisan, it can generate great discomfort; it can “show off” and engage in “having fun”.   Art is at its best when spontaneous.   Art can be used to support the status quo, but more often it shakes up the status quo. The third square race is Black, and Blacks are most associated with art.

*Square four: Philosophy.  Philosophy keeps company with the Rational. The fourth square always engulfs the previous three squares; there is a philosophy of science, a philosophy of religion, and a philosophy of art.  Philosophy is contemplation, passion, flowing, and knowing (Quadrant 4).   Philosophy is the love of knowledge.  Knowledge is the understanding of what exists beyond simple sensation and perception, preferring instead a very deep understanding.  Philosophy deals with the study of knowledge, the study of being, and the study of concepts that are beyond the reach of rational comprehension. The forth square is associated with the transrational.  Philosophy is viewed as not belonging with the other three fields of inquiry; the fourth is always different.  Philosophers, like Rationals, are seen as having their heads in the clouds.  Philosophy is interested in contemplating trans-rational qualities and realities, like the Good, Beauty, Truth, Love, and God. The forth square race is Brown, and Brown people are most associated with philosophy.

It can be argued that there is a fifth field of inquiry history. But many say that history is a science. Science is the first square so it is the light. History would be the true light, so it is like a science, but also it is not in that it is not very empirical. History instead is shaped greatly by philosophy. Again, the fourth square, philosophy, points to the fifth, history.

The Fields of Inquiry

Science	Art
Religion	Philosophy

History

       

Aristotle, one of the first physicists, believed that four elements containing four qualities comprised everything.   He identified the qualities as hot, cold, wet and dry.   Relating these qualities to the personality model, hot corresponds to abstract. Hot things rise, hot things are weird, Abstract people are weird.  Cold corresponds to concrete: cold things sink, and are normal, as are concrete people.  Wet corresponds with cooperative: wet things fill their containers; cooperative people try to conform, and in a manner fill their containers/environments.  Dry corresponds with utilitarian. Dry things are individuals, are solid, and “do their own thing”.  Utilitarian people are individuals who do what they want, and are not influenced by others over what they think is best.
 These four qualities yield four elements.

*Square one: Wind. Wind is hot and wet, and corresponds to the Idealist who is abstract and cooperative.  Wind is hot in that it is weird, and rises. Hot corresponds with abstract.  It is wet in that it fills all parts of its container, making it cooperative. Cooperative people fill their containers- they don’t do their own thing but mold to their environments.

*Square two: Water.  Water is cold and wet, corresponding to the Guardian who is concrete and cooperative.  Water is cold in that it is normal, and sinks. Cold corresponds with concrete. It is wet in that it fills its container. The second square is concerned with homeostasis. Water is healing and cleansing. The second square is homeostasis and thus is healing.

*Square three: Earth.  Earth is cold and dry, and corresponds to the Artisan who is concrete and utilitarian.  Earth is cold in that it is normal and sinks.  It is dry in that it is an individual.  It does its own thing, and is solid.  The third square is always the most solid--Earth is solid and hard.

*Square four: Fire.  Fire is hot and dry, corresponding to the Rational who is abstract and utilitarian.  Fire is hot in that it is weird, and rises.  Fire is utilitarian in that it is an individual, and seems solid, wanting to “do its own thing”, as opposed to filling its container.  Square four is separate from the previous three, consistently evidencing differences.  The fourth square has a quality of being like pure energy.  Fire is like wind, water, and earth because it is ephemeral.  Like the wind it rises, it flows like water, yet it seems solid like Earth.

*Square five: Aether.  Aristotle postulated a possible fifth element, which he called the aether, relating it to the divine. The fifth is always related to the transcendent and the divine.. The fifth is God.  Aristotle said that nothing exists without the aether, and the aether was located in the stars.   While the fourth square hints at the transcendent, the fifth is always ultra transcendent.

Aristotle theorized that everything is composed of varying amounts of these five elements.  Various cultures throughout the world also had a four/five element system.  Some identified the fifth element as life, or the void.  Interestingly the word, “one” sounds like wind; the word “two”, sounds somewhat like water, and has the “t” and “w” in it like water; the word  “three” sounds like  earth,  having letters “erth” in it;   the word “four” sounds  like

fire.  Five clearly sounds like life, which is considered in some cultures to be the fifth element.  

Aristotle’s elements

Wind- hot and wet	Earth- cold and dry
Water- cold and wet	Fire- hot and dry

It is important to note that the four distinct squares of the quadrant model are often divided by two dichotomies which yield four results.

These four elements relate to the four phases of matter.

 *Square one is gas.  This corresponds to wind.

 *Square two is liquid.  This corresponds to water

 *Square three is solid.  This corresponds to earth.

*Square four is plasma.  This corresponds to fire.

Many of the examples of the quadrants have this quality of four squres produced by two dyads. In the case of the quadrant model there is 16 squares based upon four dyads.

A Reminder and Refresher;

Summary of the Quadrants and Attributes of the Squares

The Quadrant Pattern of Reality expresses itself in four main Quadrants, each containing four squares.   A fifth Quadrant outside the first four contains three squares.  In total there are nineteen squares.  Each square represents its own unique attributes.  The first square in each quadrant is typically somewhat weird and conservative, having a sort of “loner” quality.  It always engages in a duality with the second—while appearing to be opposites the two are intricately linked.  The second square in each quadrant is more normal and homeostatic, characteristically maintaining order and structure, keeping things clean and organized.  The third square, which is the doing quadrant, is the most physical and solid, tending to be both spontaneous and destructive, while also linked with, thereby forming a triad with the first two.  The fourth square is strange, and does not seem to belong to the previous three.  Yet by containing elements of the first three it encompasses while transcending them.  The fourth is also mental, and points to a fifth, which becomes a new quadrant.  Never seeming to belong, the fifth does not seem to be necessary or relevant.

There are many examples of how the quadrant form manifests in existence. In the third quadrant of thinking, emotion, doing, and dreaming, thinking and emotion creates a duality.  The first two squares are always the duality.  They are very similar.  The third square of doing is different from the first two.  Doing is more physical than thinking and emotion.  The third square is always the most solid.  Doing refers to physical actions.  Following the duality is the triad.  The third is the most physical.  With the fourth, the quadrant is complete.  The fourth is always different from the previous three, transcending the previous three, yet encompassing them.  The fourth square has the qualities of the squares that precede it, yet it transcends them, incorporating many different attributes. The fourth always points to a fifth. Dreaming the fourth square of the third quadrant, points to contemplation, the first square of the fourth quadrant. While dreaming you transcend the body and the ego. Contemplation involves transcendence of the ego similar to dreaming. The fourth points to the fifth and the fifth becomes its own quadrant.

All phenomena throughout the Cosmos are “Re-presentations” of the Quadrant Model of Reality—the Real and intangible Form of Existence presented in discernible form.

Now finally the book will get into many examples of the quadrant model in nature. Prepare for your mind to be blown. These examples are just scratching the surface of the manifold cases of the quadrant model’s permeation of reality. The quadrant model is in fact the organizing principle of all reality.

Science

Physics chapter

The angles are the four Cardinal points of an astrological chart: the Ascendant, the Midheaven, the Descendant and the Imum Coeli.

The astrological chart is a schematic representation of the sky at any given moment of time, projected upon the ecliptic--or the apparent path of the Sun as seen from the Earth—which forms the circle in which the chart is enclosed. The longitudinal positions of the planets are plotted onto this circle, because the planets (except Pluto) and many stars, lie very close to the Sun's path in celestial latitude.

How this map of the sky is seen from the Earth is determined by where the horizon is at the time for which the chart is cast. The horizon forms the boundary between what can be seen, or the visible sky, and sky which exists on the opposite side of the earth, which exists at the same time and space, but cannot be seen.

The line of the horizon cuts across the circle of the chart horizontally, and forms the most important angle of the chart: the Ascendant, or the exact place where the Sun's path crosses the horizon in the East. It is at this point that all planets and many stars appears to rise up out of what cannot be seen and become apparent to the observer. This is because the Earth's daily rotation reveals sky objects from East to West, and makes them appear to be moving from the eastern horizon across the sky to the western horizon, where they disappear again to the observer, dipping down again to the unseen sky. The western horizon, where the Sun's path meets the horizon in the West, is called the Descendant.

The other very important angle of the chart is the Midheaven (also called the M.C. for the Latin Medium coeli, or "middle of the sky.") The Midheaven represents the highest point in the sky reached by the Sun, or its culmination, as it crosses from one horizon to the other—the noon point in a chart which is plotted for dawn. At the Earth's equator, it is the point on the ecliptic which is directly overhead from the observer; as the observer moves north or south from the Equator, the midheaven appears to withdraw, so that from points north of the equator, the noon point of the Sun appears lies in the southern sky, and south of the equator, it appears in the northern sky.

The point opposite the Midheaven, which is in the unseen sky, and would be the midnight point in a chart cast for dawn, is the anticulmination of the Sun, or the Imum Coeli, which is Latin for the "bottom of the sky." This is the last of the four angles.

The angles are crucial to the understanding of the meaning of the sky map to the individual or event for which it was cast. There are no more individual points in chart. Much has been made by astrologers (deriving from the Theosophical tradition that is closely linked to much of modern astrological practice) of the quality of "coming into being" that they represent, as they represent going from the unseen to the seen. Since Theosophical astrology was tied to the idea of manifesting from the spiritual to the bodily form, the angles have come to symbolize this connection. However, even if this theory is discounted, as Bernadette Brady[1] has noted, to all ancient peoples, the horizon was the place where the gods came into contact with the earth and became available to human supplication. Without this connection, the spiritual realm and the world had nothing to do with one another, and for that reason, astrology, which seeks to communicate between the two spheres, must use this place of connection to derive significance for the world from the sky.

In astrology, an angular house, or cardinal house, is one of four cardinal houses of the horoscope, which are the houses in which the angles of the chart (the Ascendant, the Midheaven, the Imum Coeli and the Descendant) are found. The angular houses of the horoscope are considered to be the most ardent, or forceful, and are considered to have the greatest impact in the chart. The influential 17th-century astrologer William Lilly states simply: "Planets in angles do more forcibly show their effects." [1] Angular houses rule those critical things in our life, such as our appearance and how we behave, our family life, our married life or partnerships, and our career.

First house[edit] The first house, of which the cusp is often (but not always) the Ascendant, signifies the person in the chart, his or her personality, and his or her behaviour. Quite often, the Ascendant can overshadow a person's Sun sign. For example, a person who has Leo on the cusp of his or her first house and Virgo as his or her Sun sign can be quite dynamic and dramatic, but the fastidious, efficient, self-effacing part of him- or herself will not be readily apparent until people are able to pierce through the persona and see the real person. Fourth house[edit] The fourth house, of which the cusp is often (but not always) the Imum Coeli, signifies a person's home, security, family, and those things in early life that served as a foundation for them. Sometimes the fourth house also is connected with endings, such as a person's end of life. This house is affiliated often with our parents. For the ancients, it was the House of the Father, but in modern charts, it tends to have a more general parental significance. Seventh house[edit] The seventh house, of which the cusp is often (but not always) the Descendant, shows the type of mate the native is likely to be attracted to and all partnerships in general. For Hellenistic astrologers, the seventh house was in general a fortunate one, especially for benefics, but there are some difficulties which may arise from these placements because the house is "the Setting Place" or the place where the Sun falls.[2] Tenth house[edit] The tenth house, of which the cusp is often (but not always) the Midheaven, refers to our careers, vocations, creative output, and how we would like the world to see us. For Ptolemy, it also was the house where our children's impact can be seen.

Natal astrology, also known as genethliacal astrology, is the system of astrology based on the concept that each individual's personality or path in life can be determined by constructing a natal chart for the exact date, time, and location of that individual's birth. Natal astrology can be found in the Indian or Jyotish, Chinese and Western astrological traditions.

The houses are grouped into four main categories or hemispheres.[5] Horoscopes appear 'upside down' in relation to how the compass points usually appear, with the ascendant marking the eastern horizon traditionally appearing on the left hand side. For this reason the southern hemisphere appears in the upper part of the horoscope. Upper (southern) hemisphere The 7th, 8th, 9th 10th, 11th and 12th houses. A subject with most of his or her planets in this hemisphere will not be too deeply affected by the actions of other people. He or she will be able to distance themselves from those around them and from public events and movements, focusing firmly on their own needs and feelings, or the general cause of humanity that is important to them. If the planets are grouped in the 8th, 9th or 12th houses, the subject will have strong spiritual needs and values. Planets grouped in the 10th house will make the subject ambitious and politically astute; while if they are in the 11th house he or she will be interested in humanitarian causes and education. Lower (northern) hemisphere The 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th houses. A subject with most of his or her planets in this part of the chart will be sensitive to the moods and feelings of others, and may suffer a good deal as a result. The person may try to live though their family rather than for themselves, and may be too subjective in their thinking. They may also choose to do most of their thinking and working at home. Eastern hemisphere The 10th, 11th, 12th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd houses. A subject who has most of his or her planets in this hemisphere will be a self-starter who chooses their own path through life and sets their own boundaries. They are not happy being a burden to other people, or being kept by someone else. They also have the burden themselves of being an initiator at work and in their personal life, as little is likely to be done for them by others. When the planets are in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd houses, the subject is likely to be very self-absorbed and convinced that his or her own opinions are the only ones that matter. Western hemisphere The 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th houses. A subject with most of these planets in this hemisphere will need to be very diplomatic in order to keep those around him on their side. They may be looked after in some way by others, or else spend their lives supporting and motivating others. When the majority of planets are in the 6th, 7th and 8th houses he or she will use their energy to fulfil the needs to others. The subject may bring about a situation of being needed by bringing a number of children into the world to love and care for.

There are four primary angles in the horoscope. These are, in order of power: First House (Ascendant – East Angle) Tenth House (Midheaven or M.C. – North Angle) Seventh House (Descendant – West Angle) Fourth House (Imum Coeli or I.C. – South Angle) The ascendant is the easternmost or sunrise point where the ecliptic and horizon intersect; the ascendant and the midheaven are considered the most important angles in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. In most systems of house division, the ascendant is the cusp of the 1st house and the midheaven is the cusp of the 10th house. The placement of the planetary ruler of the ascendant, called the chart ruler is also considered to be significant. The point in the west diametrically opposing the ascendant is called the descendant, normally the cusp of the 7th house; and the point opposing the M.C. is the cusp of the 4th house, the northernmost point of the chart, called the imum coeli or I.C. In creating a horoscope the ascendant is traditionally placed at the "nine o'clock" position on the left-hand side of the chart wheel (though traditional rectangular chart formats need not follow this convention). During the course of a day, because of the Earth's rotation, the entire circle of the ecliptic will pass through the ascendant and will be advanced by about 1°. This movement provides us with the term rising sign, which is the sign of the zodiac rising over the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. The point on the ecliptic that is furthest above the plane of the horizon at the time is called the Midheaven, or medium coeli (M.C.), placed at the "twelve o'clock position" effectively where the Sun would be if the birth time was midday.

The simplest prime knot is the trefoil with three crossings. The trefoil is actually a (2, 3)-torus knot. The figure-eight knot, with four crossings, is the simplest non-torus knot. For any positive integer n, there are a finite number of prime knots with n crossings. The first few values (sequence A002863 in OEIS) are given in the following table.

In knot theory, a figure-eight knot (also called Listing's knot) is the unique knot with a crossing number of four. This is the smallest possible crossing number except for the unknot and trefoil knot. The figure-eight knot is a prime knot.

By way of example, the unknot has crossing number zero, the trefoil knot three and the figure-eight knot four. There are no other knots with a crossing number this low, and just two knots have crossing number five, but the number of knots with a particular crossing number increases rapidly as the crossing number increases.

In mathematics, 4-manifold is a 4-dimensional topological manifold. A smooth 4-manifold is a 4-manifold with a smooth structure. In dimension four, in marked contrast with lower dimensions, topological and smooth manifolds are quite different. There exist some topological 4-manifolds which admit no smooth structure and even if there exists a smooth structure it need not be unique (i.e. there are smooth 4-manifolds which are homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic). 4-manifolds are of importance in physics because, in General Relativity, spacetime is modeled as a pseudo-Riemannian 4-manifold.

Incas regarded space and time as a single concept, referred to as pacha (Quechua: pacha, Aymara: pacha).[3][4] The peoples of the Andes maintain a similar understanding.[5] The idea of a unified spacetime is stated by Edgar Allan Poe in his essay on cosmology titled Eureka (1848) that "Space and duration are one". In 1895, in his novel The Time Machine, H. G. Wells wrote, "There is no difference between time and any of the three dimensions of space except that our consciousness moves along it", and that "any real body must have extension in four directions: it must have Length, Breadth, Thickness, and Duration". Marcel Proust, in his novel Swann's Way (published 1913), describes the village church of his childhood's Combray as "a building which occupied, so to speak, four dimensions of space—the name of the fourth being Time". The forth is always different. The forth dimension is time and time is seen as an illusion

The geometry of spacetime in special relativity is described by the Minkowski metric on R4. This spacetime is called Minkowski space. The Minkowski metric is usually denoted by \eta and can be written as a four-by-four matrix: \eta_{ab} \, = \operatorname{diag}(1, -1, -1, -1) where the Landau–Lifshitz time-like convention is being used. A basic assumption of relativity is that coordinate transformations must leave spacetime intervals invariant. Intervals are invariant under Lorentz transformations. This invariance property leads to the use of four-vectors (and other tensors) in describing physics. Strictly speaking, one can also consider events in Newtonian physics as a single spacetime. This is Galilean–Newtonian relativity, and the coordinate systems are related by Galilean transformations. However, since these preserve spatial and temporal distances independently, such a spacetime can be decomposed into spatial coordinates plus temporal coordinates, which is not possible in the general case. A four by four matrix is the quadrant model

In cosmology the four pillars of the standard cosmology are Square 1: expansion of the Universe Square 2: Origin of the cosmic background radiation Square 3: Nucleosynthesis of the light elements Square 4: Formation of galaxies and large scale structures

The way that Nikola Tesla invented alternating current was he got four coils with four alternating currents and put them in a quadrant formation and made an egg (called a tesla egg) spin with them. It showed how rotary movement could be produced by an alternating current. Out of this model he invented polyphase transmission. From this large power stations could be built anywhere, and away from populated areas. The model with the four coils and four alternating currents equidistant apart, reflected the quadrant image.

Hertz tried to discover electricity through Maxwells waves existed by carrying a receiver that would spark if electricity was produced. The receiver he carried was a metal quadrant. Lodge later created sensation by creating an apparatus that could make a bell ring through electricity over a distance with the same quadrant metal form receiver.

In astronomy, a tetrad is a set of four total lunar eclipses within two years.

Tetrad analysis can be used to confirm whether a phenotype is caused by a specific mutation, construction of strains, and for investigating gene interaction. Since the frequency of tetrad segregation types is influenced by the recombination frequency for the two markers, the segregation data can be used to calculate the genetic distance between the markers if they are close on the same chromosome. Tetrad analyses have also contributed to detection and study of the phenomena of gene conversion and post-meiotic segregation.[2] These studies have proven central to understanding the mechanism of meiotic recombination, which in turn is a key to understanding the adaptive function of sexual reproduction. The use of tetrads in fine-structure genetic analysis is described in the articles Neurospora crassa and Gene conversion. General procedure[edit] Crosses are performed between haploid MATa and MATα mating strains, then the resulting diploids are transferred to sporulation media to form a tetrad containing four haploid spores. Tetrads can then be prepared with Zymolyase, or another enzyme, to digest the wall of the ascus. The spores are then separated with a micromanipulator needle and deposited in separate positions on a petri dish. Tools[edit] Traditionally, tetrad dissection has a reputation as "dark art".[3] However, instruments have since been developed specifically for tetrad dissection; the most advanced allow easy and semi-automated separation of tetrads [2] . Most micromanipulators use a glass fiber needle to which the spores adhere due to the formation of a water meniscus between the agar and the needle.

In general relativity, a frame field (also called a tetrad or vierbein) is a set of four orthonormal vector fields, one timelike and three spacelike, defined on a Lorentzian manifold that is physically interpreted as a model of spacetime. The timelike unit vector field is often denoted by {\vec {e}}_{0} and the three spacelike unit vector fields by {\vec {e}}_{1},{\vec {e}}_{2},\,{\vec {e}}_{3}. All tensorial quantities defined on the manifold can be expressed using the frame field and its dual coframe field. Frames were introduced into general relativity by Hermann Weyl in 1929.

Results from the Rosetta and Philae spacecraft show that the nucleus of 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko has no magnetic field, which suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of planetesimals.[30][31] Further, the ALICE spectrograph on Rosetta determined that electrons (within 1 km (0.62 mi) above the comet nucleus) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation, and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier, are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma.[32][33] Instruments on the Philae lander found at least sixteen organic compounds at the comet's surface, four of which (acetamide, acetone, methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde) have been detected for the first time on a comet

Desert biomes can be classified according to several characteristics. There are four major types of deserts: Hot and dry Semiarid Coastal Cold

Chemistry chapter

Gürcütepe is a Neolithic site on the southeastern outskirts of Şanlıurfa in Turkey, consisting of four very shallow tells along Sirrin Stream that flows from Şanlıurfa. All four hills are now covered by modern buildings, so they are no longer recognizable. In the late 1990s a German archaeological team under the direction of Klaus Schmidt carried out soundings on all four hills and made extensive excavations on the second hill seen from the east. Originally it was assumed that the four hills were settled in a specific time sequence, that one of these settlement phases would coincide with the nearby Gobekli Tepe. However, the excavations have indicated that all four hills were settled during the PPNB period; the easternmost hill is from the later PPNC period. Gürcütepe joins a group of Neolithic localities in Turkey, all rammed-earth buildings possessing space subdivisions next to larger community buildings. The small finds correspond to what we previously knew already. Overall, the Gürcütepe gives the impression of a rural settlement which was significantly younger than the famous Göbekli Tepe. Gurcutepe is considered one of the oldest archeological sights and one of the most important archeogloical sights in history. It fits the quadrant pattern with the fours

Göbekli Tepe is situated on a flat and barren plateau, with buildings fanning in all directions. In the north, the plateau is connected to a neighbouring mountain range by a narrow promontory. In all other directions, the ridge descends steeply into slopes and steep cliffs.[10] On top of the ridge, there is considerable evidence of human impact in addition to the actual tell. Excavations have taken place at the southern slope of the tell, south and west of a mulberry that marks an Islamic pilgrimage,[11] but archaeological finds come from the entire plateau. The team has also found many remains of tools. Plateau[edit] Göbekli Tepe surrounding area Complex E The plateau has been transformed by erosion and by quarrying, which took place not only in the Neolithic, but also in classical times. There are four 10 m (33 ft) long and 20 cm (8 in) wide channels on the southern part of the plateau, interpreted as the remains of an ancient quarry from which rectangular blocks were taken. These are possibly related to a square building in the neighbourhood, of which only the foundation is preserved. Presumably, this is the remains of a Roman watchtower which belonged to the Limes Arabicus. However, this is not known with certainty.[12] Most structures on the plateau seem to be the result of Neolithic quarrying, with the quarries being used as sources for the huge, monolithic architectural elements. Their profiles were pecked into the rock, with the detached blocks then levered out of the rock bank.[12] Several quarries where round workpieces had been produced were identified. Their status as quarries was confirmed by the find of a 3-by-3-metre piece at the southeastern slope of the plateau. Unequivocally Neolithic are three T-shaped pillars that have not been levered out of the bedrock. The biggest of them lies on the northern plateau. It has a length of 7 m (23 ft) and its head has a width of 3 m (10 ft). Its weight may be around 50 tons. The two other unfinished pillars lie on the southern Plateau. At the western edge of the hill, a lion-like figure was found. In this area, flint and limestone fragments occur more frequently. It was therefore suggested that this could have been some kind of sculpture workshop.[13] It is unclear, on the other hand, how to classify three phallic depictions from the surface of the southern plateau. They are near the quarries from classical times, making their dating difficult.[14] Apart from the tell, there is an incised platform with two sockets that could have held pillars, and a surrounding flat bench. This platform corresponds to the complexes from Layer III at the actual tell. Continuing the naming pattern, it is called "complex E." Owing to its similarity to the cult-buildings at Nevalı Çori it has also been called "Temple of the Rock." Its floor has been carefully hewn out of the bedrock and smoothed, reminiscent of the terrazzo floors of the younger complexes at Göbekli Tepe. Immediately northwest of this area are two cistern-like pits, believed to be part of complex E. One of these pits has a table-high pin as well as a staircase with five steps.[15] At the western escarpment, a small cave has been discovered in which a small relief depicting a bovine was found. It is the only relief found in this cave.[16]

Layer III[edit] Pillar 2 from Enclosure A (Layer III) with low reliefs of what are believed to be a bull, fox, and crane. At this early stage of the site's history, circular compounds or temene first appear. They range from 10 to 30 metres in diameter. Their most notable feature is the presence of T-shaped limestone pillars evenly set within thick interior walls composed of unworked stone. Four such circular structures have been unearthed so far. Geophysical surveys indicate that there are 16 more, enclosing up to eight pillars each, amounting to nearly 200 pillars in all. The slabs were transported from bedrock pits located approximately 100 metres (330 ft) from the hilltop, with workers using flint points to cut through the limestone bedrock.[17] Two taller pillars stand facing one another at the centre of each circle. Whether the circles were provided with a roof is uncertain. Stone benches designed for sitting are found in the interior.[18] Many of the pillars are decorated with abstract, enigmatic pictograms and carved animal reliefs. The pictograms may represent commonly understood sacred symbols, as known from Neolithic cave paintings elsewhere. The reliefs depict mammals such as lions, bulls, boars, foxes, gazelles and donkeys; snakes and other reptiles, arthropods such as insects and arachnids; and birds, particularly vultures. At the time the edifice was constructed, the surrounding country was likely to have been forested and capable of sustaining this variety of wildlife, before millennia of settlement and cultivation led to the near–Dust Bowl conditions prevalent today.[7] Vultures also feature prominently in the iconography of Çatalhöyük and Jericho. Professor of Archaeology Steven Mithen, suggests that in the early Neolithic culture of Anatolia and the Near East the deceased were deliberately exposed in order to be excarnated by vultures and other carrion birds. (The head of the deceased was sometimes removed and preserved — possibly a sign of ancestor worship.)[19] This, then, would represent an early form of sky burial, as still practiced by Tibetan Buddhists and by Zoroastrians in Iran and India.[20] Pillar 27 from Enclosure C (Layer III) with the sculpture of a predatory animal Pillar with the sculpture of a fox Few humanoid figures have appeared in the art at Göbekli Tepe. However, some of the T-shaped pillars have human arms carved on their lower half, suggesting that they are intended to represent the bodies of stylized humans (or perhaps gods). Loincloths also appear on the lower half of a few pillars. The horizontal stone member on top is thought to symbolize a human head. The pillars as a whole therefore have an anthropomorphic identity.[21] Whether they were intended to serve as surrogate worshippers, symbolize venerated ancestors, or represent supernatural, anthropomorphic beings is not clear. At Pillar 27, Enclosure 2, Layer III, the discovery of a predator—perhaps a leopard—has excited particular interest for being carved almost in the round, hinting at a degree of artistic training and division of labor that is again surprising in a hunter-gatherer society. Some of the floors in this, the oldest, layer are made of terrazzo (burnt lime), others are bedrock from which pedestals to hold the large pair of central pillars were carved in high relief.[22] Radiocarbon dating places the construction of these early circles in the range of 9600 to 8800 BC. Carbon dating suggests that (for reasons unknown) the enclosures were backfilled during the Stone Age.

Layer II[edit] Creation of the circular enclosures in layer III later gave way to the construction of small rectangular rooms in layer II. Rectangular buildings make a more efficient use of space compared with circular structures. They are often associated with the emergence of the Neolithic.[23] But the T-shaped pillars, the main feature of the older enclosures, are also present here, indicating that the buildings of Layer II continued to serve as sanctuaries.[24] Layer II is assigned to Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB). The several adjoining rectangular, doorless and windowless rooms have floors of polished lime reminiscent of Roman terrazzo floors. Carbon dating has yielded dates between 8800 and 8000 BCE.[25] Several T-pillars up to 1.5 meters tall occupy the center of the rooms. A pair decorated with fierce-looking lions is responsible for the name "lion pillar building" by which their enclosure is known.[26] Layer I[edit] Layer I is the uppermost part of the hill. It is the shallowest, but accounts for the longest stretch of time. It consists of loose sediments caused by erosion and the virtually uninterrupted use of the hill for agricultural purposes since it ceased to operate as a cult center. The site was deliberately backfilled sometime after 8000 BCE: the buildings were buried under debris, mostly flint gravel, stone tools, and animal bones that must have been imported from elsewhere.[27] In addition to Byblos points (weapon heads, i.e. arrowheads etc.) and numerous Nemrik points, Helwan-points and Aswad-points dominate the backfill's lithic inventory.

Gobekli Tepe is considered one of the oldest archeological sights in history and it is considered very close to the most important maybe the most important. It also fits the quadrant model pattern with four parts to the complex

Göbekli Tepe is regarded as an archaeological discovery of the greatest importance since it could profoundly change the understanding of a crucial stage in the development of human society. Ian Hodder of Stanford University said, "Göbekli Tepe changes everything".[3][39] It shows that the erection of monumental complexes was within the capacities of hunter-gatherers and not only of sedentary farming communities as had been previously assumed. As excavator Klaus Schmidt put it, "First came the temple, then the city."[40] Not only its large dimensions, but the side-by-side existence of multiple pillar shrines makes the location unique. There are no comparable monumental complexes from its time. Nevalı Çori, a Neolithic settlement also excavated by the German Archaeological Institute and submerged by the Atatürk Dam since 1992, is 500 years younger. Its T-shaped pillars are considerably smaller, and its shrine was located inside a village. The roughly contemporary architecture at Jericho is devoid of artistic merit or large-scale sculpture, and Çatalhöyük, perhaps the most famous Anatolian Neolithic village, is 2,000 years later. It is where Archeologists think that farming began in Europe, and it fits the quadrant form

Harris' Laws of Archaeological Stratigraphy[edit] Law of superposition[edit] Main article: Law of superposition In a series of layers and interfacial features, as originally created, the upper units of stratification are younger and the lower are older, for each must have been deposited on, or created by the removal of, a pre-existing mass of archaeological stratification. Law of original horizontal[edit] Main article: Principle of original horizontality Any archaeological layer deposited in an unconsolidated form will tend towards a horizontal disposition. Strata which are found with tilted surfaces were so originally deposited, or lie in conformity with the contours of a pre-existing basin of deposition. Law of original continuity[edit] Any archaeological deposit, as originally laid down, will be bounded by the edge of the basin of deposition, or will thin down to a feather edge. Therefore, if any edge of the deposit is exposed in a vertical plane view, a part of its original extent must have been removed by excavation or erosion: its continuity must be sought, or its absence explained. Law of stratigraphic succession[edit] Any given unit of archaeological stratification takes its place in the stratigraphic sequence of a site from its position between the undermost of all units which lie above it and the uppermost of all those units which lie below it and with which it has a physical contact, all other superpositional relationships being regarded as redundant. These laws were published in 1979. A fifth law of archaeological stratigraphy has also been added following papers presented at the "Interpreting Stratigraphy a Review of the Art" conferences [1] in the UK from 1992 to 2003.

There are four laws of stratigraphy to Harris

The Toba supereruption was a supervolcanic eruption that occurred some time between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba (Sumatra, Indonesia). It is one of the Earth's largest known eruptions. The Toba catastrophe hypothesis holds that this event caused a global volcanic winter of 6–10 years and possibly a 1,000-year-long cooling episode. In 1993, science journalist Ann Gibbons suggested a link between the eruption and a population bottleneck in human evolution, and Michael R. Rampino of New York University and Stephen Self of the University of Hawaii at Manoa gave support to the idea. In 1998, the bottleneck theory was further developed by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Both the link and global winter theories are highly controversial. The Toba event is the most closely studied super-eruption.[2][3][4] Supereruption[edit] The Toba eruption or Toba event occurred at the present location of Lake Toba, in Indonesia, about 75000±900 years Before Present (BP).[5][6] This eruption was the last and largest of four eruptions of Toba during the Quaternary period, and is also recognized from its diagnostic horizon of ashfall, the youngest Toba tuff (YTT).[7][8] It had an estimated volcanic explosivity index of 8 (the maximum), or a magnitude ≥ M8; it made a sizable contribution to the 100×30 km caldera complex.[9] Dense-rock equivalent (DRE) estimates of eruptive volume for the eruption vary between 2000 km3 and 3000 km3 – the most common DRE estimate is 2800 km3 (about 7×1015 kg) of erupted magma, of which 800 km3 was deposited as ash fall.[10] The erupted mass was 100 times greater than that of the largest volcanic eruption in recent history, the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia, which caused the 1816 "Year Without a Summer" in the northern hemisphere.[11] Toba's erupted mass deposited an ash layer approximately 15 centimetres (6 inches) thick over the whole of South Asia. A blanket of volcanic ash was also deposited over the Indian Ocean, and the Arabian Sea and South China Sea.[12] Deep-sea cores retrieved from the South China Sea have extended the known reach of the eruption, suggesting that the 2800 km3 calculation of the erupted mass is a minimum value or even an underestimation.[13]

There were four such eruptons

Fig. 632 – The fourfold analysis of the City completed, as given by Volker WELTER (2002). The scheme consists of a four-division (cross), which is filled with three-divisions. Geddes envisaged an anti-clockwise movement from town folk (work) – school knowledge – cloister ideas to city polity as a human ‘Werdegang’. The highest aim was polity (politeía), a Greek term referring to the city states with an assembly of citizens involved in a political process, but is now also a general term for any political organization of a group.

An analysis of Geddes’ ideas points to dualism rather than higher division thinking, as the (swastika) cross and four-fold division suggest. At best, it is a double two-fold affair – which is still ‘higher’ than a pure oppositional way of thinking. Geddes puts – in particular in his later ‘Notation of Life’ (published in 1949) – the vita activa against the vita contemplativa. The lower half is the in-world of both an individual and a town, while the upper half represents their outer-world. This change of mind represented a move from the individual to the collective (fig. 633). His (linear) approach started with a simple practical life (1), moved to a simple mental life (2), then further into a full inner life (3) and ended into a complete effective life (4). Geddes brought some interesting vistas of the human position in life, but he was unable to get rid of an oppositional approach.

   LEVEL   TOWN-CITY      ACT-DEED       ACT-DEED

  (1905)    (Notation of life)

 1.  Out-world    Town              Facts                    Acts

 2.  In-world      School            Memories               Facts

 3.  In-world      Cloister          Plans                        Dreams

 4.  Out-world       City                Acts                       Deeds

Fig. 633 – This comparison of the ‘Town-City’ and ‘Act-Deed’ formulas by Patrick Geddes during the course of his life indicates a shift from an individual to a communal psychology.

Frank Lloyd Wright (1867/1869 – 1959; research by his biographer Henry-Russell HITCHCOCK revealed that his birthday was two years earlier than Lloyd Wright self indicated; see also an article by HINES, 1967) was the American equivalent of an architect, who searched for the ideas behind the ideal city. He found solutions in the selective use of technical achievement (of the ‘old’ order) and used them in the new order. Increased mobility (the motor car) brought a new element in city planning, for good and worse. Rent had to be abolished, because it made man to a slave. Pleasure in work and leisure became the dictum for the free citizen.

Brasilia (Brasil), Islamabad (Pakistan), Chandigarh (India) and Canberra (Australia) are examples of ideal cities, which were realized in the second half of the twentieth century. The cities had certain socio-political features in common, of which a cry for identity was probably the most obvious. An extensive literature on these cities exists, mainly written in the aftermath of their foundation. They are still a reference point in more recent publications on urbanism. The quadralectic approach will try to point out the types of division thinking, as caught in the visible reality of these urbanizations.

James HOLSTON (1989) gave an anthropological critique of Brasilia as a ‘modernist city’, which was inspired by (hidden) political ideas. His ‘human’ (political) approach offers a good insight into the mental position of the decision makers – although no reference to division thinking was made. The conception of Brasilia in the 1950’s as a utopian urban planning project provided – for those able to distinguish the importance of division thinking in decision making – a spectacular display of communication at work. All the elements of interaction, from the initial barren land (I), the ideas about a beginning (II), its subsequent execution under the architect Oscar Niemeyer (III) and its ongoing evaluation (IV), are present.

A quarter, short for quarter dollar, is a U.S. coin worth 25 cents, one-fourth of a dollar. It has been produced since 1796.[1] The choice of 1⁄4 as a denomination—as opposed to the 1⁄5 more common elsewhere—originated with the practice of dividing Spanish milled dollars into eight wedge-shaped segments. At one time "two bits" (that is, two "pieces of eight") was a common nickname for a quarter.

There are four main scales, or sizes of systems, dealt with in meteorology: the macroscale, the synoptic scale, the mesoscale, and the microscale.[4] The macroscale deals with systems with global size, such as the Madden-Julian Oscillation. Synoptic scale systems cover a portion of a continent, such as extratropical cyclones, with dimensions of 1,000-2,500 km (620-1,550 mi) across.[5] The mesoscale is the next smaller scale, and often is divided into two ranges: meso-alpha phenomena range from 200-2,000 km (125-1,243 mi) across (the realm of the tropical cyclone), while meso-beta phenomena range from 20–200 km (12-125 mi) across (the scale of the mesocyclone). The microscale is the smallest of the meteorological scales, with a size under two kilometers (1.2 mi) (the scale of tornadoes and waterspouts).[6] These horizontal dimensions are not rigid divisions but instead reflect typical sizes of phenomena having certain dynamic characteristics. For example, a system does not necessarily transition from meso-alpha to synoptic scale when its horizontal extent grows from 2,000 to 2,001 km (1,243 mi).

QMRFour-wave mixing (FWM) is an intermodulation phenomenon in non-linear optics, whereby interactions between two wavelengths produce two extra wavelengths in the signal. It is similar to the third-order intercept point in electrical systems. Four-wave mixing can be compared to the intermodulation distortion in standard electrical systems.

The four stages in coal formation are peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite. Each of these stages must be completed for coal to form. Stage one in coal production is peat. Peat is a fibrous substance that is oxidized by water and carbon dioxide. When a plant dies, and stays under water, it builds up an accumulation of peat. Peat, when burned, produces a lot of smoke and a large flame and therefore is rarely used as a heat source. Stage two of the coal formation process is lignite. Lignite forms when peat is put under considerable vertical pressure. It contains small amounts of plant matter and is very fragile so it must never be handled before burning. Bituminous coal is the third stage of coal production. The lignite continues receiving heavy vertical pressure until it turns a dark brown and becomes soft coal. Bituminous coal is used as an energy source in many parts of the world. The final stage of coal production is the anthracite stage. During this stage, soft coal becomes hard coal. It takes on a certain luster and is formed due to intense pressure and high temperatures. Anthracite produces little smoke and is the coal most people are familiar with.

Coal has been very important in human history. It is no coincidence the process through which it goes reflects the qudrant pattern.

Von Schelling considered the four parts of the world and the four directions as a basic division-method. He applied this scheme to the four elements nitrogen (N), carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) by placing them in a quinquennial position with water as an undifferentiated medium in the middle

Synthetic polymers are human-made polymers. From the utility point of view they can be classified into four main categories: thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers and synthetic fibers. They are found commonly in a variety of consumer products such as money, super glue, etc.

The first serious attempts to formulate a geological time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth were made in the late 18th century. The most influential of those early attempts (championed by Abraham Werner, among others) divided the rocks of Earth’s crust into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each type of rock, according to the theory, formed during a specific period in Earth history. It was thus possible to speak of a "Tertiary Period" as well as of "Tertiary Rocks." Indeed, "Tertiary" (now Paleogene and Neogene) and "Quaternary" (now Pleistocene and Holocene) remained in use as names of geological periods well into the 20th century.

The most common arrangement of liquid water (H2O) molecules is tetrahedral with two hydrogen atoms covalently attached to oxygen and two attached by hydrogen bonds. Since the hydrogen bonds vary in length many of these water molecules are not symmetrical and form transient irregular tetrahedra between their four associated hydrogen atoms. Water is what keeps organisms alive and its polar nature is also very important in chemistry. It is no coincidence that it is tetrahedrally arranged. Four is very important.

The term Quaternary ("fourth") was proposed by Giovanni Arduino in 1759 for alluvial deposits in the Po River valley in northern Italy. It was introduced by Jules Desnoyers in 1829 for sediments of France's Seine Basin that seemed clearly to be younger than Tertiary Period rocks. The Quaternary Period follows the Neogene Period and extends to the present. The Quaternary covers the time span of glaciations classified as the Pleistocene, and includes the present interglacial period, the Holocene. This places the start of the Quaternary at the onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation approximately 2.6 million years ago. Prior to 2009, the Pleistocene was defined to be from 1.805 million years ago to the present, so the current definition of the Pleistocene includes a portion of what was, prior to 2009, defined as the Pliocene.

Biology chapter

C4 carbon fixation is one of three biochemical processes, along with C3 and CAM photosynthesis, used to fix carbon. It is named for the 4-carbon molecule present in the first product of carbon fixation in the small subset of plants that use that process, in contrast to the 3-carbon molecule products in C3 plants. C4 fixation is an elaboration of the more common C3 carbon fixation and is believed to have evolved more recently. C4 and CAM overcome the tendency of the enzyme RuBisCO to wastefully fix oxygen rather than carbon dioxide in the process of photorespiration. This is achieved in a more efficient environment for RubisCo by shuttling CO2 via malate or aspartate from mesophyll cells to bundle-sheath cells. In these bundle-sheath cells, RuBisCO is isolated from atmospheric oxygen and saturated with the CO2 released by decarboxylation of the malate or oxaloacetate. These additional steps, however, require more energy in the form of ATP. Because of this extra energy requirement, C4 plants are able to more efficiently fix carbon in only certain conditions, with the more common C3 pathway being more efficient in other conditions.

The first experiments indicating that some plants do not use C3 carbon fixation but instead produce malate and aspartate in the first step of carbon fixation were done in the 1950s and early 1960s by Hugo P. Kortschak[1] and Yuri Karpilov.[2] The C4 pathway was elucidated by Marshall Davidson Hatch and C. R. Slack, in Australia, in 1966; it is sometimes called the Hatch-Slack pathway.[3] In C3 plants, the first step in the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis involves the fixation of CO2 by the enzyme RuBisCO into 3-phosphoglycerate. However, due to the dual carboxylase and oxygenase activity of RuBisCo, some part of the substrate is oxidized rather than carboxylated, resulting in loss of substrate and consumption of energy, in what is known as photorespiration. In order to bypass the photorespiration pathway, C4 plants have developed a mechanism to efficiently deliver CO2 to the RuBisCO enzyme. They utilize their specific leaf anatomy where chloroplasts exist not only in the mesophyll cells in the outer part of their leaves but in the bundle sheath cells as well. Instead of direct fixation to RuBisCO in the Calvin cycle, CO2 is incorporated into a 4-carbon organic acid, which has the ability to regenerate CO2 in the chloroplasts of the bundle sheath cells. Bundle sheath cells can then utilize this CO2 to generate carbohydrates by the conventional C3 pathway. The first step in the pathway is the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), by the enzyme pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase. This reaction requires inorganic phosphate and ATP plus pyruvate, producing phosphoenolpyruvate, AMP, and inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi). The next step is the fixation of CO2 into oxaloacetate by the enzyme PEP carboxylase. Both of these steps occur in the mesophyll cells: pyruvate + Pi + ATP → PEP + AMP + PPi PEP + CO2 → oxaloacetate PEP carboxylase has a lower Km for HCO3- — and, hence, higher affinity — than RuBisCO. Furthermore, O2 is a very poor substrate for this enzyme. Thus, at relatively low concentrations of CO2, most CO2 will be fixed by this pathway. The product is usually converted to malate, a simple organic compound, which is transported to the bundle-sheath cells surrounding a nearby vein. Here, it is decarboxylated to produce CO2 and pyruvate. The CO2 now enters the Calvin cycle and the pyruvate is transported back to the mesophyll cell. Since every CO2 molecule has to be fixed twice, first by 4-carbon organic acid and second by RuBisCO, the C4 pathway uses more energy than the C3 pathway. The C3 pathway requires 18 molecules of ATP for the synthesis of one molecule of glucose, whereas the C4 pathway requires 30 molecules of ATP. This energy debt is more than paid for by avoiding losing more than half of photosynthetic carbon in photorespiration as occurs in some tropical plants,[citation needed] making it an adaptive mechanism for minimizing the loss. There are several variants of this pathway: The 4-carbon acid transported from mesophyll cells may be malate, as above, or aspartate The 3-carbon acid transported back from bundle-sheath cells may be pyruvate, as above, or alanine The enzyme that catalyses decarboxylation in bundle-sheath cells differs. In maize and sugarcane, the enzyme is NADP-malic enzyme; in millet, it is NAD-malic enzyme; and, in Panicum maximum, it is PEP carboxykinase.

The C4 plants often possess a characteristic leaf anatomy called kranz anatomy, from the German word for wreath. Their vascular bundles are surrounded by two rings of cells; the inner ring, called bundle sheath cells, contains starch-rich chloroplasts lacking grana, which differ from those in mesophyll cells present as the outer ring. Hence, the chloroplasts are called dimorphic. The primary function of kranz anatomy is to provide a site in which CO2 can be concentrated around RuBisCO, thereby avoiding photorespiration. In order to maintain a significantly higher CO2 concentration in the bundle sheath compared to the mesophyll, the boundary layer of the kranz has a low conductance to CO2, a property that may be enhanced by the presence of suberin.[4] Although most C4 plants exhibit kranz anatomy, there are, however, a few species that operate a limited C4 cycle without any distinct bundle sheath tissue. Suaeda aralocaspica, Bienertia cycloptera, Bienertia sinuspersici and Bienertia kavirense (all chenopods) are terrestrial plants that inhabit dry, salty depressions in the deserts of the Middle East. These plants have been shown to operate single-cell C4 CO2-concentrating mechanisms, which are unique among the known C4 mechanisms.[5][6][7][8] Although the cytology of both genera differs slightly, the basic principle is that fluid-filled vacuoles are employed to divide the cell into two separate areas. Carboxylation enzymes in the cytosol can, therefore, be kept separate from decarboxylase enzymes and RuBisCO in the chloroplasts, and a diffusive barrier can be established between the chloroplasts (which contain RuBisCO) and the cytosol. This enables a bundle-sheath-type area and a mesophyll-type area to be established within a single cell. Although this does allow a limited C3 cycle to operate, it is relatively inefficient, with the occurrence of much leakage of CO2 from around RuBisCO. There is also evidence for the exhibiting of inducible C4 photosynthesis by non-kranz aquatic macrophyte Hydrilla verticillata under warm conditions, although the mechanism by which CO2 leakage from around RuBisCO is minimised is currently uncertain.[9]

C4 plants have a competitive advantage over plants possessing the more common C3 carbon fixation pathway under conditions of drought, high temperatures, and nitrogen or CO2 limitation. When grown in the same environment, at 30 °C, C3 grasses lose approximately 833 molecules of water per CO2 molecule that is fixed, whereas C4 grasses lose only 277. This increased water use efficiency of C4 grasses means that soil moisture is conserved, allowing them to grow for longer in arid environments.[10] C4 carbon fixation has evolved on up to 40 independent occasions in different families of plants, making it a prime example of convergent evolution.[11] This convergence may have been facilitated by the fact that many potential evolutionary pathways to a C4 phenotype exist, many of which involve initial evolutionary steps not directly related to photosynthesis.[12] C4 plants arose around 25 to 32 million years ago[11] during the Oligocene (precisely when is difficult to determine) and did not become ecologically significant until around 6 to 7 million years ago, in the Miocene Period.[11] C4 metabolism originated when grasses migrated from the shady forest undercanopy to more open environments,[13] where the high sunlight gave it an advantage over the C3 pathway.[14] Drought was not necessary for its innovation; rather, the increased resistance to water stress was a by-product of the pathway and allowed C4 plants to more readily colonise arid environments.[14] Today, C4 plants represent about 5% of Earth's plant biomass and 3% of its known plant species.[10][15] Despite this scarcity, they account for about 30% of terrestrial carbon fixation.[11] Increasing the proportion of C4 plants on earth could assist biosequestration of CO2 and represent an important climate change avoidance strategy. Present-day C4 plants are concentrated in the tropics and subtropics (below latitudes of 45°) where the high air temperature contributes to higher possible levels of oxygenase activity by RuBisCO, which increases rates of photorespiration in C3 plants.

About 7,600 plant species use C4 carbon fixation, which represents about 3% of all terrestrial species of plants. All these 7,600 species are angiosperms. C4 carbon fixation is less common in dicots than in monocots, with only 4.5% of dicots using the C4 pathway, compared to 40% of monocots. Despite this, only three families of monocots utilise C4 carbon fixation compared to 15 dicot families. Of the monocot clades containing C4 plants, the grass (Poaceae) species use the C4 photosynthetic pathway most. Forty-six percent of grasses are C4 and together account for 61% of C4 species. These include the food crops maize, sugar cane, millet, and sorghum.[16][17] Of the dicot clades containing C4 species, the order Caryophyllales contains the most species. Of the families in the Caryophyllales, the Chenopodiaceae use C4 carbon fixation the most, with 550 out of 1,400 species using it. About 250 of the 1000 species of the related Amaranthaceae also use C4.[10][18] Members of the sedge family Cyperaceae, and numerous families of Eudicots, including the daisies Asteraceae, cabbages Brassicaceae, and spurges Euphorbiaceae also use C4.

Given the advantages of C4, a group of scientists from institutions around the world are working on the C4 Rice Project to turn rice, a C3 plant, into a C4 plant. As rice is the world's most important human food—it is the staple food for more than half the planet—having rice that is more efficient at converting sunlight into grain could have significant global benefits towards improving food security. The team claim C4 rice could produce up to 50% more grain—and be able to do it with less water and nutrients.[19][20][21] The researchers have already identified genes needed for C4 photosynthesis in rice and are now looking towards developing a prototype C4 rice plant. In 2012, the Government of the United Kingdom along with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation provided $14 million over 3 years towards the C4 Rice Project at the International Rice Research Institute.[22]

Corn uses the C4 pathway, minimizing photorespiration.

C4 plants capture carbon dioxide in their mesophyll cells (using an enzyme called Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase which catalyzes the combination of carbon dioxide with a compound called Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)), forming oxaloacetate. This oxaloacetate is then converted to malate and is transported into the bundle sheath cells (site of carbon dioxide fixation by RuBisCO) where oxygen concentration is low to avoid photorespiration. Here, carbon dioxide is removed from the malate and combined with RuBP by RuBisCO in the usual way, and the Calvin cycle proceeds as normal. The CO

2 concentrations in the Bundle Sheath are approximately 10-20 fold higher than the concentration in the mesophyll cells.[6]

This ability to avoid photorespiration makes these plants more hardy than other plants in dry and hot environments, wherein stomata are closed and internal carbon dioxide levels are low. Under these conditions, photorespiration does occur in C4 plants, but at a much reduced level compared with C3 plants in the same conditions. C4 plants include sugar cane, corn (maize), and sorghum.

There are also C3 plants and C2 plants. The fourth square is always different though.

C3 carbon fixation is one of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis, along with C4 and CAM. This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP, a 5-carbon sugar) into 3-phosphoglycerate through the following reaction: CO2 + RuBP → (2) 3-phosphoglycerate This reaction occurs in all plants as the first step of the Calvin–Benson cycle. In C4 plants, carbon dioxide is drawn out of malate and into this reaction rather than directly from the air.

Plants that survive solely on C3 fixation (C3 plants) tend to thrive in areas where sunlight intensity is moderate, temperatures are moderate, carbon dioxide concentrations are around 200 ppm or higher,[1] and groundwater is plentiful. The C3 plants, originating during Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras, predate the C4 plants and still represent approximately 95% of Earth's plant biomass. C3 plants lose 97% of the water taken up through their roots to transpiration.[2] Examples include rice and barley. C3 plants cannot grow in hot areas because RuBisCO incorporates more oxygen into RuBP as temperatures increase. This leads to photorespiration, which leads to a net loss of carbon and nitrogen from the plant and can, therefore, limit growth. In dry areas, C3 plants shut their stomata to reduce water loss, but this stops CO2 from entering the leaves and, therefore, reduces the concentration of CO2 in the leaves. This lowers the CO2:O2 ratio and, therefore, also increases photorespiration.[citation needed] C4 and CAM plants have adaptations that allow them to survive in hot and dry areas, and they can, therefore, out-compete C3 plants in these areas. The isotopic signature of C3 plants shows higher degree of 13C depletion than the C4 plants.

Crassulacean acid metabolism, also known as CAM photosynthesis, is a carbon fixation pathway that evolved in some plants as an adaptation to arid conditions.[1] In a plant using full CAM, the stomata in the leaves remain shut during the day to reduce evapotranspiration, but open at night to collect carbon dioxide (CO2). The CO2 is stored as the four-carbon acid malate in vacuoles at night, and then in the daytime, the malate is transported to chloroplasts where it is converted back to CO2, which is then used during photosynthesis. The pre-collected CO2 is concentrated around the enzyme RuBisCO, increasing photosynthetic efficiency. This metabolism was first studied in plants of the Crassulaceae family. These mainly include succulents. The first time it was studied, Crassula was used as a model organism.

Although the words quadruped and tetrapod are both derived from terms meaning "four-footed", they have distinct meanings. A tetrapod is any member of the taxonomic unit Tetrapoda (which is defined by descent from a specific four-limbed ancestor) whereas a quadruped actually uses four limbs for locomotion. Not all tetrapods are quadrupeds and not all quadrupeds are tetrapods. The distinction between quadrupeds and tetrapods is important in evolutionary biology, particularly in the context of tetrapods whose limbs have adapted to other roles (e.g. hands in the case of humans, wings in the case of birds, and fins in the case of whales). All of these animals are tetrapods, but none is a quadruped. Even snakes, whose limbs have become vestigial or lost entirely, are nevertheless tetrapods. Most quadrupedal animals are tetrapods but there are a few exceptions. For example, among the insects, the praying mantis is a quadruped.

Quadrupedalism or pronograde posture is a form of terrestrial locomotion in animals using four limbs or legs. An animal or machine that usually moves in a quadrupedal manner is known as a quadruped, meaning "four feet" (from the Latin quad for "four" and ped for "foot"). The majority of quadrupeds are vertebrate animals, including mammals such as cattle, dogs and cats, and reptiles, like lizards. Worms, jellies, crustaceans, gastropods, cephalopods, echinoderms (sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers etc.), millipedes, centipedes, arachnids, insects, fish, caecillians, snakes, birds, cetaceans (whales, dolphins etc.), and humans are usually not quadrupeds, with some exceptions; for example, among the insects, the praying mantis is a quadruped. A few birds may use quadrupedal movement in some circumstances; for example, the shoebill will sometimes use its wings to right itself after lunging at prey.[1]

The French naturalist and zoologist Georges Cuvier (1769 – 1832) embodied another delegate of the new era. He arrived in Paris in 1795 and was eager to find a solution for the evolutionary problems of animals. He proposed, that the four main groups in nature – Square 1: vertebrates, Square 2: molluscs, Square 3: articulata (insects) and square 4: ‘radiata‘ (radial-symmetric animals) – developed themselves every time anew after a major catastrophe. The fourfold division was, according to Cuvier, the ‘ideal specification’ of nature (TOULMIN & GOODFIELD, 1965). Cuvier’s rival, Lamarck (1744 – 1829), suggested – in a lecture in the year 1800 – a different solution. Not the catastrophes caused the changes, but the species changed themselves. He pointed to the four classes in the animal kingdom (mammals, birds, reptiles and fish) and their decreasing complexity. They could adapt themselves (within the classes) to changing circumstances. It is curious to note, that the term ‘biology’ was first used in the year 1800 to describe the science of plant- and animal kingdom (JORDANOVA, 1984). Apparently, the need for such a word arose at the time that the study of nature became a serious matter. Cuvier is noted for his division of animals, not into vertebrates and invertebrates, but into four great embranchements: Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata (insects and crustaceans), and Radiata. Foucault (1966) considered this the real revolution in biology, by breaking the Great Chain of Being into four embranchements, and he felt that Darwin's subsequent revolution was minor in comparison.

QMRIn Greek and Latin poetry, a choriamb /ˈkɔriˌæmb/ is a metron (prosodic foot) consisting of four syllables in the pattern long-short-short-long (— ‿ ‿ —), that is, a trochee alternating with an iamb. Choriambs are one of the two basic metra[1] that do not occur in spoken verse, as distinguished from true lyric or sung verse.[2] The choriamb is sometimes regarded as the "nucleus" of Aeolic verse, because the pattern long-short-short-long pattern occurs, but to label this a "choriamb" is potentially misleading.[3] In the prosody of English and other modern European languages, "choriamb" is sometimes used to describe four-syllable sequence of the pattern stressed-unstressed-unstressed-stressed (again, a trochee followed by an iamb): for example, "over the hill", "under the bridge", and "what a mistake!". English prosody[edit] In English, the choriamb is often found in the first four syllables of iambic pentameter verses, as here in Keats' To Autumn: Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store? Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find Thee sitting careless on a granary floor, Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind; Or on a half-reap'd furrow sound asleep, Drows'd with the fume of poppies, while thy hook Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers: And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep Steady thy laden head across a brook; Or by a cider-press, with patient look, Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours.

The ‘Tree of the Principles and Grades of Medicine’ as given in the ‘Liber Principiorum Medicinae’ of Raymond Lull in the edition of the ‘Opera omnia’ by Ivo Salzinger (Mainz, 1721 – 1742). The ‘rota’ gives the four ‘humores’ with a dual four-fold subdivision of the characters: A – hot (calor), B – dry (siccitas); C – wet, moist (humiditas) and D – cold (frigaditas). The ‘Lullian’ series is not directly connected to the elements, but could be interpreted as the ‘Aristotelian type’: fire – air – water – earth. The ‘arbor‘ (tree) and its branches (ramifications) provides a good insight in Lull’s position as a transitional figure between the ‘old’ (left branch, Res contra Naturam) and the ‘new doctors’ (right branch, Quadrangulus). The classical division of the four temperaments, based on ‘humores‘ (Cholera, Melancholia, Phlegma and Sangius) hides the trunk as a ‘rota‘. The subdivision in four circles reflects Lull’s own ‘mathematical’ approach based on a dynamic shift of a four-division. The ABCD-sequence in the four inner circles are explained in the central stem: A (calor/hot), B (siccitas/dry), C (humiditas/moist) and D (frigiditas/ cold). They refer to the dynamic character of the elements within the four major temperaments. Note that the sequence does not correspond with the one given by YATES (1954) in fig. 150. The primary combination of the choleric temperament is AB (calor – siccitas or warm and dry), but other combination are also possible, like AC, CD and DB. The same holds for the melancholic character, which is primary BD (siccitas – frigaditas or dry and cold), secundary BA, tertiary AC and quaternary CD. The sanguine character is primary CA (humiditas – calor or moist and hot), secundary CD, tertiary DB and quaternary BA. And finally the phlegmatic character is primary DC (frigiditas – humiditas or cold and moist), secundary DB, tertiary BA and quaternary AC. The four combinations of each major temperament are indicated on the branches to the right of the main stem: the choleric (A/Calor) can be fully developed with its four combinations (circles), which gives a character E with four possibilities (1 – 4), a character F with three possibilities, a character G with two possibilities and a character H with only one option. It is not exactly clear (to me) what these diminishing prospects mean (would it be a decreasing division thinking?). The same subdivision can be made for the melancholic temperament (B/Siccitas, leading to the characters K, L, M and N), the sanguine character (C/Humiditas, given in the characters O, P, Q and R) and the phlegmatic character (D/Frigiditas, indicated with the letters S, T, V and Y). All subtypes have a decreasing number, from four to one, written around the individual letters. The previous approach was an addition to the ‘old school’ of medicine. Lull emphasized the mathematical nature of the combinatory possibilities in the ‘new school’ of the ‘Quadrangulus‘. The ‘new doctors’ were calculators rather than vague observers of the ‘Res Innaturales‘. The historic world of four-fold (division) thinking, which had lost its dynamism, was restated in the factual-mathematical language of the ‘Quadrangulus‘. The quadrants were characterized as Perfectio, Esse, Defectus and Privatio. However, to experience the ‘exactness’ to the full, required a modern, lower – type of division thinking (‘Triangulus’). The world of facts could be hostile to the ‘Quadrangulus‘. Facts were seldom perfect, although they should be. An efficient way to circumvent this difficulty was a narrowing of division thinking. ‘Scientific’ observations were made in the world of the ‘Triangulus‘, in the tri-partition of Principium, Medium and Finis. In terms of quadralectic thinking, there was a shift from the unity of the First Quadrant to the unity of the Third Quadrant. The illustration of Lull’s ‘Tree of the Principles and Grades of Medicine’, gave an example of the transitory situation of his time: from the old world of static and stale tetradic thinking in terms of elements to the universe of dynamic calculations in a human-centred, tripartite setting. Lull’s life and work was a reflection of this change. He started in the old, quadripartite frame of mind, but found that the ‘Triangulus’ approach offered far more ‘proof’. The elemental features were reduced, first in the ‘Ars inventiva (ca. 1289) and later in the ‘Ars generalis ultima‘ or its abridgement ‘Ars brevis’ (1308), and the ternary system became dominant. Even the traditional seven virtues and seven vices had to be extended to sets of nine to meet the requirements of the system. The dynamic character – which is a natural constituent of the tetradic way of thinking, but becomes static in a numerological approach – was carried forward by Lull in the ternary phase by ‘volvelles‘. These concentric wheels or ‘rota‘, appeared in his later Art (fig. 152). It is a striking example of cyclic thinking in which ‘everything is connected to everything’. Communication is a matter of turning the concentric circles (and their division) to the appropriate setting.

Swiss physician and pedagogue Ignaz Paul Vital Troxler (1780 – 1866), a nearly forgotten tetragonic mind at the beginning of the nineteenth century. He placed the ‘Tetractys‘ in the center of his anthropology. His theory of illnesses (pathology) and their mutual relation with the different organic systems stands as a model of tetradic thinking. He was a tetradic thinker avant-la-lettre. ‘The tetractys is in many ways the core of Troxler’s anthropology’ said HEUSSER (1984, p. 88) in his extensive study of his life. The four major constituents (divisions) of human life are, in Troxler’s view, as follows: 1. The ‘Geist‘ is the ‘Nous‘ or ‘Pneuma‘ of the classics, the infinite humanity in man (‘die unendliche Menschheit im Menschen’). This could be translated as the invisible invisibility of modern quadralectic thinking. 2. The ‘Seele‘ and 3. The ‘Leib‘ are a polarity. The first can be compared with the Psyche and the second with the Soma. Soul and body are the invisible and visible components of human visibility. 4. Finally the ‘Körper‘ (Sarx), as representatives of the lowest member of the human total being (‘unterste Glied der menschlichen Gesamt-wesenheit‘). The pluriform ‘bodies’ are the collective element in a visible invisibility (the trees and the wood). ‘The four components of the nature of man, represented in the tetractyn as spirit (Geist), soul (Seele), body (Leib) and human beings (Körper) are a unity. The spirit itself shapes the unity and comprises all the other divisions’ stated Troxler in his book ‘Naturlehre des menschlichen Erkennens oder Metaphysik‘ (1828). In an earlier book ‘Blicke in das Wesen des Menschen‘ (1812) are these ‘Wesensgliedern‘ (Geist, Seele, Leib and Körper) figured in a scheme of four possibilities: 1. relative active vital process Geist 2. passive Körper 3. relative active organism Seele 4. passive Leib This four-fold arrangement was interconnected in the following scheme: SPIRIT (GEIST) (absolute self-determined) SOUL (SEELE) BODY (LEIB) (relative self-determined) (relative impressionable) HUMAN BEINGS (KÖRPER) (absolute determined)

Cuvier's most admired work was his Le Règne Animal. It appeared in four octavo volumes in 1817; a second edition in five volumes was brought out in 1829–1830. In this classic work, Cuvier presented the results of his life's research into the structure of living and fossil animals. With the exception of the section on insects, in which he was assisted by his friend Latreille, the whole of the work was his own. It was translated into English many times, often with substantial notes and supplementary material updating the book in accordance with the expansion of knowledge

For the Règne Animal, using evidence from comparative anatomy and palaeontology—including his own observations—Cuvier divided the animal kingdom into four principal body plans. Taking the central nervous system as an animal's principal organ system which controlled all the other organ systems such as the circulatory and digestive systems, Cuvier distinguished four types of organisation of an animal's body:

I. with a brain and a spinal cord (surrounded by parts of the skeleton)

II. with organs linked by nerve fibres

III. with two longitudinal, ventral nerve cords linked by a band with two ganglia positioned below the oesophagus

IV. with a diffuse nervous system which is not clearly discernible

Grouping animals with these body plans resulted in four "embranchements" or branches (vertebrates, molluscs, the articulata that he claimed were natural (arguing that insects and annelid worms were related) and zoophytes (radiata)). This effectively broke with the mediaeval notion of the continuity of the living world in the form of the great chain of being. It also set him in opposition to both Saint-Hilaire and Lamarck: Lamarck claimed that species could transform through the influence of the environment, while Saint-Hilaire argued in 1820 that two of Cuvier's branches, the molluscs and radiata, could be united via various features, while the other two, articulata and vertebrates, similarly had parallels with each other. Then in 1830, Saint-Hilaire argued that these two groups could themselves be related, implying a single form of life from which all others could have evolved, and that Cuvier's four body plans were not fundamental.

The classification adopted by Cuvier to define the natural structure of the animal kingdom, including both living and fossil forms,[17] was as follows, the list forming the structure of the Règne Animal. Where Cuvier's group names correspond (more or less) to modern taxa, these are named, in English if possible, in parentheses. The table from the 1828 Penny Cyclopaedia indicates species that were thought to belong to each group in Cuvier's taxonomy.

I. Vertébrés. (Vertebrates)

Mammifères (Mammals): 1. Bimanes, 2. Quadrumanes, 3. Carnassiers (Carnivores), 4. Rongeurs (Rodents), 5. Édentés (Edentates), 6. Pachydermes (Pachyderms), 7. Ruminants (Ruminants), 8. Cétacés (Cetaceans).

Oiseaux (Birds): 1. Oiseaux de proie (Birds of prey), 2. Passereaux (Passerines), 3. Grimpeurs (Piciformes), 4. Gallinacés (Gallinaceous birds), 5. Échassiers (Waders), 6. Palmipèdes (Anseriformes).

Reptiles (Reptiles, inc. Amphibians): 1. Chéloniens (Chelonii), 2. Sauriens (Lizards), 3. Ophidiens (Snakes), 4. Batraciens (Amphibians).

Poissons (Fishes): 1. Chrondroptérygiens à branchies fixes (Chondrichthyes), 2. Sturioniens ou Chrondroptérygiens à branchies libres (Sturgeons), 3. Plectognates (Tetraodontiformes), 4. Lophobranches (Syngnathidae), 5. Malacoptérygiens abdominaux, 6. Malacoptérygiens subbrachiens, 7. Malacoptérygiens apodes, 8. Acanthoptérygiens (Acanthopterygians).

II. Mollusques. (Molluscs)

Céphalopodes. (Cephalopods)

Ptéropodes. (Pteropods)

Gastéropodes (Gastropods): 1. Nudibranches (Nudibranchs), 2. Inférobranches, 3. Tectibranches, 4. Pulmonés (Pulmonata), 5. Pectinibranches, 6. Scutibranches, 7. Cyclobranches.

Acéphales (Bivalves etc.): 1. Testacés, 2. Sans coquilles.

Brachiopodes. (Brachiopods, now a separate phylum)

Cirrhopodes. (Barnacles, now in Crustacea)

III. Articulés. (Articulated animals: now Arthropods and Annelids)

Annélides (Annelids): 1. Tubicoles, 2. Dorsibranches, 3. Abranches.

Crustacés (Crustaceans): 1. Décapodes (Decapods), 2. Stomapodes (Stomatopods), 3. Amphipodes (Amphipods), 4. Isopodes (Isopods), 5. Branchiopodes (Branchiopods).

Arachnides (Arachnids): 1. Pulmonaires, 2. Trachéennes.

Insectes (Insects, inc. Myriapods): 1. Myriapodes, 2. Thysanoures (Thysanura), 3. Parasites, 4. Suceurs, 5. Coléoptères (Coleoptera), 6. Orthoptères (Orthoptera), 7. Hémiptères (Hemiptera), 8. Névroptères (Neuroptera), 9. Hyménoptères (Hymenoptera), 10. Lépidoptères (Lepidoptera), 11. Ripiptères (Strepsiptera), 12. Diptères (Diptera).

IV. Zoophytes. (Zoophytes, now Cnidaria] and other phyla)

Échinodermes (Echinoderms): 1. Pédicellés, 2. Sans pieds.

Intestinaux (Intestinal worms): 1. Cavitaires, 2. Parenchymateux.

Acalèphes (Jellyfish and other free-floating polyps): 1. Fixes, 2. Libres.

Polypes (Cnidaria): 1. Nus, 2. À polypiers.

Infusoires (Infusoria, various protistan phyla): 1. Rotifères (Rotifers), 2. Homogènes.

Reception

The book was in the library of HMS Beagle for Charles Darwin's voyage.[21] In The Origin of Species (1859), in a chapter on the difficulties facing the theory, Darwin comments that "The expression of conditions of existence,[b] so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of natural selection." In fact Darwin did not argue that God could not have created the first living organism, but Darwin did believe that organisms evolved.

The mantis shrimp, or stomatopod, is used in biology as an example of an organism with an extraordinary visual mechanism. They are upheld by biologists as the organism that sees the world in an incredible way and of an organism that has developed a completely different mechanism of seeing than that of humans. But the seeing mechanism of the mantis shrimp fits the quadrant model pattern. Compared to the three types of color receptive cones that humans possess in their eyes, the eyes of a mantis shrimp carry 16 types of color receptive cones. It was once thought that this gives the crustacean the ability to recognize colors that are unimaginable by other species. The midband region of its eye is made up of six rows of specialised ommatidia. Four rows carry up to 16 different photoreceptor pigments, 12 for colour sensitivity, others for colour filtering. The vision of the mantis shrimp can perceive both polarised light and multispectral images. Their eyes (mounted on mobile stalks and capable of moving independently of each other) are similarly variably colored and are considered to be the most complex eyes in the animal kingdom Rows 1–4 of the midband are specialised for color vision, from ultra-violet to longer wavelengths. Their UV-vision can detect five different frequency bands in the deep ultraviolet. To do this they use two photoreceptors in combination with four different colour filters.[ It has four rows with 16 different photoreceptors. The four is the quadrant. 16 is the number of squares in the quadrant model. 12 of the squares are for color sensitivity. That is the first three quadrants. The fourth quadrant is always different. The fourth quadrant has four photoreceptors for colour filtering. Therefore the mantis shrimp, the creature that biologists see as having the most special and unique visual mechanism, has a visual mechanism that fulfills the quadrant model pattern. Some species have at least 16 different photoreceptor types, which are divided into four classes (their spectral sensitivity is further tuned by colour filters in the retinas), 12 of them for colour analysis in the different wavelengths (including six which are sensitive to ultraviolet light) and four of them for analysing polarised light. By comparison, most humans have only four visual pigments, of which three are dedicated to see colour, and the human lenses block ultraviolet light. The visual information leaving the retina seems to be processed into numerous parallel data streams leading into the central nervous system, greatly reducing the analytical requirements at higher levels. The species Gonodactylus smithii is the only organism known to simultaneously detect the four linear and two circular polarization components required to measure all four Stokes parameters, which yield a full description of polarization. It is thus believed to have optimal polarization vision. The vision of the stomatopod is the quadrant model pattern, and for biologists, that is what the creature is special for and what it is studied for.

Moon jellyfish often live in large groups in the sea. You can easily identify them by their four moons' in the middle. These are the reproductive organs. Males have white and females have pink moons'. Moon jellyfish have short tentacles along the edge of the bell and four short arms situated around the mouth for catching food. The tentacles of the moon jellyfish are poisonous for small marine animals but people are not affected by the toxin since it does not penetrate the skin.

Aurelia aurita (also called the moon jelly, moon jellyfish, common jellyfish, or saucer jelly) is a widely studied species of the genus Aurelia. All species in the genus are closely related, and it is difficult to identify Aurelia medusae without genetic sampling; most of what follows applies equally to all species of the genus.

The jellyfish is translucent, usually about 25–40 cm (10–16 in) in diameter, and can be recognized by its four horseshoe-shaped gonads, easily seen through the top of the bell. It feeds by collecting medusae, plankton, and mollusks with its tentacles, and bringing them into its body for digestion. It is capable of only limited motion, and drifts with the current, even when swimming.

It has four bright gonads that are under the stomach

Water striders can walk on water. They are insects. It seems kind of miraculous that they can walk on water Family Gerridae are physically characterized by having hydrofuge hairpiles, retractable preapical claws, and elongated legs and body. Hydrofuge hairpiles are small, hydrophobic microhairs. These are tiny hairs with more than one thousand microhairs per mm. The entire body is covered by these hairpiles, providing the water strider resistance to splashes or drops of water. These hairs repel the water, preventing drops from weighing down the body. They look like little quadrants on the water.

Although web decorations are common in a number of spider species in the families Araneidae, Tetragnathidae and Uloboridae, they are probably best known from spiders of the genus Argiope. This genus includes a number of species known as the Saint Andrew's Cross spiders, so named for their habit of resting in their webs with their legs outstretched in the shape of an X, the traditional shape of the cross of Saint Andrew. Spiders in this genus also construct web decorations as a vertical line, and juveniles commonly construct disc-shaped decorations.[2] Other spiders construct round structures covering the entire hub of the web. The webs of spiders anyways resemble quadrants but this spider explicitly makes quadrant X in his web and biologists are not quite sure why. I say it is because it is demonstrating the quadrant pattern the form of being. One theory is the x helps to block UV light. In North America, Argiope aurantia is commonly known as the black and yellow garden spider, zipper spider, corn spider, and writing spider, because of the similarity of the web stabilimenta to writing. In England, Argiope bruennichi, where it is found only on the southern coast, and in other parts of Europe, including Germany, is also known as the wasp spider. In Australia, Argiope keyserlingi and A. aetherea are known as St. Andrew's Cross spiders, for their habit of resting in the web with legs outstretched in the shape of an X, the cross of St. Andrew. The large white zigzag in the centre of its web is called the stabilimentum or web decoration. The East Asian species Argiope amoena is known in Japan as kogane-gumo. In the Philippines, they are known as gagambang ekis ("X spider", again due to the stabilementa), and gagambang pari ("priest spider", due to the spider's body resembling a priest's head with a mitre). The average orb web is practically invisible, and it is easy to blunder into one and end up covered with a sticky web. The very easily visible pattern of banded silk made by Argiope is pure white, and some species make an "X" form, or a zigzag type of web (often with a hollow centre). The spider then aligns one pair of its legs with each of the four lines in the hollow "X", making a complete "X" of white lines with a very eye-catching spider coloured bright yellow on a field of black or variegated red white and yellow stripes forming its centre. The white patterns are called stabilimentum and reflect UV light. They have been shown to play a role in attracting prey to the web, and possibly to prevent its destruction by large animals. The centres of their large webs are often just under 1 metre above the ground, so they are too low for anything much larger than a rabbit to walk under. The overtness of the spider and its web thus has been speculated to prevent larger creatures from accidentally destroying the web and possibly crushing the spider underfoot.

Purebred dogs of one breed are genetically distinguishable from purebred dogs of other breeds, but the means by which kennel clubs classify dogs is unsystematic. Systematic analyses of the dog genome has revealed only four major types of dogs that can be said to be statistically distinct.These include the "old world dogs" (e.g., Malamute and Shar Pei), "Mastiff"-type (e.g., English Mastiff), "herding"-type (e.g., Border Collie), and "all others" (also called "modern"- or "hunting"-type).

I had an English Mastiff growing up. I loved that dog.

In Norse mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helheim.

Dr Karl Albrecht, a management consultant and conference speaker based in California, is a pioneer in the development of stress-reduction training for businesspeople. He defined four common types of stress in his 1979 book, "Stress and the Manager." Albrecht's four common types of stress are: Time stress. Anticipatory stress. Situational stress. Encounter stress.

The tetrad is the four spores of a yeast, other Ascomycota or Chlamydomonas produced after meiosis. After parent haploids mate, they produce diploids. Under appropriate environmental conditions, diploids sporulate and undergo meiosis. The meiotic products, spores, remain packaged in the parental cell body to produce the tetrad. If the two parents have a mutation in two different genes, the tetrad can segregate these genes as the parental ditype (PD), the non-parental ditype (NPD) or as the tetratype (TT)

A tetrad type containing two different genotypes, both of which are parental. A spore arrangement in Ascomycetes that contains only the two non-recombinant-type ascospores. Non-parental ditype[edit] A non-parental ditype (NPD) is a spore that contains only the two recombinant-type ascospores (assuming two segregating loci). A tetrad type containing two different genotypes, both of which are recombinant. Tetratype[edit] A Tetratype is a tetrad containing four different genotypes, two parental and two recombinant. A spore arrangement in Ascomycetes that consists of two parental and two recombinant spores indicates a single crossover between two linked loci. Linkage analysis[edit] The ratio between the different segregation types arising after the sporulation is a measure of the linkage between the two genes. Tetrad dissection[edit] Tetrad dissection has become a powerful tool of yeast geneticists, and is used in conjunction with the many established procedures utilizing the versatility of yeasts as model organisms. Use of modern microscopy and micromanipulation techniques allows the four haploid spores of a yeast tetrad to be separated and germinated individually to form isolated spore colonies

Tetrad is another word for chromosomes, which carry genetic information for all creatures. It is no coincidence they resemble the quadrant. Prophase I is typically the longest phase of meiosis. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair and exchange DNA in a process called homologous recombination. This often results in chromosomal crossover. This process is critical for pairing between homologous chromosomes and hence for accurate segregation of the chromosomes at the first meiosis division. The new combinations of DNA created during crossover are a significant source of genetic variation, and result in new combinations of alleles, which may be beneficial. The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrads, which have two chromosomes and four chromatids, with one chromosome coming from each parent. The process of pairing the homologous chromosomes is called synapsis. At this stage, non-sister chromatids may cross-over at points called chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma).[10] Prophase I has historically been divided into a series of substages which are named according to the appearance of chromosomes

A chiasma (plural: chiasmata), in genetics, is thought to be the point where two homologous non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material during chromosomal crossover during meiosis (sister chromatids also form chiasmata between each other (also known as a chi structure), but because their genetic material is identical, it does not cause any change in the resulting daughter cells). The chiasmata become visible during the diplotene stage of prophase I of meiosis, but the actual "crossing-over" of genetic material is thought to occur during the previous pachytene stage. When each tetrad, which is composed of two pairs of sister chromatids, begins to split, the only points of contact are at the chiasmata. Chiasma means cross

A tetrad is an area 2 km x 2 km square. The term has a particular use in connection with the British Ordnance Survey national grid, and then refers to any of the 25 such squares which make up a standard hectad.[1] Tetrads are sometimes used by biologists for reporting the distribution of species to maintain a degree of confidentiality about their data,[2] though the system is not in universal use.[1] The tetrads are labelled from A to Z (omitting O) according to the "DINTY" system as shown in the grid below, which takes its name from the letters of the second line

The kangaroo /ˌkæŋɡəˈruː/ is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae (macropods, meaning "large foot"). In common use the term is used to describe the largest species from this family, especially those of the genus Macropus: the red kangaroo, antilopine kangaroo, eastern grey kangaroo, and western grey kangaroo. Kangaroos are endemic to Australia. The Australian government estimates that 34.3 million kangaroos lived within the commercial harvest areas of Australia in 2011, up from 25.1 million one year earlier. There are four species that are commonly referred to as kangaroos: The red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) is the largest surviving marsupial anywhere in the world. The Red Kangaroo occupies the arid and semi-arid centre of the country. The highest population densities of the Red Kangaroo occur in the rangelands of western New South Wales. Red kangaroos are commonly mistaken as the most abundant species of kangaroo, but eastern greys actually have a larger population.[18] A large male can be 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) tall and weigh 90 kg (200 lb).[19] The eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus) is less well-known than the red (outside Australia), but the most often seen, as its range covers the fertile eastern part of the country. The range of the Eastern Grey Kangaroo extends from the top of the Cape York Peninsula in north Queensland down to Victoria, as well as areas of south-eastern Australia and Tasmania. Population densities of Eastern Grey Kangaroos usually peak near 100 per km2 in suitable habitats of open woodlands. Populations are more limited in areas of land clearance, such as farmland, where forest and woodland habitats are limited in size or abundance.[18] The western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus) is slightly smaller again at about 54 kg (119 lb) for a large male. It is found in the southern part of Western Australia, South Australia near the coast, and the Darling River basin. The highest population densities occur in the western Riverina district of New South Wales and in western areas of the Nullarbor Plain in Western Australia. Populations may have declined, particularly in agricultural areas. The species has a high tolerance to the plant toxin sodium fluoroacetate, which indicates a possible origin from the south-west region of Australia.[18] The antilopine kangaroo (Macropus antilopinus) is, essentially, the far-northern equivalent of the eastern and western grey kangaroos. It is sometimes referred to as the ‘Antilopine Wallaroo,’ but in behaviour and habitat it is more similar to Red and grey kangaroos. Like them, it is a creature of the grassy plains and woodlands, and gregarious. Their name comes from their fur, which is similar in colour and texture to that of antelopes. Characteristically, the noses of males swell behind the nostrils. This enlarges nasal passages and allows them to release more heat in hot and humid climates

Kangaroos are known for their pouches in which they hold their young.Once in the pouch, a baby kangaroo fastens onto one of the four teats and starts to feed.

Punctuating a kangaroo’s big back legs are a pair of unique feet. Kangaroos have feet resembling other marsupials, where some of their toes are fused together. Kangaroos have four or five toes. If present, the first toe is extremely small, while the second and third toes are fused together. The fourth toe is much larger than the others, aligned with the lower leg and used as a springboard for hopping. Their smaller fifth toe supports the fourth by adding additional thrust for each hop

In Plantinga's evolutionary argument against naturalism, he argues that the truth of evolution is an epistemic defeater for naturalism (i.e. if evolution is true, it undermines naturalism). His basic argument is that if evolution and naturalism are both true, human cognitive faculties evolved to produce beliefs that have survival value (maximizing one's success at the four F's: "feeding, fleeing, fighting, and reproducing(fucking)")

All horses move naturally with four basic gaits: the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph); the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for harness racing horses); the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph); and the gallop.[80] The gallop averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph),[81] but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 88 kilometres per hour (55 mph).[82] Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot.[83] There also are several four-beat "ambling" gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot. Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses. Often, gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.

The horse is the animal whose family tree is known to the highest precision by biologists. Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypothesis were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes, labeled the "Tarpan", "Forest horse", Draft and "Oriental", each of which was hypothesized to have adapted to their environment prior to domestication. However, more recent studies suggest that all domesticated horses originated from a single wild species and that the different body types of horses were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication,[3] or possibly landrace adaptation. Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication. Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication. However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses

In one of the Āgama Scriptures, there is the following passage: The Buddha once told his monks that there were four kinds of horses. The first, upon seeing the shadow of the riding crop, is startled and forthwith follows the wish of its rider. The second, startled when the crop touches its hair, forthwith follows the wish of its rider. The third is startled after the crop touches its flesh. The fourth is awakened only after the touch of the riding crop is felt in its bones. The first horse is like the person who hears about the death of someone in a distant monastic community and forthwith feels aversion for things of the world. The next horse is like the person who hears of the death of someone within their own monastic community and then feels aversion for things of the world. The third horse is like the person who hears of the death of someone near and dear to them and then feels aversion for things of the world. The fourth horse is like the person whose own body experiences sickness and suffering, and only then feels aversion for things of the world.  Shōbōgenzō: On ‘The Four Horses’ 1046 This is the metaphor of the four horses in the Āgama Scriptures. When you are exploring through your training what the Buddha’s Dharma is, this is certainly a good place to study. Those among ordinary people or those in lofty stations who emerge as spiritually good friends and guides, later, as emissaries of the Buddha, become Ancestral Masters. All of them have invariably explored this Teaching through their practice and pass it on for the benefit of their disciples. Those who do not know it are not spiritually good friends and guides for ordinary people or for those more lofty. Those human disciples who have grown good, thick roots and are intimate with the Buddha’s words and ways have invariably been able to hear this Teaching. Those who are ever so far from the Buddha’s words and ways have not heard it, nor do they know it. Hence, those who would be master teachers should consider presenting it without delay, and disciples should pray that they may hear of it without delay. The meaning of ‘feeling aversion for things of the world’ has been given in the Vimalakirti Scripture, as follows: When the Buddha gives voice to a single utterance of Dharma, sentient beings are able to free themselves from suffering in accord with their type. Some will experience fear, some will feel joy, some will give rise to aversion for things of the world, some will cut through their doubts. ❀ The Great Scripture on the Buddha’s Parinirvana quotes the Buddha as saying the following: Next, my good disciples, it is like training horses. Generally speaking, there are four kinds of horses. With the first, contact is made through their hair. With the second, contact is made through their skin. With the third, contact is made through their flesh. With the fourth, contact is made through their bones. They obey the trainer’s wish, depending on which part is contacted. The situation is also like this for the Tathagata. By means of four methods, He restrains and subdues sentient beings. With the first, the Buddha explains for their benefit what ‘being alive’ means, whereby they accept what He says. They are like horses who follow the wish of their rider once he has made contact with their hair. With the second, the Buddha explains what ‘being alive, along with aging’ means, whereby they accept what He says. They are like horses who follow the wish of their rider once he has made contact with their hair Shōbōgenzō: On ‘The Four Horses’ and skin. With the third, the Buddha explains what ‘being alive, along with aging and sickening’ means, whereby they accept what He says. They are like horses who follow the wish of their rider once he has made contact with their hair, skin, and flesh. With the fourth, He explains what ‘being alive, along with aging, sickening, and dying’ means, whereby they accept what the Buddha says. They are like horses who follow the wish of their rider once he has made contact with their hair, skin, flesh, and bones. O my good disciples, there is nothing assured when it comes to a rider training a horse, but with the World-honored Tathagata’s restraining and subduing sentient beings, His efforts are assured and never in vain. This is why the Buddha was given the epithet of Tamer and Subduer of Those Who Are Strong in Their Determination. This is called “The Four Horses of the Great Scripture on the Buddha’s Parinirvana”. There are no trainees who have failed to learn of it and no Buddhas who have failed to teach it. We hear it when we follow the Buddha. Of necessity, we pay heed to it whenever we encounter and offer our service to a Buddha. Once we have had the Buddha Dharma Transmitted to us, we continually give expression to It for the sake of sentient beings. When we ultimately arrive at Buddhahood, we voice It for the sake of the great assembly of bodhisattvas* and all others—worldly and celestial—who will listen, just as if it were the first time that our wish to realize the Truth had arisen. This is why the Three Treasures of Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha have continued on without interruption

The best-known "color breed" registries that accept horses from many different breeds are for the following colors: Buckskin (horse), a color which cannot breed "true" due to the cream gene which creates it being an incomplete dominant Palomino, a color which cannot breed "true" due to the cream gene which creates it being an incomplete dominant Pinto horse White (horse). Some of these animals are registered in the United States with the American creme and white horse registry, which was once called an "Albino" registry until it was understood that true albino does not exist in horses. (see White (horse) and Dominant white for details)

European scholars such as Jimmy Speed, Ruy d'Andrade, Hermann Ebhardt and Edward Skorkowski, postulated four basic body types, which were not considered to be named species.[4] They were:

Pony Type 1, in northwestern Europe, resistant to cold and wet, similar to the modern Exmoor pony

Pony Type 2, in northern Eurasia, larger than type 1, resistant to cold, similar to the modern Highland pony and Fjord horse

Horse Type 1, in central Asia, resistant to heat and drought, similar to the modern Sorraia and Akhal-Teke

Horse Type 2, in western Asia, small and fine-boned, resistant to heat, similar to the modern Caspian horse.

American paleontologist Deb Bennett[5][6] postulated that the early form of E. caballus developed into seven subspecies,[7] of which four supposedly contributed most to the ancestry of the domesticated horse, both directly and via assorted crossbred lineages between them.[8] These were:

"Warmblood subspecies", Equus caballus mosbachensis, the oldest hypothetical subspecies, supposedly ancestor of the Latvian horse, Groningen horse and some warmblood breeds.

"Draft subspecies", Equus caballus caballus, ancestor of the Exmoor Pony, Shetland pony, Suffolk Punch and Belgian horse.

"Oriental subspecies", Equus caballus pumpelli, adapted to arid climates, thought to be the progenitor of the modern Arabian horse, Plateau Persian and Marwari horse.

"Tarpan", Equus caballus gmelini[9] or Equus caballus ferus, supposed ancestor of Przewalski's Horse as well as the Konik, Vyatka horse, Hucul and most Mongolian horses

A theory associated with James Cossar Ewart in Scotland and Johann Ulrich Duerst in Germany postulated three primitive horse types, considered subspecies of Equus caballus, as ancestors of modern breeds. They were:[4] Square 1: "Forest Horse", Equus caballus germanicus, descendant of a "Diluvial Horse", Equus caballus silvaticus Square 2: Asiatic Wild Horse or Przewalski horse, then considered Equus caballus przewalskii Square 3: Tarpan, then considered Equus caballus gmelini. Square 4: To these Elwyn Hartley Edwards adds a fourth, the "Tundra Horse", supposedly ancestor of the Yakut pony, and "largely unconsidered by hippologists".

The Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 killing 4 people in the first 2 weeks of July 1916 along the New Jersey shore and Matawan Creek in New Jersey, started media attention on shark attacks in the United States of America The Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916 were a series of shark attacks along the coast of New Jersey, in the United States, between July 1 and July 12, 1916, in which four people were killed and one injured. Since 1916, scholars have debated which shark species was responsible and the number of animals involved, with the great white shark and the bull shark most frequently cited. The incidents occurred during a deadly summer heat wave and polio epidemic in the Northeastern United States that drove thousands of people to the seaside resorts of the Jersey Shore. Shark bites on the Atlantic Coast of the United States outside the semitropical states of Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas were rare, but scholars believe that the increased presence of sharks and humans in the water led to them in 1916. The Jersey Shore bites immediately entered into American popular culture, where sharks became caricatures in editorial cartoons representing danger. The bites became the subject of documentaries for the History Channel, National Geographic Channel, and Discovery Channel, which aired 12 Days of Terror (2004) and the Shark Week episode Blood in the Water (2009). Between July 1 and July 12, 1916, five people were bitten along the coast of New Jersey by sharks; only one of the victims survived. The first major bite occurred on Saturday, July 1 at Beach Haven, a resort town established on Long Beach Island off the southern coast of New Jersey. Charles Epting Vansant, 25, of Philadelphia was on vacation at the Engleside Hotel with his family. Before dinner, Vansant decided to take a quick swim in the Atlantic with a Chesapeake Bay Retriever that was playing on the beach. Shortly after entering the water, Vansant began shouting. Bathers believed he was calling to the dog, but a shark was actually biting Vansant's legs. He was rescued by lifeguard Alexander Ott, and bystander Sheridan Taylor who claimed the shark followed him to shore as they pulled the bleeding Vansant from the water. Vansant's left thigh was stripped of its flesh; he bled to death on the manager's desk of the Engleside Hotel at 6:45. p.m.[1] Despite the Vansant incident, beaches along the Jersey Shore remained open. Sightings of large sharks swarming off the coast of New Jersey were reported by sea captains entering the ports of Newark and New York City but were dismissed. The second major bite occurred 45 miles (72 km) north of Beach Haven at the resort town of Spring Lake, New Jersey. The victim was Charles Bruder, 27, a Swiss bell captain at the Essex & Sussex Hotel. Bruder was killed on Thursday, July 6, 1916, while swimming 130 yards (120 m) from shore. A shark bit him in the abdomen and severed his legs; Bruder's blood turned the water red. After hearing screams, a woman notified two lifeguards that a canoe with a red hull had capsized and was floating just at the water's surface. Lifeguards Chris Anderson and George White rowed to Bruder in a lifeboat and realized he had been bitten by a shark. They pulled him from the water, but he bled to death on the way to shore. According to The New York Times, "women [were] panic-stricken [and fainted] as [Bruder's] mutilated body ... [was] brought ashore." Guests and workers at the Essex & Sussex and neighboring hotels raised money for Bruder's mother in Switzerland. The next two major bites took place in Matawan Creek near the town of Keyport on Wednesday, July 12. Located 30 miles (48 km) north of Spring Lake and inland of Raritan Bay, Matawan resembled a Midwestern town rather than an Atlantic beach resort. Matawan's location made it an unlikely site for shark-human interaction. When Thomas Cottrell, a sea captain and Matawan resident, spotted an 8 ft (2.40m) long shark in the creek, the town dismissed him.[5] Around 2:00 p.m. local boys, including epileptic Lester Stillwell, 11, were playing in the creek at an area called the Wyckoff dock when they saw what appeared to be an "old black weather-beaten board or a weathered log." A dorsal fin appeared in the water and the boys realized it was a shark. Before Stillwell could climb from the creek, the shark pulled him underwater. The boys ran to town for help, and several men, including local businessman Watson Stanley Fisher, 24, came to investigate. Fisher and others dived into the creek to find Stillwell's body, believing him to have suffered a seizure; Fisher was also bitten by the shark in front of the townspeople. He was pulled from the creek without recovering Stillwell's body. His right thigh was severely injured and he bled to death at Monmouth Memorial Hospital in Long Branch at 5:30 p.m.[8] Stillwell's body was recovered 150 feet (46 m) upstream from the Wyckoff dock on July 14. In 1974, writer Peter Benchley published Jaws, a novel about a rogue great white shark that terrorizes the fictional coastal community of Amity Island. Chief of police Martin Brody, biologist Matt Hooper, and fisherman Quint hunt the shark after it kills four people. The novel was adapted as the film Jaws by Steven Spielberg in 1975. Spielberg's film makes reference to the events of 1916: Brody (Roy Scheider) and Hooper (Richard Dreyfuss) urge Amity's Mayor Vaughn (Murray Hamilton) to close the beaches on the Fourth of July after the deaths of two swimmers and a fisherman. The 1916 fatal bites are the subject of three studies: Richard G. Fernicola's In Search of the "Jersey Man-Eater" (1987) and Twelve Days of Terror (2001) and Michael Capuzzo's Close to Shore (2001). Capuzzo offers an in-depth dramatization of the incident, and Fernicola examines the scientific, medical, and social aspects of the bites.[69][70] Fernicola's research is the basis of an episode of the History Channel's documentary series In Search of History titled "Shark Attack 1916" (2001) and the Discovery Channel's docudrama 12 Days of Terror (2004).[71][72] Fernicola also wrote and directed a 90-minute documentary called Tracking the Jersey Man-Eater. It was produced by the George Marine Library in 1991; however, it was never widely released.[73] In 2009, Discovery Channel's Shark Week had a two-hour documentary about all the biting incidents and the days after, titled Blood in the Water. The bites at Matawan are the subject of the National Geographic Channel documentary Attacks of the Mystery Shark (2002), which examines the possibility that a bull shark was responsible for killing Stanley Fisher and Lester Stillwell.[42] In 2010, "Shore Thing", a fictional short film using the accounts of the Matawan events was released. Directed by Lovari and James Hill,[74] it received the award for Best Suspense Short at the 2010 NY International Film And Video Festival and was additionally screened at The Coney Island Film Festival. In 2011, Smithsonian Channel's examines the series of events in detail and explores the varying perspectives. The most famous shark incident which spawned the fear of the great white shark fit the quadrant model pattern.

Only a few sharks are dangerous to humans. Out of more than 480 shark species, only three are responsible for two-digit number of fatal unprovoked attacks on humans: the great white, tiger and bull; however, the oceanic whitetip has probably killed many more castaways, not recorded in the statistics. The great white shark is one of only four kinds of sharks that have been involved in a significant number of fatal unprovoked attacks on humans.

The "three now cosmopolitan commensal rodent pest species"[118] (the brown rat, the black rat and the house mouse) have been dispersed in association with humans, partly on sailing ships in the Age of Exploration, and with a fourth species in the Pacific, the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), have severely damaged island biotas around the world.

There are four particles that we can detect in a cloud chamber : proton, electron, muon (probably) and alpha. They are important because they are where antimatter was discovered

Cockroaches are widespread, and are one of the hardest household pests to control. Four types of cockroaches cause problems for people. These are the four cockroaches known as pests. German American Oriental Brown Banded

After eggs hatch into nymphs, the nymphs will go through a series of moults until they become adults. In some species, eggs go through four moulting stages while nymphs go through three.[60] Nymphs first moult into workers, and then some workers go through further moulting and become soldiers or alates; workers become alates only by moulting into alate nymphs.

Ingerophrynus quadriporcatus is a species of toad in the Bufonidae family. Its common names are long-glanded toad,[4] four-ridged toad and greater Malacca toad. It is found in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo (Sabah, Brunei, Sarawak, and Kalimantan), Sumatra, and the Natuna Islands. Its natural habitats are swamp forests, but it has also been found on rubber plantations. It breeds in standing water.

Many chelicerates have four pairs of walking legs. These include scorpions and spiders.

The chelicerata originated as marine animals, possibly in the Cambrian period, but the first confirmed chelicerate fossils, eurypterids, date from 445 million years ago in the Late Ordovician period. The surviving marine species include the four species of xiphosurans (horseshoe crabs), and possibly the 1,300 species of pycnogonids (sea spiders), if the latter are indeed chelicerates

I described that dragonflies are known for their flight by biologists and studied for their amazing flight capacities and that their flight reflects the quadrant model pattern. The mantis shrimp is studied by biologists for its sight, which reflects the quadrant model pattern. Ruminants like giraffes and cows are known for having to digest cellulose which other animals cannot do so they have four stomachs, reflecting the quadrant pattern. The catfish is studied by biologists for its incredible capacity of perception called chemical perception. Catfish are known for their amazing ability to eat in muddy water where it cannot see. The way that it detects food is through its four pairs of barbels. Catfish also have a maxilla reduced to a support for barbels; this means that they are unable to protrude their mouths as other fish such as carp. Catfish may have up to four pairs of barbels: nasal, maxillary (on each side of mouth), and two pairs of chin barbels, even though pairs of barbels may be absent depending on the species. Catfish barbels always come as pairs. Many larger catfish also have chemoreceptors across their entire bodies, which means they "taste" anything they touch and "smell" any chemicals in the water. "In catfish, gustation plays a primary role in the orientation and location of food". Because their barbels and chemoreception are more important in detecting food, the eyes on catfish are generally small. Like other ostariophysans, they are characterized by the presence of a Weberian apparatus. Their well-developed Weberian apparatus and reduced gas bladder allow for improved hearing as well as sound production. Catfish are known for their capacity to eat and survive in muddy waters. The four pairs of barbels are what makes it possible for a catfish to live. The channel catfish is an example of a catfish with four pairs of barbels.

Psychology chapter

Four Eleven Forty Four or 4-11-44 is a phrase that has appeared repeatedly in popular music and as a reference to numbers allegedly chosen commonly by poor African Americans while gambling. Contents [hide] 1 History of usage 1.1 Twentieth century 2 Further reading 3 References 4 External links History of usage[edit] The roots of the phrase can be traced to the illegal lottery known as "policy" in nineteenth-century America. Numbers were drawn on a wheel of fortune, ranging from 1 to 78. A three-number entry was known as a "gig" and a bet on 4, 11, 44 was popular by the time of the Civil War. The New York Clipper,a sporting and theatrical weekly, ran a serial story by John Cooper Vail in April and May of 1862 titled "'4-11-44!' or The Lottery of Life in the Great City," indicating that the number was already a gambling cliché. The Secrets of the Great City, an 1869 book by Edward Winslow Martin, references 4-11-44 and attributes the section on policy to "the New York correspondent of a provincial journal", but does not name the writer. Nor does he date the article, except to say it was published "recently". The combination became known as the "washerwoman's gig" after it featured on the cover of Aunt Sally's Policy Players' Dream Book, published by H. J. Wehman of New York sometime in the 1880s. The stereotypical player of the washerwoman's gig was a poor black male. In the 1890 How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York, Jacob A. Riis wrote: Notice how there is a lot of fours in there Of all the temptations that beset him, the one that troubles him and the police most is his passion for gambling. The game of policy is a kind of unlawful penny lottery specially adapted to his means, but patronized extensively by poor white players as well. It is the meanest of swindles, but reaps for its backers rich fortunes wherever colored people congregate. Between the fortune-teller and the policy shop, closely allied frauds always, the wages of many a hard day's work are wasted by the negro; but the loss causes him few regrets. Penniless, but with undaunted faith in his ultimate "luck," he looks forward to the time when he shall once more be able to take a hand at "beating policy." When periodically the negro's lucky numbers, 4-11-44, come out on the slips of the alleged daily drawings, that are supposed to be held in some far-off Western town, intense excitement reigns in Thompson Street and along the Avenue, where someone is always the winner. An immense impetus is given then to the bogus business that has no existence outside of the cigar stores and candy shops where it hides from the law, save in some cunning Bowery "broker's" back office, where the slips are printed and the "winnings" apportioned daily with due regard to the backer's interests. A song entitled "4-11-44" appeared in The Major, a musical theater piece by Edward Harrigan and David Braham. In 1889, H. J. Wehman listed "Four 'eleven forty-four" in their extensive song book. The published song was possibly as performed in an unsuccessful musical show "4-11-44" by Bert Williams and George Walker, but few details have survived and this has not been verified. Certainly, Bob Cole published a song entitled "4-11-44: A Coon Ditty" in 1897 and he performed this with the Black Patti Troubadour Company in the musical skit "At Jolly Cooney Island" around the same time. Twentieth century[edit] The phrase "four eleven forty-four" appeared in the racist coon song, "Every Race Has a Flag but the Coon" by Will A. Heelan and J. Fred Helf, in 1900. In an ironic twist, the song went on to inspire the creation of the Pan-African flag in 1920. Meanwhile, the phrase appeared in a 1909 episode of the newspaper comic Little Nemo in Slumberland by Winsor McCay: the numbers 4, 11 and 44 can be seen on a sign, hanging from the tail end of an imaginary creature. In 1912, the New York Times anticipated superstition surrounding the date April 11, 1944, The 4-11-44 that may then be written will of course bring out into the letter writing industry every soul that ever hugged a rabbit's foot, or threw a horseshoe over the left shoulder, or a trembled when he broke a mirror or walked under a ladder.[1] — New York Times Many uses of the term "4-11-44" occurred in later blues and jazz recordings; practically without exception the phrase had nothing whatsoever to do with gambling, but rather with sex[according to whom?]. In 1925 the phrase "four eleven forty-four" featured in "The Penitentiary Bound Blues" by Rosa Henderson and the Choo Choo Jazzers. Papa Charlie Jackson recorded a blues number with the title "4-11-44" in 1926. Pinetop & Lindberg released a different song called "4-11-44" in the 1930s. A jazz piece of the same name was composed and recorded in 1963 by New Orleans saxophone player Pony Poindexter on his album Gumbo for Prestige Records, featuring Booker Ervin and Al Grey. Liverpudlian Pete Wylie released his original song "FourElevenFortyFour" on his 1987 album Sinful. California band The Blasters made their "4-11-44" the name of both their 2004 album, and its title track. Jawbone (AKA Bob Zabor) released yet another track called "4-11-44" in 2005.

One possibility suggested by the Social Psychology (Soc Psych) research on morale (called Affect) is the Affect Grid. It's not much more complicated than the Good / Meh / Bad choices, but it does involve the dreaded four choices. It's just that they're not linear. The Affect Grid Social psychologists sometimes use the term Valence to describe the continuum of pleasant to unpleasant mood, and the term Activation to describe a continuum from high to low mental activity (think engaged to disengaged, not napping vs. jumping jacks). If we decide that it is still safe and simple, but offers more understanding of morale, we could have these four choices. The choices are square 1: active and happy/pleasant- excited, alert

square 2: inactive and happy/pleasant- serene content

Square 3: active and unhappy/ unpleasant- tense stressed

square 4: inactive and unhappy/ unpleasant- bored sad

The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis is the 1978 English-language translation of (French: Le séminaire. Livre XI. Les quatre concepts fondamentaux de la psychanalyse) published in Paris by Le Seuil in 1973. The text of the Seminar, which was held by Jacques Lacan at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris between January and June 1964 and is the eleventh in the series, was established by Jacques-Alain Miller.

Sociology chapter

To be hanged, drawn and quartered was from 1351 a statutory penalty in England for men convicted of high treason, although the ritual was first recorded during the reign of King Henry III (1216–1272). Convicts were fastened to a hurdle, or wooden panel, and drawn by horse to the place of execution, where they were hanged (almost to the point of death), emasculated, disembowelled, beheaded and quartered (chopped into four pieces). Their remains were often displayed in prominent places across the country, such as London Bridge.

Quartering may in truth be considered the most horrible penalty ever invented. This punishment dates from the remotest ages. In almost all cases, the victim had previously to undergo various accessory tortures: sometimes his right hand was cut off, and the mutilated stump was burnt in a cauldron of sulphur; sometimes his arms, thighs, or breasts were lacerated with red-hot pincers, and hot oil, pitch, or molten lead was poured into the wounds. After these horrible preliminaries, a rope was attached to each of the limbs of the criminal, one being bound round each leg from the foot to the knee, and round each arm from the wrist to the elbow. These ropes were then fastened to four bars, to each of which a strong horse was harnessed, as if for towing a barge. These horses were first made to give short jerks; and when the agony had elicited heart-rending cries from the unfortunate man, who felt his limbs being dislocated without being broken, the four horses were all suddenly urged on with the whip in different directions, and thus all the limbs were strained at one moment. If the tendons and ligaments still resisted the combined efforts of the four horses, the executioner assisted, and made several cuts with a hatchet on each joint. When at last, for this horrible torture often lasted several hours - each horse had drawn out a limb, they were collected and placed near the hideous trunk, which often still showed signs of life, and the whole were burned together. Sometimes the sentence was, that the body should be hung to the gibbet, and that the limbs should be displayed on the gates of the town, or sent to four principal towns in the extremities of the kingdom. When this was done, "an inscription was placed on each of the limbs, which stated the reason of its being thus exposed."