Charts[edit]
Graph made using Microsoft Excel
Many spreadsheet applications permit charts, graphs or histograms to be generated from specified groups of cells that are dynamically re-built as cell contents change. The generated graphic component can either be embedded within the current sheet or added as a separate object.
Multi-dimensional spreadsheets[edit]
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, first Javelin Software and later Lotus Improv appeared and unlike models in a conventional spreadsheet, they utilized models built on objects called variables, not on data in cells of a report. These multi-dimensional spreadsheets enabled viewing data and algorithms in various self-documenting ways, including simultaneous multiple synchronized views. For example, users of Javelin could move through the connections between variables on a diagram while seeing the logical roots and branches of each variable. This is an example of what is perhaps its primary contribution of the earlier Javelin—the concept of traceability of a user's logic or model structure through its twelve views. A complex model can be dissected and understood by others who had no role in its creation, and this remains unique even today. Javelin was used primarily for financial modeling, but was also used to build instructional models in college chemistry courses, to model the world's economies, and by the military in the early Star Wars project. It is still in use by institutions for which model integrity is mission critical.
In these programs, a time series, or any variable, was an object in itself, not a collection of cells that happen to appear in a row or column. Variables could have many attributes, including complete awareness of their connections to all other variables, data references, and text and image notes. Calculations were performed on these objects, as opposed to a range of cells, so adding two time series automatically aligns them in calendar time, or in a user-defined time frame. Data were independent of worksheets—variables, and therefore data, could not be destroyed by deleting a row, column or entire worksheet. For instance, January's costs are subtracted from January's revenues, regardless of where or whether either appears in a worksheet. This permits actions later used in pivot tables, except that flexible manipulation of report tables was but one of many capabilities supported by variables. Moreover, if costs were entered by week and revenues by month, Javelin's program could allocate or interpolate as appropriate. This object design enabled variables and whole models to reference each other with user-defined variable names, and to perform multidimensional analysis and massive, but easily editable consolidations.
Trapeze,[23] a spreadsheet on the Mac, went further and explicitly supported not just table columns, but also matrix operators.
Quantrix is a spreadsheet program modeled after the pioneering Lotus Improv and is a commonly used spreadsheet software for multi-dimensional modeling. Quantrix currently supports Microsoft Windows & Mac OS X versions.
Logical spreadsheets[edit]
Spreadsheets that have a formula language based upon logical expressions, rather than arithmetic expressions are known as logical spreadsheets. Such spreadsheets can be used to reason deductively about their cell values.
Programming
Subroutines[edit]
Subroutine in Microsoft Excel writes values calculated using x into y.
Functions themselves cannot write into the worksheet, but simply return their evaluation. However, in Microsoft Excel, subroutines can write values or text found within the subroutine directly to the spreadsheet. The figure shows the Visual Basic code for a subroutine that reads each member of the named column variable x, calculates its square, and writes this value into the corresponding element of named column variable y. The y column contains no formula because its values are calculated in the subroutine, not on the spreadsheet, and simply are written in.
Remote spreadsheet[edit]
Whenever a reference is made to a cell or group of cells that are not located within the current physical spreadsheet file, it is considered as accessing a "remote" spreadsheet. The contents of the referenced cell may be accessed either on first reference with a manual update or more recently in the case of web based spreadsheets, as a near real time value with a specified automatic refresh interval.
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Functions[edit]
Use of user-defined function sq(x) in Microsoft Excel.
Spreadsheets usually contain a number of supplied functions, such as arithmetic operations (for example, summations, averages and so forth), trigonometric functions, statistical functions, and so forth. In addition there is often a provision for user-defined functions. In Microsoft Excel these functions are defined using Visual Basic for Applications in the supplied Visual Basic editor, and such functions are automatically accessible on the worksheet. In addition, programs can be written that pull information from the worksheet, perform some calculations, and report the results back to the worksheet. In the figure, the name sq is user-assigned, and function sq is introduced using the Visual Basic editor supplied with Excel. Name Manager displays the spreadsheet definitions of named variables x & y.
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Sheets[edit]
In the earliest spreadsheets, cells were a simple two-dimensional grid. Over time, the model has expanded to include a third dimension, and in some cases a series of named grids, called sheets. The most advanced examples allow inversion and rotation operations which can slice and project the data set in various ways.
Formulas[edit]
Animation of a simple spreadsheet that multiplies values in the left column by 2, then sums the calculated values from the right column to the bottom-most cell. In this example, only the values in the A column are entered (10, 20, 30), and the remainder of cells are formulas. Formulas in the B column multiply values from the A column using relative references, and the formula in B4 uses the SUM() function to find the sum of values in the B1:B3 range.
A formula identifies the calculation needed to place the result in the cell it is contained within. A cell containing a formula therefore has two display components; the formula itself and the resulting value. The formula is normally only shown when the cell is selected by "clicking" the mouse over a particular cell; otherwise it contains the result of the calculation.
A formula assigns values to a cell or range of cells, and typically has the format:
=expression
where the expression consists of:
values, such as 2, 9.14 or 6.67E-11;
references to other cells, such as, e.g., A1 for a single cell or B1:B3 for a range;
arithmetic operators, such as +, -, *, /, and others;
relational operators, such as >=, <, and others; and,
functions, such as SUM(), TAN(), and many others.
When a cell contains a formula, it often contains references to other cells. Such a cell reference is a type of variable. Its value is the value of the referenced cell or some derivation of it. If that cell in turn references other cells, the value depends on the values of those. References can be relative (e.g., A1, or B1:B3), absolute (e.g., $A$1, or $B$1:$B$3) or mixed row– or column-wise absolute/relative (e.g., $A1 is column-wise absolute and A$1 is row-wise absolute).
The available options for valid formulas depends on the particular spreadsheet implementation but, in general, most arithmetic operations and quite complex nested conditional operations can be performed by most of today's commercial spreadsheets. Modern implementations also offer functions to access custom-build functions, remote data, and applications.
A formula may contain a condition (or nested conditions)—with or without an actual calculation—and is sometimes used purely to identify and highlight errors. In the example below, it is assumed the sum of a column of percentages (A1 through A6) is tested for validity and an explicit message put into the adjacent right-hand cell.
=IF(SUM(A1:A6) > 100, "More than 100%", SUM(A1:A6))
Further examples:
=IF(AND(A1<>"",B1<>""),A1/B1,"") means that if both cells A1 and B1 are not <> empty "", then divide A1 by B1 and display, other do not display anything.
=IF(AND(A1<>"",B1<>""),IF(B1<>0,A1/B1,"Division by zero"),"") means that if cells A1 and B1 are not empty, and B1 is not zero, then divide A1 by B1, if B1 is zero, then display "Division by zero, and do not display anything if either A1 and B1 are empty.
=IF(OR(A1<>"",B1<>""),"Either A1 or B1 show text","") means to display the text if either cells A1 or B1 are not empty.
The best way to build up conditional statements is step by step composing followed by trial and error testing and refining code.
A spreadsheet does not, in fact, have to contain any formulas at all, in which case it could be considered merely a collection of data arranged in rows and columns (a database) like a calendar, timetable or simple list. Because of its ease of use, formatting and hyperlinking capabilities, many spreadsheets are used solely for this purpose.
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=A1
A cell on a different sheet of the same spreadsheet is usually addressed as:
=SHEET2!A1 (that is; the first cell in sheet 2 of same spreadsheet).
Some spreadsheet implementations in Excel allow a cell references to another spreadsheet (not the current open and active file) on the same computer or a local network. It may also refer to a cell in another open and active spreadsheet on the same computer or network that is defined as shareable. These references contain the complete filename, such as:
='C:\Documents and Settings\Username\My spreadsheets\[main sheet]Sheet1!A1
In a spreadsheet, references to cells automatically update when new rows or columns are inserted or deleted. Care must be taken, however, when adding a row immediately before a set of column totals to ensure that the totals reflect the additional rows values—which they often do not.
A circular reference occurs when the formula in one cell refers—directly, or indirectly through a chain of cell references—to another cell that refers back to the first cell. Many common errors cause circular references. However, some valid techniques use circular references. These techniques, after many spreadsheet recalculations, (usually) converge on the correct values for those cells.
Cell ranges[edit]
Likewise, instead of using a named range of cells, a range reference can be used. Reference to a range of cells is typically of the form (A1:A6), which specifies all the cells in the range A1 through to A6. A formula such as "=SUM(A1:A6)" would add all the cells specified and put the result in the cell containing the formula itself.
Cell reference[edit]
In place of a named cell, an alternative approach is to use a cell (or grid) reference. Most cell references indicate another cell in the same spreadsheet, but a cell reference can also refer to a cell in a different sheet within the same spreadsheet, or (depending on the implementation) to a cell in another spreadsheet entirely, or to a value from a remote application.
A typical cell reference in "A1" style consists of one or two case-insensitive letters to identify the column (if there are up to 256 columns: A–Z and AA–IV) followed by a row number (e.g., in the range 1–65536). Either part can be relative (it changes when the formula it is in is moved or copied), or absolute (indicated with $ in front of the part concerned of the cell reference). The alternative "R1C1" reference style consists of the letter R, the row number, the letter C, and the column number; relative row or column numbers are indicated by enclosing the number in square brackets. Most current spreadsheets use the A1 style, some providing the R1C1 style as a compatibility option.
When the computer calculates a formula in one cell to update the displayed value of that cell, cell reference(s) in that cell, naming some other cell(s), cause the computer to fetch the value of the named cell(s).
A cell on the same "sheet" is usually addressed as:
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Locked cell[edit]
Once entered, selected cells (or the entire spreadsheet) can optionally be "locked" to prevent accidental overwriting. Typically this would apply to cells containing formulas but might be applicable to cells containing "constants" such as a kilogram/pounds conversion factor (2.20462262 to eight decimal places). Even though individual cells are marked as locked, the spreadsheet data are not protected until the feature is activated in the file preferences.
Data format[edit]
A cell or range can optionally be defined to specify how the value is displayed. The default display format is usually set by its initial content if not specifically previously set, so that for example "31/12/2007" or "31 Dec 2007" would default to the cell format of date. Similarly adding a % sign after a numeric value would tag the cell as a percentage cell format. The cell contents are not changed by this format, only the displayed value.
Some cell formats such as "numeric" or "currency" can also specify the number of decimal places.
This can allow invalid operations (such as doing multiplication on a cell containing a date), resulting in illogical results without an appropriate warning.
Cell formatting[edit]
Depending on the capability of the spreadsheet application, each cell (like its counterpart the "style" in a word processor) can be separately formatted using the attributes of either the content (point size, color, bold or italic) or the cell (border thickness, background shading, color). To aid the readability of a spreadsheet, cell formatting may be conditionally applied to data; for example, a negative number may be displayed in red.
A cell's formatting does not typically affect its content and depending on how cells are referenced or copied to other worksheets or applications, the formatting may not be carried with the content.
Named cells[edit]
Use of named column variables x & y in Microsoft Excel. Formula for y=x2 resembles Fortran, and Name Manager shows the definitions of x & y.
In most implementations, a cell, or group of cells in a column or row, can be "named" enabling the user to refer to those cells by a name rather than by a grid reference. Names must be unique within the spreadsheet, but when using multiple sheets in a spreadsheet file, an identically named cell range on each sheet can be used if it is distinguished by adding the sheet name. One reason for this usage is for creating or running macros that repeat a command across many sheets. Another reason is that formulas with named variables are readily checked against the algebra they are intended to implement (they resemble Fortran expressions). Use of named variables and named functions also makes the spreadsheet structure more transparent.
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An array of cells is called a sheet or worksheet. It is analogous to an array of variables in a conventional computer program (although certain unchanging values, once entered, could be considered, by the same analogy, constants). In most implementations, many worksheets may be located within a single spreadsheet. A worksheet is simply a subset of the spreadsheet divided for the sake of clarity. Functionally, the spreadsheet operates as a whole and all cells operate as global variables within the spreadsheet (each variable having 'read' access only except its own containing cell).
A cell may contain a value or a formula, or it may simply be left empty. By convention, formulas usually begin with = sign.
Values[edit]
A value can be entered from the computer keyboard by directly typing into the cell itself. Alternatively, a value can be based on a formula (see below), which might perform a calculation, display the current date or time, or retrieve external data such as a stock quote or a database value.
The Spreadsheet Value Rule
Computer scientist Alan Kay used the term value rule to summarize a spreadsheet's operation: a cell's value relies solely on the formula the user has typed into the cell.[24] The formula may rely on the value of other cells, but those cells are likewise restricted to user-entered data or formulas. There are no 'side effects' to calculating a formula: the only output is to display the calculated result inside its occupying cell. There is no natural mechanism for permanently modifying the contents of a cell unless the user manually modifies the cell's contents. In the context of programming languages, this yields a limited form of first-order functional programming.[25]
Automatic recalculation[edit]
A standard of spreadsheets since the 1980s, this optional feature eliminates the need to manually request the spreadsheet program to recalculate values (nowadays typically the default option unless specifically 'switched off' for large spreadsheets, usually to improve performance). Some earlier spreadsheets required a manual request to recalculate, since recalculation of large or complex spreadsheets often reduced data entry speed. Many modern spreadsheets still retain this option.
Real-time update[edit]
This feature refers to updating a cell's contents periodically with a value from an external source—such as a cell in a "remote" spreadsheet. For shared, Web-based spreadsheets, it applies to "immediately" updating cells another user has updated. All dependent cells must be updated also.
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Other products[edit]
A number of companies have attempted to break into the spreadsheet market with programs based on very different paradigms. Lotus introduced what is likely the most successful example, Lotus Improv, which saw some commercial success, notably in the financial world where its powerful data mining capabilities remain well respected to this day.
Quantrix is built on the same paradigm as the discontinued Lotus Improv, except has many powerful new features, making it the application of choice for many financial professionals worldwide.
Spreadsheet 2000 attempted to dramatically simplify formula construction, but was generally not successful.
Concepts[edit]
The main concepts are those of a grid of cells, called a sheet, with either raw data, called values, or formulas in the cells. Formulas say how to mechanically compute new values from existing values. Values are generally numbers, but can also be pure text, dates, months, etc. Extensions of these concepts include logical spreadsheets. Various tools for programming sheets, visualizing data, remotely connecting sheets, displaying cells' dependencies, etc. are commonly provided.
Cells[edit]
A "cell" can be thought of as a box for holding data. A single cell is usually referenced by its column and row (A2 would represent the cell containing the value 10 in the example table below). Usually rows, representing the dependent variables, are referenced in decimal notation starting from 1, while columns representing the independent variables use 26-adic bijective numeration using the letters A-Z as numerals. Its physical size can usually be tailored to its content by dragging its height or width at box intersections (or for entire columns or rows by dragging the column- or row-headers).
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Open source software[edit]
Gnumeric is a free, cross-platform spreadsheet program that is part of the GNOME Free Software Desktop Project. OpenOffice.org Calc and the very closely related LibreOffice Calc (using the LGPL license) are free and open-source spreadsheets.
Web based spreadsheets[edit]
Main article: List of online spreadsheets
With the advent of advanced web technologies such as Ajax circa 2005, a new generation of online spreadsheets has emerged. Equipped with a rich Internet application user experience, the best web based online spreadsheets have many of the features seen in desktop spreadsheet applications. Some of them such as Office Online, ZOHO, Google Spreadsheets, EditGrid, Smartsheet or ZK Spreadsheet also have strong multi-user collaboration features and / or offer real time updates from remote sources such as stock prices and currency exchange rates.
Other spreadsheets[edit]
A list of current spreadsheet software
Accel Spreadsheet from SSuite Office
Calligra Sheets (formerly KCalc)
Corel Quattro Pro (WordPerfect Office)
GS-Calc
GridCraft collaborative cloud spreadsheet for web and iPad
iSpread for iPad, iPhone and iPod Touch
Kingsoft Spreadsheets
Mariner Calc is Mariner Software's spreadsheet software for Mac OS.
Calc XLS is Mariner Software's spreadsheet software for iOS.
Numbers is Apple Inc.'s spreadsheet software, part of iWork.
Quantrix Modeler, Multi-Dimensional Spreadsheet Software.
ZCubes-Calc
GrapeCity Spread Studio
NeoOffice
Pyspread
Discontinued spreadsheet software
3D-Calc for Atari ST computers
Advantage
Borland's Quattro Pro
Compucalc
Enable
Framework by Forefront Corporation/Ashton-Tate (1983/84)
GNU Oleo – A traditional terminal mode spreadsheet for UNIX/UNIX-like systems
IBM Lotus Symphony (2007)
Javelin Software
KCells
Lotus Improv[20]
Lotus Jazz for Macintosh
Lotus Symphony (1984)
MultiPlan
Resolver One
SIAG
SuperCalc
T/Maker
Target Planner Calc for CP/M and TRS-DOS[21][22]
Trapeze for Macintosh[23]
Wingz for Macintosh
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SuperCalc was a spreadsheet application published by Sorcim in 1980, and originally bundled (along with WordStar) as part of the CP/M software package included with the Osborne 1 portable computer. It quickly became the de facto standard spreadsheet for CP/M and was ported to MS-DOS in 1982.
Lotus 1-2-3 and other MS-DOS spreadsheets[edit]
The acceptance of the IBM PC following its introduction inAugust, 1981, began slowly, because most of the programs available for it were translations from other computer models. Things changed dramatically with the introduction of Lotus 1-2-3 in November, 1982, and release for sale in January, 1983. Since it was written especially for the IBM PC, it had good performance and became the killer app for this PC. Lotus 1-2-3 drove sales of the PC due to the improvements in speed and graphics compared to VisiCalc on the Apple II.[17]
Lotus 1-2-3, along with its competitor Borland Quattro, soon displaced VisiCalc. Lotus 1-2-3 was released on January 26, 1983, started outselling then-most-popular VisiCalc the very same year, and for a number of years was the leading spreadsheet for DOS.
Microsoft Excel[edit]
Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Macintosh on September 30, 1985, and then ported[18] it to Windows, with the first version being numbered 2.05 (to synchronize with the Macintosh version 2.2) and released in November 1987. The Windows 3.x platforms of the early 1990s made it possible for Excel to take market share from Lotus. By the time Lotus responded with usable Windows products, Microsoft had begun to assemble their Office suite. By 1995, Excel was the market leader, edging out Lotus 1-2-3,[6] and in 2013, IBM discontinued Lotus-1-2-3 altogether.[19]
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VisiCalc[edit]
VisiCalc running on an Apple II
Because of Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston's implementation of VisiCalc on the Apple II in 1979 and the IBM PC in 1981, the spreadsheet concept became widely known in the late 1970s and early 1980s. VisiCalc was the first spreadsheet that combined all essential features of modern spreadsheet applications (except for forward referencing/natural order recalculation), such as WYSIWYG interactive user interface, automatic recalculation, status and formula lines, range copying with relative and absolute references, formula building by selecting referenced cells. Unaware of LANPAR at the time PC World magazine called VisiCalc the first electronic spreadsheet.[14]
Bricklin has spoken of watching his university professor create a table of calculation results on a blackboard. When the professor found an error, he had to tediously erase and rewrite a number of sequential entries in the table, triggering Bricklin to think that he could replicate the process on a computer, using the blackboard as the model to view results of underlying formulas. His idea became VisiCalc, the first application that turned the personal computer from a hobby for computer enthusiasts into a business tool.
VisiCalc went on to become the first killer app,[15][16] an application that was so compelling, people would buy a particular computer just to use it. VisiCalc was in no small part responsible for the Apple II's success. The program was later ported to a number of other early computers, notably CP/M machines, the Atari 8-bit family and various Commodore platforms. Nevertheless, VisiCalc remains best known as an Apple II program.
SuperCalc[edit]
S
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Works Records System[edit]
Main article: Works Records System
The Works Records System was a spreadsheet system designed in 1974 at ICI in the UK. It was a company-internal system that ran on IBM mainframes, and was in use essentially unchanged for 27 years. It was intended for use by non-programmers and had a WYSIWIG interface.[12]
IBM Financial Planning and Control System[edit]
The IBM Financial Planning and Control System was developed in 1976, by Brian Ingham at IBM Canada. It was implemented by IBM in at least 30 countries. It ran on an IBM mainframe and was among the first applications for financial planning developed with APL that completely hid the programming language from the end-user. Through IBM's VM operating system, it was among the first programs to auto-update each copy of the application as new versions were released. Users could specify simple mathematical relationships between rows and between columns. Compared to any contemporary alternatives, it could support very large spreadsheets. It loaded actual financial data drawn from the legacy batch system into each user's spreadsheet on a monthly basis. It was designed to optimize the power of APL through object kernels, increasing program efficiency by as much as 50 fold over traditional programming approaches.
APLDOT modeling language[edit]
An example of an early "industrial weight" spreadsheet was APLDOT, developed in 1976 at the United States Railway Association on an IBM 360/91, running at The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, MD.[13] The application was used successfully for many years in developing such applications as financial and costing models for the US Congress and for Conrail. APLDOT was dubbed a "spreadsheet" because financial analysts and strategic planners used it to solve the same problems they addressed with paper spreadsheet pads.
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LANPAR spreadsheet compiler[edit]
A key invention in the development of electronic spreadsheets was made by Rene K. Pardo and Remy Landau, who filed in 1970 U.S. Patent 4,398,249 on spreadsheet automatic natural order recalculation algorithm. While the patent was initially rejected by the patent office as being a purely mathematical invention, following 12 years of appeals, Pardo and Landau won a landmark court case at the CCPA (Predecessor Court of the Federal Circuit) overturning the Patent Office in 1983—establishing that "something does not cease to become patentable merely because the point of novelty is in an algorithm." However, in 1995 the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled the patent unenforceable.[9]
The actual software was called LANPAR—LANguage for Programming Arrays at Random. This was conceived and entirely developed in the summer of 1969 following Pardo and Landau's recent graduation from Harvard University. Co-inventor Rene Pardo recalls that he felt that one manager at Bell Canada should not have to depend on programmers to program and modify budgeting forms, and he thought of letting users type out forms in any order and having computer calculating results in the right order ("Forward Referencing/Natural Order Calculation"). Pardo and Landau developed and implemented the software in 1969.[10]
LANPAR was used by Bell Canada, AT&T and the 18 operating telcos nationwide for their local and national budgeting operations. LANPAR was also used by General Motors. Its uniqueness was Pardo's co-invention incorporating forward referencing/natural order calculation (one of the first "non-procedural" computer languages) [11] as opposed to left-to-right, top to bottom sequence for calculating the results in each cell that was used by VisiCalc, Supercalc, and the first version of Multiplan. Without forward referencing/natural order calculation, the user had to manually recalculate the spreadsheet as many times as necessary until the values in all the cells had stopped changing. Forward Referencing/Natural Order Calculation by a compiler was the cornerstone functionality required for any spreadsheet to be practical and successful.
The LANPAR system was implemented on GE400 and Honeywell 6000 online timesharing systems enabling users to program remotely via computer terminals and modems. Data could be entered dynamically either by paper tape, specific file access, on line, or even external data bases. Sophisticated mathematical expressions including logical comparisons and "if/then" statements could be used in any cell, and cells could be presented in any order.
Autoplan/Autotab spreadsheet programming language[edit]
In 1968, three former employees from the General Electric computer company headquartered in Phoenix, Arizona set out to start their own software development house. A. Leroy Ellison, Harry N. Cantrell, and Russell E. Edwards found themselves doing a large number of calculations when making tables for the business plans that they were presenting to venture capitalists. They decided to save themselves a lot of effort and wrote a computer program that produced their tables for them. This program, originally conceived as a simple utility for their personal use, would turn out to be the first software product offered by the company that would become known as Capex Corporation. "AutoPlan" ran on GE’s Time-sharing service; afterward, a version that ran on IBM mainframes was introduced under the name AutoTab. (National CSS offered a similar product, CSSTAB, which had a moderate timesharing user base by the early 1970s. A major application was opinion research tabulation.) AutoPlan/AutoTab was not a WYSIWYG interactive spreadsheet program, it was a simple scripting language for spreadsheets. The user defined the names and labels for the rows and columns, then the formulas that defined each row or column.
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Early implementations[edit]
Batch spreadsheet report generator[edit]
A batch "spreadsheet" is indistinguishable from a batch compiler with added input data, producing an output report, i.e., a 4GL or conventional, non-interactive, batch computer program. However, this concept of an electronic spreadsheet was outlined in the 1961 paper "Budgeting Models and System Simulation" by Richard Mattessich.[7] The subsequent work by Mattessich (1964a, Chpt. 9, Accounting and Analytical Methods) and its companion volume, Mattessich (1964b, Simulation of the Firm through a Budget Computer Program) applied computerized spreadsheets to accounting and budgeting systems (on mainframe computers programmed in FORTRAN IV). These batch Spreadsheets dealt primarily with the addition or subtraction of entire columns or rows (of input variables), rather than individual cells.
In 1962 this concept of the spreadsheet, called BCL for Business Computer Language, was implemented on an IBM 1130 and in 1963 was ported to an IBM 7040 by R. Brian Walsh at Marquette University, Wisconsin. This program was written in Fortran. Primitive timesharing was available on those machines. In 1968 BCL was ported by Walsh to the IBM 360/67 timesharing machine at Washington State University. It was used to assist in the teaching of finance to business students. Students were able to take information prepared by the professor and manipulate it to represent it and show ratios etc. In 1964, a book entitled Business Computer Language was written by Kimball, Stoffells and Walsh and both the book and program were copyrighted in 1966 and years later that copyright was renewed[8]
Applied Data Resources had a FORTRAN preprocessor called Empires.
In the late 1960s Xerox used BCL to develop a more sophisticated version for their timesharing system.
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History[edit]
Paper spreadsheets[edit]
The word "spreadsheet" came from "spread" in its sense of a newspaper or magazine item (text or graphics) that covers two facing pages, extending across the center fold and treating the two pages as one large one. The compound word "spread-sheet" came to mean the format used to present book-keeping ledgers—with columns for categories of expenditures across the top, invoices listed down the left margin, and the amount of each payment in the cell where its row and column intersect—which were, traditionally, a "spread" across facing pages of a bound ledger (book for keeping accounting records) or on oversized sheets of paper (termed "analysis paper") ruled into rows and columns in that format and approximately twice as wide as ordinary paper.[6]
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QMRSpreadsheet
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A spreadsheet is an interactive computer application program for organization, analysis and storage of data in tabular form. Spreadsheets are developed as computerized simulations of paper accounting worksheets. The program operates on data represented as cells of an array, organized in rows and columns. Each cell of the array is a model–view–controller element[dubious – discuss] that may contain either numeric or text data, or the results of formulas that automatically calculate and display a value based on the contents of other cells.
Spreadsheet users may adjust any stored value and observe the effects on calculated values.[citation needed] This makes the spreadsheet useful for "what-if" analysis since many cases can be rapidly investigated without manual recalculation. Modern spreadsheet software can have multiple interacting sheets, and can display data either as text and numerals, or in graphical form.
Besides performing basic arithmetic and mathematical functions, modern spreadsheets provide built-in functions for common financial and statistical operations. Such calculations as net present value or standard deviation can be applied to tabular data with a pre-programmed function in a formula. Spreadsheet programs also provide conditional expressions, functions to convert between text and numbers, and functions that operate on strings of text.
Spreadsheets have replaced paper-based systems throughout the business world. Although they were first developed for accounting or bookkeeping tasks, they now are used extensively in any context where tabular lists are built, sorted, and shared.
LANPAR was the first electronic spreadsheet on mainframe and time sharing computers. VisiCalc was the first electronic spreadsheet on a microcomputer,[1] and it helped turn the Apple II computer into a popular and widely used system. Lotus 1-2-3 was the leading spreadsheet when DOS was the dominant operating system.[2] Excel now has the largest market share on the Windows and Macintosh platforms.[3][4][5] A spreadsheet program is a standard feature of an office productivity suite; since the advent of web apps, office suites now also exist in web app form.
It is made up of quadrants
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QMRTaito released a four-way joystick as part of their arcade racing video game Astro Race in 1973,[13] while their 1975 run and gun multi-directional shooter game Western Gun introduced dual-stick controls with one eight-way joystick for movement and the other for changing the shooting direction. In North America, it was released by Midway under the title Gun Fight.[14] In 1976, Taito released Interceptor, an early first-person combat flight simulator that involved piloting a jet fighter, using an eight-way joystick to aim with a crosshair and shoot at enemy aircraft.[15]
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QMRIn 1973, Atari's Space Race was a space-themed arcade game where players controlled spaceships that race against opposing ships, while avoiding comets and meteors. It was a competitive two-player game controlled using a two-way joystick, and was presented in black and white graphics.[1] The same year, Taito released a similar space-themed racing game Astro Race, which used an early four-way joystick.[2]
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Example color quantization[edit]
Taking the full list of colors of a 24-bit RGB image as point input to the Octree point decomposition implementation outlined above, the following example show the results of octree color quantization. The first image is the original (532818 distinct colors), while the second is the quantized image (184 distinct colors) using octree decomposition, with each pixel assigned the color at the center of the octree bin in which it falls. Alternatively, final colors could be chosen at the centroid of all colors in each octree bin, however this added computation has very little effect on the visual result.[5]
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Application to color quantization[edit]
The octree color quantization algorithm, invented by Gervautz and Purgathofer in 1988, encodes image color data as an octree up to nine levels deep. Octrees are used because 2^3 = 8 and there are three color components in the RGB system. The node index to branch out from at the top level is determined by a formula that uses the most significant bits of the red, green, and blue color components, e.g. 4r + 2g + b. The next lower level uses the next bit significance, and so on. Less significant bits are sometimes ignored to reduce the tree size.
The algorithm is highly memory efficient because the tree's size can be limited. The bottom level of the octree consists of leaf nodes that accrue color data not represented in the tree; these nodes initially contain single bits. If much more than the desired number of palette colors are entered into the octree, its size can be continually reduced by seeking out a bottom-level node and averaging its bit data up into a leaf node, pruning part of the tree. Once sampling is complete, exploring all routes in the tree down to the leaf nodes, taking note of the bits along the way, will yield approximately the required number of colors.
Implementation for point decomposition[edit]
The example recursive algorithm outline below (MATLAB syntax) decomposes an array of 3-dimensional points into octree style bins. The implementation begins with a single bin surrounding all given points, which then recursively subdivides into its 8 octree regions. Recursion is stopped when a given exit condition is met. Examples of such exit conditions (shown in code below) are:
When a bin contains fewer than a given number of points
When a bin reaches a minimum size or volume based on the length of its edges
When recursion has reached a maximum number of subdivisions
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Common uses[edit]
3D computer graphics
Spatial indexing
Nearest neighbor search
Efficient collision detection in three dimensions
View frustum culling
Fast Multipole Method
Unstructured grid
Finite element analysis
Sparse voxel octree
State estimation[3]
Set estimation[4]
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For spatial representation[edit]
Each node in an octree subdivides the space it represents into eight octants. In a point region (PR) octree, the node stores an explicit 3-dimensional point, which is the "center" of the subdivision for that node; the point defines one of the corners for each of the eight children. In a matrix based (MX) octree, the subdivision point is implicitly the center of the space the node represents. The root node of a PR octree can represent infinite space; the root node of an MX octree must represent a finite bounded space so that the implicit centers are well-defined. Note that Octrees are not the same as k-d trees: k-d trees split along a dimension and octrees split around a point. Also k-d trees are always binary, which is not the case for octrees. By using a depth-first search the nodes are to be traversed and only required surfaces are to be viewed.
History[edit]
The use of octrees for 3D computer graphics was pioneered by Donald Meagher at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, described in a 1980 report "Octree Encoding: A New Technique for the Representation, Manipulation and Display of Arbitrary 3-D Objects by Computer",[1] for which he holds a 1995 patent (with a 1984 priority date) "High-speed image generation of complex solid objects using octree encoding" [2]
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QMRAn octree is a tree data structure in which each internal node has exactly eight children. Octrees are most often used to partition a three dimensional space by recursively subdividing it into eight octants. Octrees are the three-dimensional analog of quadtrees. The name is formed from oct + tree, but note that it is normally written "octree" with only one "t". Octrees are often used in 3D graphics and 3D game engines.
It is a three dimensional quadtreee
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QMRM-Tree construction[edit]
Components[edit]
An M-Tree has these four components and sub-components:
Non-leaf nodes
A set of routing objects NRO.
Pointer to Node's parent object Op.
Leaf nodes
A set of objects NO.
Pointer to Node's parent object Op.
Routing Object
(Feature value of) routing object Or.
Covering radius r(Or).
Pointer to covering tree T(Or).
Distance of Or from its parent object d(Or,P(Or))
Object
(Feature value of the) object Oj.
Object identifier oid(Oj).
Distance of Oj from its parent object d(Oj,P(Oj))
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Qmr
A quadtree is a tree data structure in which each internal node has exactly four children. Quadtrees are most often used to partition a two-dimensional space by recursively subdividing it into four quadrants or regions. The regions may be square or rectangular, or may have arbitrary shapes. This data structure was named a quadtree by Raphael Finkel and J.L. Bentley in 1974. A similar partitioning is also known as a Q-tree. All forms of quadtrees share some common features:
They decompose space into adaptable cells
Each cell (or bucket) has a maximum capacity. When maximum capacity is reached, the bucket splits
The tree directory follows the spatial decomposition of the quadtree.
Types[edit]
Quadtrees may be classified according to the type of data they represent, including areas, points, lines and curves. Quadtrees may also be classified by whether the shape of the tree is independent of the order data is processed. Some common types of quadtrees are:
The region quadtree[edit]
The region quadtree represents a partition of space in two dimensions by decomposing the region into four equal quadrants, subquadrants, and so on with each leaf node containing data corresponding to a specific subregion. Each node in the tree either has exactly four children, or has no children (a leaf node). The region quadtree is a type of trie.
A region quadtree with a depth of n may be used to represent an image consisting of 2n × 2n pixels, where each pixel value is 0 or 1. The root node represents the entire image region. If the pixels in any region are not entirely 0s or 1s, it is subdivided. In this application, each leaf node represents a block of pixels that are all 0s or all 1s.
A region quadtree may also be used as a variable resolution representation of a data field. For example, the temperatures in an area may be stored as a quadtree, with each leaf node storing the average temperature over the subregion it represents.
If a region quadtree is used to represent a set of point data (such as the latitude and longitude of a set of cities), regions are subdivided until each leaf contains at most a single point.
Point quadtree[edit]
The point quadtree is an adaptation of a binary tree used to represent two-dimensional point data. It shares the features of all quadtrees but is a true tree as the center of a subdivision is always on a point. The tree shape depends on the order in which data is processed. It is often very efficient in comparing two-dimensional, ordered data points, usually operating in O(log n) time.
Node structure for a point quadtree[edit]
A node of a point quadtree is similar to a node of a binary tree, with the major difference being that it has four pointers (one for each quadrant) instead of two ("left" and "right") as in an ordinary binary tree. Also a key is usually decomposed into two parts, referring to x and y coordinates. Therefore a node contains the following information:
four pointers: quad[‘NW’], quad[‘NE’], quad[‘SW’], and quad[‘SE’]
point; which in turn contains:
key; usually expressed as x, y coordinates
value; for example a name
Edge quadtree[edit]
Edge quadtrees are specifically used to store lines rather than points. Curves are approximated by subdividing cells to a very fine resolution. This can result in extremely unbalanced trees which may defeat the purpose of indexing.
Polygonal map quadtree[edit]
The polygonal map quadtree (or PM Quadtree) is a variation of quadtree which is used to store collections of polygons that may be degenerate (meaning that they have isolated vertices or edges).[1] There are three main classes of PMQuadtrees, which vary depending on what information they store within each black node. PM3 quadtrees can store any amount of non-intersecting edges and at most one point. PM2 quadtrees are the same as PM3 quadtrees except that all edges must share the same end point. Finally PM1 quadtrees are similar to PM2, but black nodes can contain a point and its edges or just a set of edges that share a point, but you cannot have a point and a set of edges that do not contain the point.
Some common uses of quadtrees[edit]
Image representation
Bitmap and its compressed quadtree representation
Spatial indexing
Efficient collision detection in two dimensions
View frustum culling of terrain data
Storing sparse data, such as a formatting information for a spreadsheet or for some matrix calculations[citation needed]
Solution of multidimensional fields (computational fluid dynamics, electromagnetism)
Conway's Game of Life simulation program.[2]
State estimation[3]
Quadtrees are also used in the area of fractal image analysis
Maximum disjoint sets
Quadtrees are the two-dimensional analog of octrees.
Pseudo code[edit]
The following pseudo code shows one means of implementing a quadtree which handles only points. There are other approaches available.
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QMRThe 16th Street Baptist Church bombing was an act of white supremacist terrorism[1][2] which occurred at the African-American 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama on Sunday, September 15, 1963, when four members of the Ku Klux Klan planted at least 15 sticks of dynamite attached to a timing device beneath the front steps of the church.[3]
Described by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. as "one of the most vicious and tragic crimes ever perpetrated against humanity",[4] the explosion at the church killed four girls and injured 22 others.
Although the FBI had concluded in 1965 that the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing had been committed by four known Ku Klux Klansmen and segregationists — Thomas Edwin Blanton, Jr., Herman Frank Cash, Robert Edward Chambliss, and Bobby Frank Cherry[5] — no prosecutions ensued until 1977, when Robert Chambliss was tried and convicted of the first degree murder of one of the victims, 11-year-old Carol Denise McNair. Thomas Blanton and Bobby Cherry were each convicted of four counts of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment in 2001 and 2002 respectively,[6] whereas Herman Cash, who died in 1994, was never charged with his alleged involvement in the bombing.
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QMR20 119 "In the Family" December 5, 2014
Sandi Nieves's troubled eight-year marriage to her former stepfather, David Folden, triggers a series of misfortunes for her, including a failed relationship with a younger man, an abortion, and David's rescinding his adoption of her three oldest children. In June 1998, seeking revenge against her children's fathers, Sandi sets a fire in her home and lets her four daughters die of smoke inhalation, then tries to blame her surviving son for the crime.
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QMR16 95 "Killer Kin" November 1, 2013
Cafe owner Denise Frei decides her live-in boyfriend, Curtis Bailey, who has a generous life insurance policy, is worth more dead than alive, and enlists her son, Jacob, and his girlfriend, Jessica Dayton, to help. They entrap Curtis with the promise of a menage a trois and beat him to death. All serve life sentences without parole. Stephanie Hudnall turns her teenage daughters against their father, Bill, claiming he is to blame for the hardships they have suffered. At Stephanie's urging, her 19-year-old daughter, Guenevere, hacks her father to death with a pickax, so her mother can collect on Bill's Social Security. Both mother and daughter serve 40-year sentences for second-degree murder. Australian Helen Ryan is cruel and abusive to her husband, Jeffrey, but when he finds a new girlfriend and files for divorce, she is livid that she won't get as much money as she wants. She decides to hire a hit man to kill Jeffrey and lures her sister, Ganene Coulter, and mother, Coralie Coulter, into the plot. All four parties are sentenced to prison for their roles in the murder, mastermind Helen to a maximum of 36 years.
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QMRIn turn-of-the-century Australia, Martha Rendell moves in with her lover, who leaves his wife for her but keeps their kids. Martha seems to have jumped out of a Grimm's fairy-tale as a wicked stepmother – she makes the children ill and pretends to swab their throats with medicine, which is really hydrochloric acid. After Martha kills three of her stepchildren, a fourth escapes and exposes Martha as a heartless sadist who got sexual pleasure from their suffering.
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QMR43 "Kill Their Own" August 19, 2011
Jealous of the attention given to her children, Rowlett, Texas housewife Darlie Routier stabs two of her sons and stages a break-in to get that attention back. She now awaits execution on Texas' death row. In 1987, Frances Newton cold-heartedly shoots her husband and two young children for life insurance money. She is executed in 2005 by the state of Texas. In San Marcos, California, Susan Eubanks, convinced that all men are liars and cheats, gets revenge against her ex-husbands by shooting and killing her four sons in the order they came into her life. She is sentenced to death in California.
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QMRFour-Star Spectacular was an anthology comic book series published by DC Comics in the mid-1970s. The series was edited by E. Nelson Bridwell and ran for six issues from March/April 1976 to January/February 1977. The books were in the "giant size" format and consisted mostly of superhero reprints, with some new material. A total of four characters from DC's roster of superheroes appeared in each issue — hence the title. (Half of the title's issues, however, only featured three stories.) Each issue featured a Superboy story, a Wonder Woman story, and at least one other story (usually a team-up story).
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QMRA fashion capital is a city which has a major influence on international fashion trends and in which the design, production and retailing of fashion products – plus events such as fashion weeks, awards and trade fairs – generate significant economic output.
The cities considered the global "Big Four" fashion capitals of the 20th century were Paris, Milan, London and New York; while the fashion scene turns more multipolar in the 21st century with other important centers like Berlin, Rome, Tokyo, São Paulo and Los Angeles.[1]
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QMRSpecies of capital and symbolic violence[edit]
Bourdieu extended the notion of capital, defined as sums of money or assets put to productive use. For Bourdieu, these assets could take many forms which had not received much attention when he began writing. Bourdieu habitually refers to several principal forms of capital: economic, symbolic, cultural and social. Loic Waquant describes their status in Bourdieu's work in these terms: "Capital comes in 3 principal species: economic, cultural and social. A fourth species, symbolic capital, designates the effects of any form of capital when people do not perceive them as such."[44]
Bourdieu sees symbolic capital (e.g., prestige, honor, attention) as a crucial source of power.[45] Symbolic capital is any species of capital that is, in Loïc Wacquant's terms "not perceived as such," but which is instead perceived through socially inculcated classificatory schemes. When a holder of symbolic capital uses the power this confers against an agent who holds less, and seeks thereby to alter their actions, they exercise symbolic violence. We might see this when a daughter brings home a boyfriend considered unsuitable by her parents. She is met with disapproving looks and gestures, symbols which serve to convey the message that she will not be permitted to continue this relationship, but which never make this coercive fact explicit. People come to experience symbolic power and systems of meaning (culture) as legitimate. Hence, the daughter will often feel a duty to obey her parents' unspoken demand, regardless of her suitor's merits.
Symbolic violence is fundamentally the imposition of categories of thought and perception upon dominated social agents who then take the social order to be just. It is the incorporation of unconscious structures that tend to perpetuate the structures of action of the dominant. The dominated then take their position to be "right." Symbolic violence is in some senses much more powerful than physical violence in that it is embedded in the very modes of action and structures of cognition of individuals, and imposes the spectre of legitimacy of the social order.
In his theoretical writings, Bourdieu employs some terminology of economics to analyze the processes of social and cultural reproduction, of how the various forms of capital tend to transfer from one generation to the next. For Bourdieu, formal education represents the key example of this process. Educational success, according to Bourdieu, entails a whole range of cultural behaviour, extending to ostensibly non-academic features like gait, dress, or accent. Privileged children have learned this behaviour, as have their teachers. Children of unprivileged backgrounds have not. The children of privilege therefore fit the pattern of their teachers' expectations with apparent 'ease'; they are 'docile'. The unprivileged are found to be 'difficult', to present 'challenges'. Yet both behave as their upbringing dictates. Bourdieu regards this 'ease', or 'natural' ability—distinction—as in fact the product of a great social labour, largely on the part of the parents. It equips their children with the dispositions of manner as well as thought which ensure they are able to succeed within the educational system and can then reproduce their parents' class position in the wider social system.
Cultural capital refers to assets, e.g., competencies, skills, qualifications, which enable holders to mobilise cultural authority and can also be a source of misrecognition and symbolic violence. For example, working class children can come to see the educational success of their middle-class peers as always legitimate, seeing what is often class-based inequality as instead the result of hard work or even 'natural' ability. A key part of this process is the transformation of people's symbolic or economic inheritance (e.g., accent or property) into cultural capital (e.g., university qualifications).
Bourdieu argues that cultural capital has developed in opposition to economic capital. Furthermore, the conflict between those who mostly hold cultural capital and those who mostly hold economic capital finds expression in the opposed social fields of art and business. The field of art and related cultural fields are seen to have striven historically for autonomy, which in different times and places has been more or less achieved. The autonomous field of art is summed up as "an economic world turned upside down,"[46] highlighting the opposition between economic and cultural capital.
For Bourdieu, "social capital is the sum of the resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group by virtue of possessing a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition
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QMRSymbolic capital, it can be language and/or images that circulate as power. Or, symbolic capital is one of the four types of capital in Pierre Bourdieu's theory; it can be a type of capital that is strongly correlated to social capital, and it comes into existence once it is perceived and recognized as legitimate
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QMRDC Special Series was an umbrella title for one-shots and special issues published by DC Comics between 1977 and 1981. Each issue featured a different character and was often in a different format than the issue before it. DC Special Series was published in four different formats: Dollar Comics,[1] 48 page giants, digests, and treasury editions. Neither the umbrella title nor the numbering system appear on the cover; the title "DC Special Series" appeared only on the first page in the indicia. Most issues featured new material, but eight issues were reprints of previously published material.[2]
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QMRThe Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry is divided into four houses, each bearing the last name of its founder: Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw and Salazar Slytherin.
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QMRThe Joy Luck Club (1989) is a best-selling novel written by Amy Tan. It focuses on four Chinese American immigrant families in San Francisco who start a club known as The Joy Luck Club, playing the Chinese game of mahjong for money while feasting on a variety of foods. The book is structured somewhat like a mahjong game, with four parts divided into four sections to create sixteen chapters. The three mothers and four daughters (one mother, Suyuan Woo, dies before the novel opens) share stories about their lives in the form of vignettes. Each part is preceded by a parable relating to the game.
In 1993, the novel was adapted into a feature film directed by Wayne Wang and starring Ming-Na, Lauren Tom, Tamlyn Tomita, France Nguyen, Rosalind Chao, Kieu Chinh, Tsai Chin, Lisa Lu, and Vivian Wu. The screenplay was written by the author Amy Tan along with Ronald Bass. The novel was also adapted into a play, by Susan Kim, which premiered at Pan Asian Repertory Theatre in New York.
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In 1945, the blackout and curfew in Times Square, NY was lifted on VE Day, after three years of darkness. Only six display signs had their lighting equipment ready for operation and Necco’s Sky Bar was one of them.[1]
The peanut section of the Sky Bar is not filled with peanut butter, but in fact a peanut-flavored caramel. The vanilla section is not quite nougat or marshmallow, but similar to the consistency of a Valomilk cup.
The Sky Bar has become difficult to find, but it is still produced by Necco and can be found in certain stores - especially in New England, at Cracker Barrel and old fashioned candy stores on the Internet, as well as being available in bulk through Amazon.
On the December 6, 2007 episode of Pardon the Interruption, Tony Kornheiser named the Sky Bar as his favorite chocolate bar. On the March 14, 2013 episode of his radio show, Tony Kornheiser once again professed his love of the Sky Bar.
In 2010, to celebrate the DVD release New Moon (from the Twilight vampire series), Skybar released two special chocolate bars inspired by the original Skybar candy. One bar, quite similar to the original Skybar, contained three filling flavors - caramel, creme and peanut butter. The other bar resembled a heart shape and only contained creme.
Popular culture[edit]
A Sky Bar candy bar is shown twice in the 2009 film The House of the Devil. Early in the film the Samantha Hughes (Jocelin Donahue) character opens and begins to consume a Sky Bar while in her college dorm room. Later, during her babysitting job, she's shown eating an already opened Sky Bar (presumably the unfinished candy bar from earlier).
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In 1938, the Sky Bar was first announced to the public by means of a dramatic skywriting advertising campaign. Necco was the first candy manufacturer in the United States of America to introduce a molded chocolate bar, having four distinctly different centers enrobed in chocolate. The originator of the Sky Bar was a candy maker working for Necco named Joseph Cangemi.[citation needed]
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QMRSky Bar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the Los Angeles establishment, see SkyBar.
Sky Bar
A split Sky Bar
Sky Bar is an American candy bar, produced since 1938 by Necco. Each Sky Bar has four sections, each with a different filling: caramel, vanilla, peanut and fudge, all covered in milk chocolate.
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QMRThe Old City (Hebrew: העיר העתיקה, Ha'Ir Ha'Atiqah, Arabic: البلدة القديمة, al-Balda al-Qadimah, Turkish: Kudüs, Armenian: Երուսաղեմի հին քաղաք, Yerusaghemi hin k'aghak' ) is a 0.9 square kilometers (0.35 sq mi) walled area[2] within the modern city of Jerusalem. Until 1860, when the Jewish neighborhood Mishkenot Sha'ananim was established, this area constituted the entire city of Jerusalem. The Old City is home to several sites of key religious importance: the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque for Muslims, the Temple Mount and Western Wall for Jews and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre for Christians, It was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Site List in 1981.
Traditionally, the Old City has been divided into four uneven quarters, although the current designations were introduced only in the 19th century.[3] Today, the Old City is roughly divided (going counterclockwise from the northeastern corner) into the Muslim Quarter, Christian Quarter, Armenian Quarter and Jewish Quarter.
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QMRSensurround involved the installation of large, low frequency, horn-loaded speakers which contained specially designed 18-inch Cerwin-Vega Model 189 ES drivers in custom black wood cabinets. Three horn configurations were available, Model-C (Corner), Model-W (Folded Bass Bin) and Model-M (Modular). The Model-C and -M horns required stacking in groups of four, increasing effective horn mouth size to achieve the low frequency target.
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Plot[edit]
The Joy Luck Club consists of sixteen interlocking stories about the lives of four Chinese immigrant mothers and their four American-born daughters. In 1949, the four mothers meet at the First Chinese Baptist Church in San Francisco and agree to continue to meet to play mah jong. They call their mah jong group the Joy Luck Club. The stories told in this novel revolve around the Joy Luck Club women and their daughters. Structurally, the novel is divided into four major sections, with two sections focusing on the stories of the mothers and two sections on the stories of the daughters.
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Cinema chapter
QMRSince the premiere of the children's television program Sesame Street on November 10, 1969, it has included what writer Malcolm Gladwell has called "the essence of Sesame Street—the artful blend of fluffy monsters and earnest adults".[1] The original cast, chosen by producer Jon Stone, consisted of four human actors—Matt Robinson, who played Gordon; Loretta Long, who played Gordon's wife, Susan; Will Lee, who played Mr. Hooper; and Bob McGrath, who played Bob. Unlike most children's television programs at the time, the producers of Sesame Street decided against using a single host and cast a group of ethnically diverse actors,[2] with, as Sesame Street researcher Gerald S. Lesser put it, "a variety of distinctive and reliable personalities".[
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QMRThe 5th Monkey (1990) is a drama film starring Ben Kingsley. The film was directed and written by Eric Rochat; based on the novel Le Cinquieme Singe by Jacques Zibi. The original music score was composed by Robert O. Ragland.
Plot summary[edit]
Cunda (Kingsley) lives deep in the Brazilian rainforest and is intent on making enough money so he can marry a widow in his village. However, his trade - capturing snakes for scientists - pays very little money, and he's in direct competition with other suitors.
One day, Cunda is bitten by a snake, and he crawls to the river to recover. While going through the agonizing recovery, he has an hallucination of four chimpanzees sitting in the river. Recovered, he returns home and finds the four chimpanzees waiting for him, and his efforts to shoo them away fail. Knowing that chimpanzees are not native to Brazil, he decides that they are a kind of supernatural gift for him. Believing this, he decides to take them to "the city" to sell them.
The journey isn't easy from the start; he discovers that he can't tie them on a rope and drag them, and the only way is to coax them. They stumble into a gold-panning camp, where Cunda is forced to work in order to pay off an old debt. When one of the monkeys is taken as payment, Cunda must figure how to retrieve the monkey and escape. Later, he, the monkeys and the adults of a village are kidnapped by mercenaries. Cunda and the monkeys escape, along with a village woman who refuses to leave his side. Arriving at a small town, a confusing sequence results in one of the monkeys disappearing, and Cunda becoming the servant of the local rich woman who has taken it upon herself to take care of the monkeys. Cunda now has to solve these two problems, and deal with the fact of the village woman's attraction to him plus his growing fondness of the monkeys.
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QMRBehavior and ecology[edit]
The golden monkey can travel in various group sizes, and have been seen in small groups of three up to large groups of 62 monkeys. The groups that are found at higher elevations tend to be smaller.[4] The golden monkey will often return to one of several different sleeping areas after a day of feeding. The monkeys often sleep in small subgroups of four, at the top of bamboo plants. They will often use a dense bamboo plant, or a combination of several bamboo plants that weave together to make a sufficient foundation for sleep. The golden monkey will often feed near the sleeping area and return to this same sleeping location day after day.[3
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QMRSocial systems[edit]
Primates are among the most social of animals, forming pairs or family groups, uni-male harems, and multi-male/multi-female groups.[88] Richard Wrangham stated that social systems of non-human primates are best classified by the amount of movement by females occurring between groups.[89] He proposed four categories:
Female transfer systems – females move away from the group in which they were born. Females of a group will not be closely related whereas males will have remained with their natal groups, and this close association may be influential in social behavior. The groups formed are generally quite small. This organization can be seen in chimpanzees, where the males, who are typically related, will cooperate in defense of the group's territory. Among New World Monkeys, spider monkeys and muriquis use this system.[90]
A social huddle of ring-tailed lemurs. The two individuals on the right exposing their white ventral surface are sunning themselves.
Male transfer systems – while the females remain in their natal groups, the males will emigrate as adolescents. Polygynous and multi-male societies are classed in this category. Group sizes are usually larger. This system is common among the ring-tailed lemur, capuchin monkeys and cercopithecine monkeys.[56]
Monogamous species – a male–female bond, sometimes accompanied by a juvenile offspring. There is shared responsibility of parental care and territorial defense. The offspring leaves the parents' territory during adolescence. Gibbons essentially use this system, although "monogamy" in this context does not necessarily mean absolute sexual fidelity.[91]
Solitary species – often males who defend territories that include the home ranges of several females. This type of organization is found in the prosimians such as the slow loris. Orangutans do not defend their territory but effectively have this organization.[92]
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QMRMillencolin is a punk rock band that was formed in October 1992 by Nikola Sarcevic, Mathias Färm, and Erik Ohlsson in Örebro, Sweden. In early 1993, drummer Fredrik Larzon joined the band. The name Millencolin is derived from the skateboard trick "melancholy".[. The fourth is always different
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QMRTetra (born October 1999) is a rhesus macaque that was created through a cloning technique called "embryo splitting". She is the first cloned primate, and was created by a team led by Professor Gerald Schatten of the Oregon National Primate Research Center.
Description[edit]
Tetra was created using embryo splitting, a process where the cells in the embryo are split at the eight–cell stage to create four identical two cell embryos,[1] and was the first time this technique had prove successful in monkeys, although it is often used in cattle.[1] She was the first primate to have been cloned using this "splitting" technique.[1] The first non-human primate derived from nuclear transfer was created in 1997 using a different technique for "cloning" [2] Only two of the four embryos survived to the stage in which they could be implanted into surrogates, and Tetra was the only one to be delivered successfully after 157 days.
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QMRArctic Monkeys are an English rock band formed in 2002 in High Green, a suburb of Sheffield. The band consists of Alex Turner (lead vocals, rhythm guitar, lead guitar), Matt Helders (drums, backing vocals), Jamie Cook (lead guitar, rhythm guitar) and Nick O'Malley (bass, backing vocals). Former band member Andy Nicholson (bass guitar, backing vocals) left the band in 2006 shortly after their debut album was released.
The fifth is always questionable. The fourth is always different
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QMRThe woolly monkeys are the genus Lagothrix of New World monkeys, usually placed in the family Atelidae.
The four species of woolly monkey all originate from the rainforests of South America. They have prehensile tails and live in relatively large social groups.
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QMRList of Costa Rican monkey species
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Small monkey with white face, black eyes and nose and dark head and widow's peak facing forward
Central American squirrel monkey, Saimiri oerstedii, smallest of the Costa Rican monkey species
Capuchin monkey standing on four limbs amongst leaves; the monkey has a white face, head and chest and is black elsewhere
white-headed capuchin (Cebus capucinus)
Four species of monkey are native to the forests of Costa Rica, the Central American squirrel monkey (Saimiri oerstedii), the white-headed capuchin (Cebus capucinus), the mantled howler (Alouatta palliata) and Geoffroy's spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi).[1] All four species are classified scientifically as New World Monkeys.[2] Two of the species, the Central American squirrel monkey and the white-headed capuchin, belong to the family Cebidae, the family containing the squirrel monkeys and capuchins. The other two species belong to the family Atelidae, the family containing the howler monkeys, spider monkeys, woolly monkeys and muriquis.[3][4] Each of the four species can be seen in national parks within Costa Rica, where viewing them in natural surroundings is a popular tourist attraction.[5][6] The only park in which all four species can be seen is Corcovado National Park, on the Osa Peninsula.[7]
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QMRThe Monkees is an American situation comedy that aired on NBC from September 1966 to March 1968. The series follows the adventures of four young men (the Monkees) trying to make a name for themselves as rock 'n roll singers. The show introduced a number of innovative new-wave film techniques to series television and won two Emmy Awards in 1967. The program ended on Labor Day 1968 at the finish of its second season and has received a long afterlife in Saturday morning repeats (CBS and ABC) and syndication, as well as overseas broadcasts.
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QMRThe Monkees are an American rock band that released music in their original incarnation between 1965 and 1971, with subsequent reunion albums and tours in the decades that followed. They were formed in Los Angeles in 1965 by Bob Rafelson and Bert Schneider for the American television series The Monkees, which aired from 1966 to 1968. The musical acting quartet was composed of Americans Micky Dolenz, Michael Nesmith and Peter Tork and Englishman Davy Jones. The band's music was initially supervised by producer Don Kirshner.
Dolenz described the Monkees as initially being "a TV show about an imaginary band ... that wanted to be the Beatles, [but] that was never successful".[1] The actor-musicians, however, soon became a real band.[citation needed]
For the first few months of their initial five-year career as the Monkees, the four actor-musicians were allowed only limited roles in the recording studio. This was due in part to the amount of time required to film the television series.[2] Nonetheless, Nesmith did compose and produce some songs from the beginning, and Peter Tork contributed limited guitar work on the sessions produced by Nesmith. They eventually fought for and earned the right to collectively supervise all musical output under the band's name. The sitcom was canceled in 1968, but the band continued to record music through 1971.
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QMRThe three wise monkeys (Japanese: 三猿 Hepburn: san'en or sanzaru?, alternatively 三匹の猿 sanbiki no saru, literally "three monkeys"), sometimes called the three mystic apes,[1] are a pictorial maxim. Together they embody the proverbial principle "see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil".[2] The three monkeys are Mizaru, covering his eyes, who sees no evil; Kikazaru, covering his ears, who hears no evil; and Iwazaru, covering his mouth, who speaks no evil.
There are various meanings ascribed to the monkeys and the proverb including associations with being of good mind, speech and action. In the Western world the phrase is often used to refer to those who deal with impropriety by turning a blind eye.[3]
Outside Japan the monkeys' names are sometimes given as Mizaru,[4] Mikazaru,[5] and Mazaru,[6] as the last two names were corrupted from the Japanese originals.[7][8] The monkeys are Japanese macaques, a common species in Japan.
Sometimes there is a fourth monkey depicted with the three others; the last one, Shizaru, symbolizes the principle of "do no evil". He may be shown crossing his arms or covering his genitals.
In another variation, a fourth monkey is depicted with a sulking posture and the caption "have no fun".
The fourth square is always different
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Television[edit]
The concept of Four-Star Spectacular is used in the episode of the same named in the show Batman:The Brave and the Bold where it contains four episodes starring each heroes,
Adam Strange in Worlds War,
Flash in Double Jeopardy,
'Mazing Man in Kitty Catastrophe,
The Creature Commandos in The War That Time Forgot.
Batman appears in all shorts as a secondary character and cameo appearance.
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QMR4D film
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Diagram of a 4D theater
4D film or 4-D film is a marketing term for an entertainment presentation system combining a 3D film with physical effects that occur in the theatre in synchronization with the film. Effects simulated in a 4D film may include rain, wind, strobe lights, and vibration. Seats in 4D venues may vibrate or move a few inches during the presentations. Other common chair effects include air jets, water sprays, and leg and back ticklers. Hall effects may include smoke, rain, lightning, air bubbles, and smell.
Because physical effects can be expensive to install, 4D films are most often presented in custom-built theatres at special venues such as theme parks and amusement parks. However, some movie theatres have the ability to present 4D versions of wide-release 3D films. The films Journey to the Center of the Earth (2008) and Avatar (2009) are among the films that have received a 4D treatment in certain theatres.[1]
There is no consistent standard for using the term "4D" when describing the presentation of a film. 4D films have also occasionally been marketed as 5D, 6D, 7D, 8D, 9D, 11D, 15D and so on in order to emphasize the variety or uniqueness of their theatre effects. This is scientifically different from actual fourth dimensional space. Notable formats for providing different aspects of a "fourth dimension" to films include Human 4D, Sensurround, Smell-O-Vision and 4DX. As of June 2015, about 530 screens worldwide have installed the technology.[2]
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QMRFour Eyes and Six Guns (1992) is a Western film starring Judge Reinhold, Patricia Clarkson and Fred Ward. It includes guest roles by Dan Hedaya, M. Emmet Walsh, John Gries, Austin Pendleton and others.
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QMRIn business, the four-eye principle means that "all business decisions and transactions need approval from the CEO and CFO. Since the CFO is not reporting to the CEO, there is an independent controlling mechanism in place"
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QMRFour Eyes! is an French-American animated series.
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QMRFour Eyes is an American comic book series published by Image Comics beginning in 2008. The comic was created by writer Joe Kelly and artist Max Fiumara and chronicles a revenge story set in Brooklyn, NYC.
As Joe Kelly states, Four Eyes is about "a boy who’s trying to get back at a gang that’s directly responsible for his dad’s death...the world in which they live is a world where underground dragon fighting is entertainment for the masses."[1]
The title, Four Eyes comes from the name given to the dragon which befriends Enrico, the young boy who is the center character of the story. The neglected and deformed runt of a dragon which has four eyes and is not able to use them efficiently, thus making it not very suitable for fighting.
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