Quadrant Model of Reality Book 14 Science

The Quadrant Model of Reality

Like my previous Quadrant Model books, this Quadrant Model book will be organized designed around the four fields of inquiry.

Science

Physics

Chemistry

Biology

Psychology

Sociology

Religion

Buddhism

Christianity

Islam

Hinduism

Judaism

Other

Art

Painting

Music

Dance

Literature

Cinema

Philosophy

In this book I devote a whole chapter to Game Theory in economics.

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

QMRFour-wave mixing (FWM) is an intermodulation phenomenon in non-linear optics, whereby interactions between two wavelengths produce two extra wavelengths in the signal. It is similar to the third-order intercept point in electrical systems. Four-wave mixing can be compared to the intermodulation distortion in standard electrical systems.

QMRThe 10GBASE-LX4 10 Gbit/s physical layer standard is an example of a CWDM system in which four wavelengths near 1310 nm, each carrying a 3.125 gigabit-per-second (Gbit/s) data stream, are used to carry 10 Gbit/s of aggregate data.

Chemistry Chapter

QMRAbietic acid is extracted from tree rosin.[3] The pure material is a colorless solid, but commercial samples are usually a glassy or partly crystalline yellowish solid that melts at temperatures as low as 85 °C (185 °F).[4]

It belongs to the abietane diterpene group of organic compounds derived from four isoprene units. It is used in lacquers, varnishes, and soaps, and for the analysis of resins and the preparation of metal resinates. It is found in Pinus insularis (Khasi Pine), Pinus kesiya Royle, Pinus strobus (Eastern White Pine), and Pinus sylvestris (Scots Pine).[5]

QMR Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends. Alcohols of five or more carbons such as pentanol and higher are effectively insoluble in water because of the hydrocarbon chain's dominance. All simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents.

QMRA symmetric hydrogen bond is a special type of hydrogen bond in which the proton is spaced exactly halfway between two identical atoms. The strength of the bond to each of those atoms is equal. It is an example of a three-center four-electron bond. This type of bond is much stronger than a "normal" hydrogen bond. The effective bond order is 0.5, so its strength is comparable to a covalent bond. It is seen in ice at high pressure, and also in the solid phase of many anhydrous acids such as hydrofluoric acid and formic acid at high pressure. It is also seen in the bifluoride ion [F−H−F]−.

Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been observed recently spectroscopically in formic acid at high pressure (>GPa). Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather than one. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high pressure (Ice X). Low-barrier hydrogen bonds form when the distance between two heteroatoms is very small.

QMRHydrogen emission spectrum lines in the visible range. These are the four visible lines of the Balmer series. This was the first series seen by Bohr which led to the theory of quantum leaps

QMRThere are four main scales, or sizes of systems, dealt with in meteorology: the macroscale, the synoptic scale, the mesoscale, and the microscale.[4] The macroscale deals with systems with global size, such as the Madden-Julian Oscillation. Synoptic scale systems cover a portion of a continent, such as extratropical cyclones, with dimensions of 1,000-2,500 km (620-1,550 mi) across.[5] The mesoscale is the next smaller scale, and often is divided into two ranges: meso-alpha phenomena range from 200-2,000 km (125-1,243 mi) across (the realm of the tropical cyclone), while meso-beta phenomena range from 20–200 km (12-125 mi) across (the scale of the mesocyclone). The microscale is the smallest of the meteorological scales, with a size under two kilometers (1.2 mi) (the scale of tornadoes and waterspouts).[6] These horizontal dimensions are not rigid divisions but instead reflect typical sizes of phenomena having certain dynamic characteristics. For example, a system does not necessarily transition from meso-alpha to synoptic scale when its horizontal extent grows from 2,000 to 2,001 km (1,243 mi).

Biology Chapter

QMRIn the 2003 BBC Reith Lectures, Vilayanur S. Ramachandran outlined his research into the links between brain structure and function. In the fourth lecture of the series he describes the phenomena of synesthesia in which people experience, for example, sounds in terms of colors, or sounds in terms of tastes. In one type of synesthesia, people see numbers, letters of the alphabet, or even musical notes as having a distinct color. Ramachandran proposes a model for how language might have evolved.[clarification needed] The theory may explain how humans create metaphors and how sounds can be metaphors for images – why for example sounds can be described as "bright" or "dull". In explaining how language might have evolved from cross activation of adjacent areas in the brain, Ramachandran notes four crucial factors, not all related to language, but which combined might have resulted in the emergence of language. Two of these four processes are of particular interest here.

Synesthetic cross modal abstraction: i.e. we recognize properties that sounds and images have in common and abstract them to store them independently. The sounds and shapes of the objects have characteristics in common that can be abstracted; for example, a "sharp", "cutting" quality of a word, and the shape it describes. Ramachandran calls this the 'Bouba/kiki effect', based on the results of an experiment with two abstract shapes, one blob-like and the other spiky, that asked people to relate the nonsense words bouba and kiki to them. The effect is real and observable, repeatable across linguistic groups, and evident even in the description of the experiment (with the bouba shape usually described using similar-sounding words like bulbous or blobby while the kiki shape is prickly or spiky).

Built in preexisting cross activation. Ramachandran points out that areas of the brain which appear to be involved in the mix-ups in synesthesia are adjacent to each other physically, and that cross-wiring, or cross activation, could explain synesthesia and our ability to make metaphors. He notes that the areas that control the muscles around the mouth are also adjacent to the visual centers, and suggests that certain words appear to make our mouth imitate the thing we are describing. Examples of this might be words like "teeny weeny", "diminutive" to describe small things; "large" or "enormous" to describe big things.

More recently, research on ideasthesia indicated that Kiki and Bouba have an entire semantic-like network of associated cross-modal experiences.

QMRClassical Chinese poetic metric may be divided into fixed and variable length line types, although the actual scansion of the metre is complicated by various factors, including linguistic changes and variations encountered in dealing with a tradition extending over a geographically extensive regional area for a continuous time period of over some two-and-a-half millennia. Beginning with the earlier recorded forms: the Classic of Poetry tends toward couplets of four-character lines, grouped in rhymed quatrains; and, the Chuci follows this to some extent, but moves toward variations in line length.

QMRThe poems and pieces of the Chu Ci anthology vary, in formal poetic style. Chu Ci includes varying metrics, varying use of exclamatory particles, and the varying presence of the luan (or, envoi). The styles of the Chu Ci compare and contrast with the poems of the Shi Jing anthology Book of Songs, or "Song" style), with the typical Han poetry styles, and with Qu Yuan's innovative Li Sao style.

Song style[edit]

Some Chuci poems use the typical Book of Songs (Shijing) four syllable line, with its four equally stressed syllables:

tum tum tum tum

This is sometimes varied by the use of a pronoun or nonce word in the fourth (or final) place, in alternate lines, thus weakening the stress of the fourth syllable of the even lines:

tum tum tum ti

where "tum" stands for a stressed syllable and "ti" stands for the unstressed nonce syllable of choice[10] Heavenly Questions (Tian wen), Summons of the Soul (Zhao hun), and The Great Summons (Da Zhao) all have metrical characteristics typical of the Shijing. Generally, the Shijing style (both in Shijing and in Chuci) groups these lines into rhymed quatrains. Thus, the standard building block of the Song style poetry is a quatrain with a heavy, thumping sound quality:

tum tum tum tum

tum tum tum tum

tum tum tum tum

tum tum tum tum

The variant song style verse (one type of "7-plus") used seven stressed (or accented) syllables followed by an unstressed (or weakly accented) final syllable on alternate (even) lines:

tum tum tum tum

tum tum tum ti

tum tum tum tum

tum tum tum ti

Heavenly Questions" shares the prosodic features typical of Shijing: four character lines, a predominant tendency toward rhyming quatrains, and occasional alternation by using weak (unstressed) line final syllables in alternate lines.

The "Great Summons" and the "Summons for the Soul" poetic form (the other kind of "7-plus") varies from this pattern by uniformly using a standard nonce word refrain throughout a given piece, and that alternating stressed and unstressed syllable finals to the lines has become the standard verse form. The nonce word used as a single-syllable refrain in various ancient Chinese classical poems varies: (according to modern pronunciation), "Summons for the Soul" uses xie and the "Great Summons" uses zhi (and the "Nine Pieces" (Jiu Ge) uses xi). Any one of these unstressed nonce words seem to find a similar role in the prosody. This two line combo:

[first line:] tum tum tum tum; [second line:] tum tum tum ti

tends to produce the effect of one, single seven character line with a caesura between the first four syllables and the concluding three stressed syllables, with the addition of a weak nonsense refrain syllable final

tum tum tum tum [caesura] tum tum tum ti.[11]

Han-style lyrics[edit]

Within the individual songs or poems of the "Nine Pieces", lines generally consist of various numbers of syllables, separated by the nonce word. In this case, the nonce word of choice is 兮 (pinyin: xī, Old Chinese: *gˤe).[12] This, as opposed to the four-character verse of the Shi Jing, adds a different rhythmic latitude of expression.

QMRThe Four Journeys (Chinese: 四游记; pinyin: Sì Yóujì) is a collection of four shenmo novels consisting of: Journey to the North, Journey to the South, Journey to the East, and Journey to the West.

The Journey to the North (composed during the Ming dynasty) is on the apotheosis of True-Warrior (Chen-wu, Zhen-wu) as Mysterious-Heaven Supreme-Emperor (Hsuan-t'ien Shang-ti, Xuan-tian Shang-di).

The Journey to the South was composed by Yu Xiangdou.

The Journey to the East was composed by Wu Yuan-tai (fl. 1522-1526).

The Journey to the West is composed by Yang Zhihe, and not to confuse it with Wu Cheng'en's epic novel Journey to the West.

QMRCangjie (Tsang-chieh; Chinese: 倉頡; pinyin: Cāngjié; Wade–Giles: Ts'ang1-chieh2) is a legendary figure in ancient China (c. 2650 BC), claimed to be an official historian of the Yellow Emperor and the inventor of Chinese characters.[1] Legend has it that he had four eyes and four pupils, and that when he invented the characters, the deities and ghosts cried and the sky rained millet. He is considered a legendary rather than historical figure, or at least, not considered to be sole inventor of Chinese characters. The Cangjie input method, a Chinese character input method, is named after him. A rock on Mars, visited by the Mars rover Spirit, was named after him by the rover team.[2]

He had four eyes

QMRThe Four Fiends (四凶, Sì xiōng):

Hundun: chaos

Taotie: gluttony

Táowù (梼杌): ignorance; provided confusion and apathy and made mortals free of the curiosity and reason needed to reach enlightenment

Qióngqí (窮奇): deviousness

QMRThe number of metrical systems in English is not agreed upon.[4] The four major types[5] are: accentual verse, accentual-syllabic verse, syllabic verse and quantitative verse.[6] The alliterative verse of Old English could also be added to this list, or included as a special type of accentual verse. Accentual verse focuses on the number of stresses in a line, while ignoring the number of offbeats and syllables; accentual-syllabic verse focuses on regulating both the number of stresses and the total number of syllables in a line; syllabic verse only counts the number of syllables in a line; quantitative verse regulates the patterns of long and short syllables (this sort of verse is often considered alien to English).[7] It is to be noted, however, that the use of foreign metres in English is all but exceptional

QMRAnother important metre in English is the ballad metre, also called the "common metre", which is a four-line stanza, with two pairs of a line of iambic tetrameter followed by a line of iambic trimeter; the rhymes usually fall on the lines of trimeter, although in many instances the tetrameter also rhymes. This is the metre of most of the Border and Scots or English ballads. In hymnody it is called the "common metre", as it is the most common of the named hymn metres used to pair many hymn lyrics with melodies, such as Amazing Grace:[11]

Amazing Grace! how sweet the sound

That saved a wretch like me;

I once was lost, but now am found;

Was blind, but now I see.

Emily Dickinson is famous for her frequent use of ballad metre:

Great streets of silence led away

To neighborhoods of pause —

Here was no notice — no dissent —

No universe — no laws.

QMRIn the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل tef'ile) and of poetic metre (وزن vezin) were indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the Persian language.

Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, mora-timed metre. The moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types:

Open, or light, syllables (açık hece) consist of either a short vowel alone, or a consonant followed by a short vowel

Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak")

Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapalı hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant

Examples: Â-dem ("Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse")

Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant

Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water")

In writing out a poem's poetic metre, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "–". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot—the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length—are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:

fa‘ (–) fe ul (. –) fa‘ lün (– –) fe i lün (. . –)

fâ i lün (– . –) fe û lün (. – –) mef’ û lü (– – .) fe i lâ tün (. . – –)

fâ i lâ tün (– . – –) fâ i lâ tü (– . – .) me fâ i lün (. – . –) me fâ’ î lün (. – – –)

me fâ î lü (. – – .) müf te i lün (– . . –) müs tef i lün (– – . –) mü te fâ i lün (. . – . –)

These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic metre for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used metres are the following:

me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün

. – – – / . – – – / . – – – / . – – –

Ezelden şāh-ı ‘aşḳuñ bende-i fermānıyüz cānā

Maḥabbet mülkinüñ sulţān-ı ‘ālī-şānıyüz cānā Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love

Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain[13]

—Bâkî (1526–1600)

me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün

. – . – / . . – – / . – . – / . . –

Ḥaţā’ o nerkis-i şehlādadır sözümde degil

Egerçi her süḥanim bī-bedel beġendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verse

The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words

—Şeyh Gâlib (1757–1799)

fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün

– . – – / – . – – / – . – – / – . –

Bir şeker ḥand ile bezm-i şevķa cām ettiñ beni

Nīm ṣun peymāneyi sāḳī tamām ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile

Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough[14]

—Nedîm (1681?–1730)

fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün

. . – – / . . – – / . . – – / . . –

Men ne ḥācet ki ḳılam derd-i dilüm yāra ‘ayān

Ḳamu derd-i dilümi yār bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my love

I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart

—Fuzûlî (1483?–1556)

mef’ û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün

– – . / . – – . / . – – . / – – .

Şevḳuz ki dem-i bülbül-i şeydāda nihānuz

Ḥūnuz ki dil-i ġonçe-i ḥamrāda nihānuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingale

We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose[15]

—Neşâtî (?–1674)

QMRIn the Ottoman Turkish language, the structures of the poetic foot (تفعل tef'ile) and of poetic metre (وزن vezin) were indirectly borrowed from the Arabic poetic tradition through the medium of the Persian language.

Ottoman poetry, also known as Dîvân poetry, was generally written in quantitative, mora-timed metre. The moras, or syllables, are divided into three basic types:

Open, or light, syllables (açık hece) consist of either a short vowel alone, or a consonant followed by a short vowel

Examples: a-dam ("man"); zir-ve ("summit, peak")

Closed, or heavy, syllables (kapalı hece) consist of either a long vowel alone, a consonant followed by a long vowel, or a short vowel followed by a consonant

Examples: Â-dem ("Adam"); kâ-fir ("non-Muslim"); at ("horse")

Lengthened, or superheavy, syllables (meddli hece) count as one closed plus one open syllable and consist of a vowel followed by a consonant cluster, or a long vowel followed by a consonant

Examples: kürk ("fur"); âb ("water")

In writing out a poem's poetic metre, open syllables are symbolized by "." and closed syllables are symbolized by "–". From the different syllable types, a total of sixteen different types of poetic foot—the majority of which are either three or four syllables in length—are constructed, which are named and scanned as follows:

fa‘ (–) fe ul (. –) fa‘ lün (– –) fe i lün (. . –)

fâ i lün (– . –) fe û lün (. – –) mef’ û lü (– – .) fe i lâ tün (. . – –)

fâ i lâ tün (– . – –) fâ i lâ tü (– . – .) me fâ i lün (. – . –) me fâ’ î lün (. – – –)

me fâ î lü (. – – .) müf te i lün (– . . –) müs tef i lün (– – . –) mü te fâ i lün (. . – . –)

These individual poetic feet are then combined in a number of different ways, most often with four feet per line, so as to give the poetic metre for a line of verse. Some of the most commonly used metres are the following:

me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün / me fâ’ î lün

. – – – / . – – – / . – – – / . – – –

Ezelden şāh-ı ‘aşḳuñ bende-i fermānıyüz cānā

Maḥabbet mülkinüñ sulţān-ı ‘ālī-şānıyüz cānā Oh beloved, since the origin we have been the slaves of the shah of love

Oh beloved, we are the famed sultan of the heart's domain[13]

—Bâkî (1526–1600)

me fâ i lün / fe i lâ tün / me fâ i lün / fe i lün

. – . – / . . – – / . – . – / . . –

Ḥaţā’ o nerkis-i şehlādadır sözümde degil

Egerçi her süḥanim bī-bedel beġendiremem Though I may fail to please with my matchless verse

The fault lies in those languid eyes and not my words

—Şeyh Gâlib (1757–1799)

fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lâ tün / fâ i lün

– . – – / – . – – / – . – – / – . –

Bir şeker ḥand ile bezm-i şevķa cām ettiñ beni

Nīm ṣun peymāneyi sāḳī tamām ettiñ beni At the gathering of desire you made me a wine-cup with your sugar smile

Oh saki, give me only half a cup of wine, you've made me drunk enough[14]

—Nedîm (1681?–1730)

fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lâ tün / fe i lün

. . – – / . . – – / . . – – / . . –

Men ne ḥācet ki ḳılam derd-i dilüm yāra ‘ayān

Ḳamu derd-i dilümi yār bilübdür bilübem What use in revealing my sickness of heart to my love

I know my love knows the whole of my sickness of heart

—Fuzûlî (1483?–1556)

mef’ û lü / me fâ î lü / me fâ î lü / fâ û lün

– – . / . – – . / . – – . / – – .

Şevḳuz ki dem-i bülbül-i şeydāda nihānuz

Ḥūnuz ki dil-i ġonçe-i ḥamrāda nihānuz We are desire hidden in the love-crazed call of the nightingale

We are blood hidden in the crimson heart of the unbloomed rose[15]

—Neşâtî (?–1674)

16 is the squares of the quadrant model

QMR Emily Dickenson is known for her four line poems. She is one of the most famous poets of all time.The extensive use of dashes and unconventional capitalization in Dickinson's manuscripts, and the idiosyncratic vocabulary and imagery, combine to create a body of work that is "far more various in its styles and forms than is commonly supposed".[3][139] Dickinson avoids pentameter, opting more generally for trimeter, tetrameter and, less often, dimeter. Sometimes her use of these meters is regular, but oftentimes it is irregular. The regular form that she most often employs is the ballad stanza, a traditional form that is divided into quatrains, using tetrameter for the first and third lines and trimeter for the second and fourth, while rhyming the second and fourth lines (ABCB). Though Dickinson often uses perfect rhymes for lines two and four, she also makes frequent use of slant rhyme.[140] In some of her poems, she varies the meter from the traditional ballad stanza by using trimeter for lines one, two and four, while only using tetrameter for line three.

QMRBelow are listed the names given to the poetic feet by classical metrics. The feet are classified first by the number of syllables in the foot (disyllables have two, trisyllables three, and tetrasyllables four) and secondarily by the pattern of vowel lengths (in classical languages) or syllable stresses (in English poetry) which they comprise.

The following lists describe the feet in terms of vowel length (as in classical languages). Translated into syllable stresses (as in English poetry), 'long' becomes 'stressed' ('accented'), and 'short' becomes 'unstressed' ('unaccented'). For example, an iamb, which is short-long in classical meter, becomes unstressed-stressed, as in the English word "betray".[2]

Disyllables[edit]

Macron and breve notation: ¯ = stressed/long syllable, ˘ = unstressed/short syllable

˘ ˘ pyrrhus, dibrach

˘ ¯ iamb (or iambus or jambus)

¯ ˘ trochee, choree (or choreus)

¯ ¯ spondee

Trisyllables[edit]

˘ ˘ ˘ tribrach

¯ ˘ ˘ dactyl

˘ ¯ ˘ amphibrach

˘ ˘ ¯ anapest, antidactylus

˘ ¯ ¯ bacchius

¯ ¯ ˘ antibacchius

¯ ˘ ¯ cretic, amphimacer

¯ ¯ ¯ molossus

Tetrasyllables[edit]

˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ tetrabrach, proceleusmatic

¯ ˘ ˘ ˘ primus paeon

˘ ¯ ˘ ˘ secundus paeon

˘ ˘ ¯ ˘ tertius paeon

˘ ˘ ˘ ¯ quartus paeon

¯ ¯ ˘ ˘ major ionic, double trochee

˘ ˘ ¯ ¯ minor ionic, double iamb

¯ ˘ ¯ ˘ ditrochee

˘ ¯ ˘ ¯ diiamb

¯ ˘ ˘ ¯ choriamb

˘ ¯ ¯ ˘ antispast

˘ ¯ ¯ ¯ first epitrite

¯ ˘ ¯ ¯ second epitrite

¯ ¯ ˘ ¯ third epitrite

¯ ¯ ¯ ˘ fourth epitrite

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ dispondee

QMRThe French naturalist and zoologist Georges Cuvier (1769 – 1832) embodied another delegate of the new era. He arrived in Paris in 1795 and was eager to find a solution for the evolutionary problems of animals. He proposed, that the four main groups in nature –

Square 1: vertebrates,

Square 2: molluscs,

Square 3: articulata (insects) and

square 4: ‘radiata‘ (radial-symmetric animals) – developed themselves every time anew after a major catastrophe. The fourfold division was, according to Cuvier, the ‘ideal specification’ of nature (TOULMIN & GOODFIELD, 1965).

Cuvier’s rival, Lamarck (1744 – 1829), suggested – in a lecture in the year 1800 – a different solution. Not the catastrophes caused the changes, but the species changed themselves. He pointed to the four classes in the animal kingdom (mammals, birds, reptiles and fish) and their decreasing complexity. They could adapt themselves (within the classes) to changing circumstances. It is curious to note, that the term ‘biology’ was first used in the year 1800 to describe the science of plant- and animal kingdom (JORDANOVA, 1984). Apparently, the need for such a word arose at the time that the study of nature became a serious matter.

Cuvier is noted for his division of animals, not into vertebrates and invertebrates, but into four great embranchements: Vertebrata, Mollusca, Articulata (insects and crustaceans), and Radiata. Foucault (1966) considered this the real revolution in biology, by breaking the Great Chain of Being into four embranchements, and he felt that Darwin's subsequent revolution was minor in comparison

QMRA quarter, short for quarter dollar, is a U.S. coin worth 25 cents, one-fourth of a dollar. It has been produced since 1796.[1] The choice of 1⁄4 as a denomination—as opposed to the 1⁄5 more common elsewhere—originated with the practice of dividing Spanish milled dollars into eight wedge-shaped segments. At one time "two bits" (that is, two "pieces of eight") was a common nickname for a quarter.

Psychology chapter

QMRCreative problem-solving techniques can be categorized as follows:

Mental state shift: Creativity techniques designed to shift a person's mental state into one that fosters creativity. These techniques are described in creativity techniques. One such popular technique is to take a break and relax or sleep after intensively trying to think of a solution.

Problem reframing: Creativity techniques designed to reframe the problem. For example, reconsidering one's goals by asking "What am I really trying to accomplish?" can lead to useful insights.

Multiple idea facilitation: Creativity techniques designed to increase the quantity of fresh ideas. This approach is based on the belief that a larger number of ideas increases the chances that one of them has value. Some of these techniques involve randomly selecting an idea (such as choosing a word from a list), thinking about similarities with the undesired situation, and hopefully inspiring a related idea that leads to a solution. Such techniques are described in creativity techniques.

Inducing change of perspective: Creative-problem-solving techniques designed to efficiently lead to a fresh perspective that causes a solution to become obvious. This category is especially useful for solving especially challenging problems.[2] Some of these techniques involve identifying independent dimensions that differentiate (or separate) closely associated concepts.[3] Such techniques can overcome the mind's instinctive tendency to use "oversimplified associative thinking" in which two related concepts are so closely associated that their differences, and independence from one another, are overlooked.[4]

QMRCreativity can be expresses in a number of different forms, depending on the unique people and environments it exists. A number of different theorists have suggested models of the creative person. One model suggests that there are kinds to produce growth, innovation, speed, etc. These are referred to as the four "Creativity Profiles" that can help achieve such goals.[134]

(i) Incubate (Long-term Development)

(ii) Imagine (Breakthrough Ideas)

(iii) Improve (Incremental Adjustments)

(iv) Invest (Short-term Goals)

Research by Dr Mark Batey of the Psychometrics at Work Research Group at Manchester Business School has suggested that the creative profile can be explained by four primary creativity traits with narrow facets within each

(i) "Idea Generation" (Fluency, Originality, Incubation and Illumination)

(ii) "Personality" (Curiosity and Tolerance for Ambiguity)

(iii) "Motivation" (Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Achievement)

(iv) "Confidence" (Producing, Sharing and Implementing)

QMRThe insights of Poincaré and von Helmholtz were built on in early accounts of the creative process by pioneering theorists such as Graham Wallas[20] and Max Wertheimer. In his work Art of Thought, published in 1926, Wallas presented one of the first models of the creative process. In the Wallas stage model, creative insights and illuminations may be explained by a process consisting of 5 stages:

(i) preparation (preparatory work on a problem that focuses the individual's mind on the problem and explores the problem's dimensions),

(ii) incubation (where the problem is internalized into the unconscious mind and nothing appears externally to be happening),

(iii) intimation (the creative person gets a "feeling" that a solution is on its way),

(iv) illumination or insight (where the creative idea bursts forth from its preconscious processing into conscious awareness);

(v) verification (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied).

Wallas' model is often treated as four stages, with "intimation" seen as a sub-stage.

Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the evolutionary process, which allowed humans to quickly adapt to rapidly changing environments. Simonton[21] provides an updated perspective on this view in his book, Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity.

In 1927, Alfred North Whitehead gave the Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh, later published as Process and Reality.[22] He is credited with having coined the term "creativity" to serve as the ultimate category of his metaphysical scheme: "Whitehead actually coined the term – our term, still the preferred currency of exchange among literature, science, and the arts. . . a term that quickly became so popular, so omnipresent, that its invention within living memory, and by Alfred North Whitehead of all people, quickly became occluded".[23]

The formal psychometric measurement of creativity, from the standpoint of orthodox psychological literature, is usually considered to have begun with J. P. Guilford's 1950 address to the American Psychological Association, which helped popularize the topic[24] and focus attention on a scientific approach to conceptualizing creativity. (It should be noted that the London School of Psychology had instigated psychometric studies of creativity as early as 1927 with the work of H. L. Hargreaves into the Faculty of Imagination,[25] but it did not have the same impact.) Statistical analysis led to the recognition of creativity (as measured) as a separate aspect of human cognition to IQ-type intelligence, into which it had previously been subsumed. Guilford's work suggested that above a threshold level of IQ, the relationship between creativity and classically measured intelligence broke down.[26]

QMROne possibility suggested by the Social Psychology (Soc Psych) research on morale (called Affect) is the Affect Grid. It's not much more complicated than the Good / Meh / Bad choices, but it does involve the dreaded four choices. It's just that they're not linear.

The Affect Grid

Social psychologists sometimes use the term Valence to describe the continuum of pleasant to unpleasant mood, and the term Activation to describe a continuum from high to low mental activity (think engaged to disengaged, not napping vs. jumping jacks). If we decide that it is still safe and simple, but offers more understanding of morale, we could have these four choices.

The choices are square 1: active and happy/pleasant- excited, alert

square 2: inactive and happy/pleasant- serene content

Square 3: active and unhappy/ unpleasant- tense stressed

square 4: inactive and unhappy/ unpleasant- bored sad

QMRThe Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis is the 1978 English-language translation of (French: Le séminaire. Livre XI. Les quatre concepts fondamentaux de la psychanalyse) published in Paris by Le Seuil in 1973. The text of the Seminar, which was held by Jacques Lacan at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris between January and June 1964 and is the eleventh in the series, was established by Jacques-Alain Miller.

Sociology chapter

QMRLaw of Social Cycle, also known as Social Cycle Theory, is a theory of human historical motivity based on "the ancient spiritual ideas of the Vedas". The theory was propounded by the Indian philosopher and spiritual leader Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar in the 1950s and expanded by Ravi Batra since the 1970s,[1] Johan Galtung and Sohail Inayatullah since the 1990s[2] and others.[3][4][5]

The Law of Social Cycles is a theory of Varna, arising out of the Indian episteme (Inayatullah, 2002). This law states that while people in any society are all relatively similar, they have generally the same goals, desires and ambitions but differ in the way they go about achieving their goals. An individual's specific methods for achieving success depend on his physical and psychological makeup. Essentially, there are four different psychological types of people, warriors, intellectuals, acquisitors and labourers, who find basic fulfillment in four different kinds of ways.

Warriors[edit]

Warriors, or Kshatriya in Sanskrit, have strong bodies, vigorous physical energy and a sharp intellect. Warriors tend to develop the skills that take advantage of their inherent gifts of stamina, courage and vigor. Their mentality is one that is not averse to taking physical risks. Examples of people in our society with the warrior mentality include: policemen, firemen, soldiers, professional athletes, skilled carpenters and tradesmen, etc. They all achieve success through their physical skills and a deep understanding of their profession.

Intellectuals[edit]

Intellectuals, or Vipra, have a more developed intellect than the warriors, but generally lack the physical strength and vigor. Intellectuals are happiest when they try to achieve success by developing and expressing their intellectual skills and talents. Examples would be: Teachers, writers, professors, scientists, artists, musicians, philosophers, doctors and lawyers, and above all, priests.

Acquisitors[edit]

Acquisitors, or Vaishya, have a penchant for acquiring money. If money can be made the acquisitors will find a way to make it. They are not considered as bright as the intellectuals, nor as strong as the warriors, but they are keen when it comes to making and accumulating money and material possessions. Such people are the traders, businessmen, managers, entrepreneurs, bankers, brokers, and landlords in our society.

Laborers[edit]

Laborers, or Shudra, are altogether different from the first three groups. Laborers lack the energy and vigor of the warriors, the keen intellect of the intellectuals, or the ambition and drive of the accumulators. In spite of the fact that their contribution to society is profound - in fact, society could not function without them - the other groups generally look down upon and tend to exploit them. The laborers are the peasants, serfs, clerks, short order cooks, waiters, janitors, doormen, cabdrivers, garbage collectors, truck drivers, night watchmen and factory workers who keep society running smoothly by working diligently and without complaint.

Groups of each type of people make up the social classes in society. Sarkar simplifies society into four classes, divided by inherent traits:

Warriors defend the nation and keep the peace;

Intellectuals develop our ideas about the world, in the form of religion, art, law and new inventions;

Acquisitors manage the practical aspects of life, including farms, factories, financial institutions and stores;

Laborers do the routine work, waiting tables, collecting trash, and other low-tech, low skill jobs.

In Sarkar's vision social progress is seen to be established on the basis of a new vision of human progress. Sarkar's theory focuses on four basic ages of warriors, intellectuals and acquisitors, as well as a brief age of labourers. During such ages humanity has faced an eternal struggle with each epoch deteriorating into a harmful exploitative phase. Sarkar devises an exit strategy from such a development, based on the role of enlightened moralists, the Sadvipras.[7] It is their role, based on their self-less virtues and ideation on the divine, to apply energy and accelerate social progress when the evolutionary process is caught up in a stasis whereby the ruling class has abandoned its original virtues and through an intense focus on their social agenda inflict misery on the other sections of society.

QMRPROUT describes a social order consisting of four classes of people that cyclically dominate society: sudras (labourers), ksatriyas (military–minded individuals), vipra (intellectuals) and vaisyas (capitalists).[2] To prevent any social class from clinging to political power and exploiting the others, he proposed the concept of "spiritual elite" sadvipras (etymologically sad – true, vipra – intellectual) who would determine who held political leadership.[2] Sarkar thought that the first sadvipras would be created from disgruntled middle class intellectuals and military-minded people.[2] He called for sadvipras to be organized into executive, legislative, and judicial boards which would be governed by a Supreme Board.[2] They, according to Sarkar, would be responsible for the application of force necessary to change the order of dominance within the social order, with large amounts of force akin to revolution.[2] It was developed by Sarkar

Law of Social Cycle[edit]

Main article: Law of Social Cycle

The concept of Varna describes four main socio-psychological types, whereby human psychological and physical endowment and social motivations are expressed: the Vipra (intellectual), Kshatriya (warrior), Vaishya (acquisitor) and Shudra (labourer). Varna, in Sarkar's perspective, however is more than just a psychological trait but rather an archetype, approximately to Michel Foucault's notion of epistemes, which are broader frameworks of knowledge defining what is true and real.[15]

Sarkar's "Law of Social Cycle" applies these traits in a theory of historical evolution, where ages rise and fall in terms of ruling elites representing one of the above-mentioned traits. This "law" possibly connects to the earlier cyclical historical ideas of Sri Aurobindo, with a focus on the psychology of human development, as well as Ibn Khaldun, among other macrohistorians ideas about cycles. However, along with a cyclical dimension — the rise and fall of ages — Sarkar's theory exhibits a correspondent linear dimension, in that economic and technological "progress" are considered critical in terms of meeting the changing material conditions of life. Ultimately, for Sarkar, true progress has to prioritise development in the spiritual dimension.

Spirituality for Sarkar is defined as the individual realising the "true self". In addition to yogic meditational practices and purity of thought and deed, Sarkar attached great importance to selfless social service as a means of liberation. Sarkar considered it necessary for the social arrangements to support the inner development of human beings and rejected both capitalism and communism as appropriate social structures for humanity to move forward to the golden age of a balanced way of life sustaining all-round progress. A serious problem with capitalism was according to Sarkar the concentration of wealth in a few hands and stoppages in the rolling of money which he considered root causes of recessions, even depressions. A spiritual way of life, however, would in no way be divorced from creating structures that help meet the basic, though ever changing, needs — food, housing, clothing, health and education.

Sarkar claims to have developed both Ánanda Márga and the Progressive Utilization Theory as practical means to encourage harmony and co-operation to help society escape this proposed cycle. Sarkar argues that once the social cycle is understood and sadvipras evolved, then the periods of exploitation can be largely reduced, if not eliminated. With leadership that is representative of all aspects of the varnas — that is, the leader engaged in service, who is courageous, who uses the intellect for the benefits of others, and who has innovative/entrepreneurial skills — the cycle can become an upward spiral.[16] Sarkar's concept of karma samnyasa refers to the principle that a yogi becomes a person with all-round development and a balanced mind, that he called a sadvipra; and that this is accomplished by someone who remains fixed on the "supreme" consciousness through transformative personal practices and engaging in the politics of social liberation as a form of service work.[17]

PROUT: progressive utilisation theory[edit]

Main article: PROUT

The Progressive Utilization Theory is a socio-economic theory first mentioned in 1959 by Sarkar[18] To popularise and implement PROUT, Shrii Sarkar established the organisation, "Proutist Universal", which primarily consists of five federations (students, intellectuals, farmers, labour, and youth). The proutist economy as described by Sarkar is a form of cooperative and decentralised economy that looks more at the collective welfare rather than to profit, without neglecting the promotion of the individual merits of each. "Progressive utilization" stands for the optimisation and maximum utilisation of natural, industrial and human resources on a sustainable basis for the entire ecosystem. This theory, that claims to overcome the limitations of both capitalism and communism with his Law of Social Cycle founded on Sarkar's "Social Cycle Theory", is not concerned solely with economics. In 1968, Sarkar founded the organisation "Proutist Block of India" (PBI), to further the ideals of his theory through political and social action.[19] The PBI was soon superseded by "Proutist Universal" (PU). According to its proponents PROUT encompasses the whole of individual and collective existence – physical, educational, social, political, mental, cultural and spiritual – not just for human beings but for all beings.

QMR Downfall of Capitalism and Communism is a book by Ravi Batra in the field of historical evolution, first published in 1978. The book's full title is The Downfall of Capitalism and Communism: A New Study of History. Following the collapse of Soviet Communism in 1990, a 2nd edition was published with the title The Downfall of Capitalism and Communism: Can Capitalism Be Saved?

The book introduced an application of P.R. Sarkar's idea that different socio-political groups, based on "inherent differences in human nature", that in turn are rooted in "characteristics of the mind," rotate in controlling the social motivity, determine the historical evolution over time.[1] Batra argues that groups of warriors, intellectuals or acquisitors take turns at leading society in their respective ages marked by ascension, supremacy and decline; citing historical examples.[2]

The end of the Soviet Union and the Iron curtain occurred just over one decade after the book was published; but the regime was not replaced in the way Batra predicted.[3]

LGBT or GLBT is an initialism that stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender. In use since the 1990s, the term is an adaptation of the initialism LGB, which was used to replace the term gay in reference to the LGBT community beginning in the mid-to-late 1980s.[1] Activists believed that the term gay community did not accurately represent all those to whom it referred.[2]

Despite the fact that LGBT does not nominally encompass all individuals in smaller communities (see Variants below), the term is generally accepted to include those not specifically identified in the four-letter initialism.[5][24] Overall, the use of the term LGBT has, over time, largely aided in bringing otherwise marginalized individuals into the general community.[5][24] Transgender actress Candis Cayne in 2009 described the LGBT community "the last great minority", noting that "We can still be harassed openly" and be "called out on television."[26

QMrBiased transmission[edit]

Understanding the different ways that culture traits can be transmitted between individuals has been an important part of DIT research since the 1970s.[29][30] Transmission biases occur when some cultural variants are favored over others during the process of cultural transmission.[31] Boyd and Richerson (1985)[31] defined and analytically modeled a number of possible transmission biases. The list of biases has been refined over the years, especially by Henrich and McElreath.[32]

Content bias[edit]

Content biases result from situations where some aspect of a cultural variant's content makes them more likely to be adopted.[33] Content biases can result from genetic preferences, preferences determined by existing cultural traits, or a combination of the two. For example, food preferences can result from genetic preferences for sugary or fatty foods and socially-learned eating practices and taboos.[33] Content biases are sometimes called "direct biases."[31]

Context bias[edit]

Context biases result from individuals using clues about the social structure of their population to determine what cultural variants to adopt. This determination is made without reference to the content of the variant. There are two major categories of context biases: (1) model-based biases, and (2) frequency-dependent biases.

Model-based biases[edit]

Model-based biases result when an individual is biased to choose a particular "cultural model" to imitate. There are four major categories of model-based biases: (1) prestige bias, (2) skill bias, (3) success bias, (4) similarity bias.[4][34] A "prestige bias" results when individuals are more likely to imitate cultural models that are seen as having more prestige. A measure of prestige could be the amount of deference shown to a potential cultural model by other individuals. A "skill bias" results when individuals can directly observe different cultural models performing a learned skill and are more likely to imitate cultural models that perform better at the specific skill. A "success bias" results from individuals preferentially imitating cultural models that they determine are most generally successful (as opposed to successful at a specific skill as in the skill bias.) A "similarity bias" results when individuals are more likely to imitate cultural models that are perceived as being similar to the individual based on specific traits.

Frequency-dependent biases[edit]

Frequency-dependent biases result when an individual is biased to choose particular cultural variants based on their perceived frequency in the population. The most explored frequency-dependent bias is the "conformity bias." Conformity biases result when individuals attempt to copy the mean or the mode cultural variant in the population. Another possible frequency dependent bias is the "rarity bias." The rarity bias results when individuals preferentially choose cultural variants that are less common in the population. The rarity bias is also sometimes called a "nonconformist" or "anti-conformist" bias.

QMRWhile earlier authors such as Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) had discussed how societies change through time, the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century proved key in the development of the idea of sociocultural evolution.[citation needed] In relation to Scotland's union with England in 1707, several[quantify] Scottish thinkers pondered the relationship between progress and the affluence brought about by increased trade with England. They understood the changes Scotland was undergoing as involving transition from an agricultural to a mercantile society. In "conjectural histories", authors such as Adam Ferguson (1723-1816), John Millar (1735-1801) and Adam Smith (1723-1790) argued that societies all pass through a series of four stages: hunting and gathering, pastoralism and nomadism, agriculture, and finally a stage of commerce.

QMRLester Frank Ward (1841-1913), sometimes referred to[by whom?] as the "father" of American sociology, rejected many of Spencer's theories regarding the evolution of societies. Ward, who was also a botanist and a paleontologist, believed that the law of evolution functioned much differently in human societies than it did in the plant and animal kingdoms, and theorized that the "law of nature" had been superseded by the "law of the mind".[12] He stressed that humans, driven by emotions, create goals for themselves and strive to realize them (most effectively with the modern scientific method) whereas there is no such intelligence and awareness guiding the non-human world.[13] Plants and animals adapt to nature; man shapes nature. While Spencer believed that competition and "survival of the fittest" benefited human society and socio-cultural evolution, Ward regarded competition as a destructive force, pointing out that all human institutions, traditions and laws were tools invented by the mind of man and that that mind designed them, like all tools, to "meet and checkmate" the unrestrained competition of natural forces.[12] Ward agreed with Spencer that authoritarian governments repress the talents of the individual, but he believed that modern democratic societies, which minimized the role of religion and maximized that of science, could effectively support the individual in his or her attempt to fully utilize their talents and achieve happiness. He believed that the evolutionary processes have four stages:

First comes cosmogenesis, creation and evolution of the world.

Then, when life arises, there is biogenesis.[13]

Development of humanity leads to anthropogenesis, which is influenced by the human mind.[13]

Finally there arrives sociogenesis, which is the science of shaping the evolutionary process itself to optimize progress, human happiness and individual self-actualization.[13]

QMRIn his Power and Prestige (1966) and Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology (1974), Gerhard Lenski expands on the works of Leslie White and Lewis Henry Morgan,[22] developing the ecological-evolutionary theory. He views technological progress as the most basic factor in the evolution of societies and cultures.[22] Unlike White, who defined technology as the ability to create and utilise energy, Lenski focuses on information—its amount and uses.[22] The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of natural environment) a given society has, the more advanced it is.[22] He distinguishes four stages of human development, based on advances in the history of communication.[22] In the first stage, information is passed by genes.[22] In the second, when humans gain sentience, they can learn and pass information through by experience.[22] In the third, humans start using signs and develop logic.[22] In the fourth, they can create symbols and develop language and writing.[22] Advancements in the technology of communication translate into advancements in the economic system and political system, distribution of goods, social inequality and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) agricultural, (3) industrial, and (4) special (like fishing societies).[22]

Talcott Parsons, author of Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (1966) and The System of Modern Societies (1971) divided evolution into four subprocesses: (1) division, which creates functional subsystems from the main system; (2) adaptation, where those systems evolve into more efficient versions; (3) inclusion of elements previously excluded from the given systems; and (4) generalization of values, increasing the legitimization of the ever more complex system.[23] He shows those processes on 4 stages of evolution: (I) primitive or foraging, (II) archaic agricultural, (III) classical or "historic" in his terminology, using formalized and universalizing theories about reality and (IV) modern empirical cultures. However, these divisions in Parsons’ theory are the more formal ways in which the evolutionary process is conceptualized, and should not be mistaken for Parsons’ actual theory. Parsons develops a theory where he tries to reveal the complexity of the processes which take form between two points of necessity, the first being the cultural "necessity," which is given through the values-system of each evolving community; the other is the environmental necessities, which most directly is reflected in the material realities of the basic production system and in the relative capacity of each industrial-economical level at each window of time. Generally, Parsons highlights that the dynamics and directions of these processes is shaped by the cultural imperative embodied in the cultural heritage, and more secondarily, an outcome of sheer "economic" conditions.

QMRImmanuel Wallerstein[edit]

The best-known version of the world-systems approach has been developed by Immanuel Wallerstein.[6]

Wallerstein notes that world-systems analysis calls for an unidisciplinary historical social science and contends that the modern disciplines, products of the 19th century, are deeply flawed because they are not separate logics, as is manifest for example in the de facto overlap of analysis among scholars of the disciplines.[2]

Wallerstein offers several definitions of a world-system, defining it in 1974 briefly:

a system is defined as a unit with a single division of labor and multiple cultural systems.[19]

He also offered a longer definition:

…a social system, one that has boundaries, structures, member groups, rules of legitimation, and coherence. Its life is made up of the conflicting forces which hold it together by tension and tear it apart as each group seeks eternally to remold it to its advantage. It has the characteristics of an organism, in that it has a life-span over which its characteristics change in some respects and remain stable in others. One can define its structures as being at different times strong or weak in terms of the internal logic of its functioning.

— [20]

In 1987, Wallerstein again defined it:

... not the system of the world, but a system that is a world and which can be, most often has been, located in an area less than the entire globe. World-systems analysis argues that the units of social reality within which we operate, whose rules constrain us, are for the most part such world-systems (other than the now extinct, small minisystems that once existed on the earth). World-systems analysis argues that there have been thus far only two varieties of world-systems: world-economies and world empires. A world-empire (examples, the Roman Empire, Han China) are large bureaucratic structures with a single political center and an axial division of labor, but multiple cultures. A world-economy is a large axial division of labor with multiple political centers and multiple cultures. In English, the hyphen is essential to indicate these concepts. "World system" without a hyphen suggests that there has been only one world-system in the history of the world.

— [2]

Wallerstein characterises the world system as a set of mechanisms, which redistributes surplus value from the periphery to the core. In his terminology, the core is the developed, industrialized part of the world, and the periphery is the "underdeveloped", typically raw materials-exporting, poor part of the world; the market being the means by which the core exploits the periphery.

Apart from them, Wallerstein defines four temporal features of the world system. Cyclical rhythms represent the short-term fluctuation of economy, and secular trends mean deeper long run tendencies, such as general economic growth or decline.[2][3] The term contradiction means a general controversy in the system, usually concerning some short term versus long term tradeoffs. For example, the problem of underconsumption, wherein the driving down of wages increases the profit for capitalists in the short term, but in the long term, the decreasing of wages may have a crucially harmful effect by reducing the demand for the product. The last temporal feature is the crisis: a crisis occurs if a constellation of circumstances brings about the end of the system.

In Wallerstein's view, there have been three kinds of historical systems across human history: mini-systems or what anthropologists call bands, tribes, and small chiefdoms, and two types of world systems, one that is politically unified and the other is not (single state world empires and multi-polity world economies).[2][3] World systems are larger, and ethnically diverse. Modernity is unique in being the first and only fully capitalist world economy to have emerged around 1450 to 1550 and to have geographically expanded across the entire planet, by about 1900. Not being political unified, many political units are included within the world system loosely tied together in an interstate system. Efficient division of labor is the unifying element of the different units, and it is also a function of capitalism, a system based on competition between free producers using free labor with free commodities, 'free' meaning available for sale and purchase on a market. More specifically, it can be described as focusing on endless accumulation of capital; in other words, accumulation of capital in order to accumulate more capital. Such capitalism has a mutually dependent relationship with the world economy since it provides the efficient division of labour, the unifying element of the world economy, through the process of accumulating wealth. Likewise, such capitalism is dependent on the world economy since the latter provides a large market and a multiplicity of states, enabling capitalists to choose to work with states helping their interests.[21]

QMRCycles: The Science of Prediction[edit]

In 1947 Edward R.Dewey and Edwin F. Dakin published their book Cycles: The Science of Prediction which argued the United States economy was driven by four cycles of different length. Milton Friedman dismissed their theory as pseudoscience:[3]

[Cycles: The Science of Prediction] is not a scientific book: the evidence underlying the stated conclusions is not presented in full; data graphed are not identified so that someone else could reproduce them; the techniques employed are nowhere described in detail. [...] Its closest analogue is the modern high-power advertisement—here of book length and designed to sell an esoteric and supposedly scientific product. Like most modern advertising, the book seeks to sell its product by making exaggerated claims for it [...], showing it in association with other valued objects which really don't have anything to do with it [...], keeping discreetly silent about its defeats or mentioning them in only the vagues form [...], and citing authorities who think highly of the product.

Joseph Schumpeter also put forward the idea that there were four economic cycles: Kitchin, Juglar, Kuznets and Kondratieff.

QMRThe Foundation for the Study of Cycles (FSC) is an international non-profit research organization for the study of cycles of events. It was incorporated in the state of Connecticut by Edward R Dewey in 1941. It has published "Cycles" magazine and recorded the work of Dewey and many other cycles researchers through the years. The FSC also holds conferences and publishes its proceedings. It publishes two journals aimed at investors, Business and Investment Cycles and Cycles Projections.

The Foundation consists of four interrelated groups:

Interdisciplinary Cycles Research Institute (CRI)

Market Research Institute (MRI)

Institute for the Study of the Business Cycle (ISBC)

Edward R. Dewey Institute for Cycle Research (ERDI)

Peter Borish is a former Chairman of the Foundation for the Study of Cycles.[8]

David Perales is the current Chairman and CEO of the Foundation for the Study of Cycles.[9]

QMRScatter plots are used in descriptive statistics to show the observed relationships between different variables. Scatter plots are based off of quadrant grids

QMRThe Project Management Triangle (called also Triple Constraint or the Iron Triangle) is a model of the constraints of project management. It is a graphic aid where the three attributes show on the corners of the triangle to show opposition. It is useful to help with intentionally choosing project biases, or analyzing the goals of a project.[1] It is used to illustrate that project management success is measured by the project team's ability to manage the project, so that the expected results are produced while managing time and cost.[2][3][4]

Like any human undertaking, projects need to be performed and delivered under certain constraints. Traditionally, these constraints have been listed as "scope" (features and quality), "time", and "cost".[5] These are also referred to as the "Project Management Triangle," where each side represents a constraint. One side of the triangle cannot be changed without affecting the others. A further refinement of the constraints separates product "quality" or "performance" from scope, and turns quality into a fourth constraint.

The fourth is always different

QMRDavid Buckingham has come up with four key concepts that "provide a theoretical framework which can be applied to the whole range of contemporary media and to 'older' media as well: Production, Language, Representation, and Audience."[1] These concepts are defined by David Buckingham as follows:

Production[edit]

Production involves the recognition that media texts are consciously made.[1] Some media texts are made by individuals working alone, just for themselves or their family and friends, but most are produced and distributed by groups of people often for commercial profit. This means recognizing the economic interests that are at stake in media production, and the ways in which profits are generated. More confident students in media education should be able to debate the implications of these developments in terms of national and cultural identities, and in terms of the range of social groups that are able to gain access to media.[1]

Studying media production means looking at:

Technologies: what technologies are used to produce and distribute media texts?

Professional practices: Who makes media texts?

The industry: Who owns the companies that buy and sell media and how do they make a profit?

Connections between media: How do companies sell the same products across different media?

Regulation: Who controls the production and distribution of media, and are there laws about this?

Circulation and distribution: How do texts reach their audiences?

Access and participation: Whose voices are heard in the media and whose are excluded?[1]

Language[edit]

Every medium has its own combination of languages that it uses to communicate meaning. For example, television uses verbal and written language as well as the languages of moving images and sound. Particular kinds of music or camera angles may be used to encourage certain emotions. When it comes to verbal language, making meaningful statements in media languages involves "paradigmatic choices" and "syntagmatic combinations".[1] By analyzing these languages, one can come to a better understanding of how meanings are created.[1]

Studying media languages means looking at:

Meanings: How does media use different forms of language to convey ideas or meanings?

Conventions: How do these uses of languages become familiar and generally accepted?

Codes: How are the grammatical 'rules' of media established and what happens when they are broken?

Genres: How do these conventions and codes operate in different types of media contexts?

Choices: What are the effects of choosing certain forms of language, such as a certain type of camera shot?

Combinations: How is meaning conveyed through the combination or sequencing of images, sounds, or words?

Technologies: How do technologies affect the meanings that can be created?[1]

Representation[edit]

The notion of 'representation' is one of the first established principles of media education. The media offers viewers a facilitated outlook of the world and a re-representation of reality. Media production involves selecting and combining incidents, making events into stories, and creating characters. Media representations allow viewers to see the world in some particular ways and not others. Audiences also compare media with their own experiences and make judgements about how realistic they are. Media representations can be seen as real in some ways but not in others: viewers may understand that what they are seeing is only imaginary and yet they still know it can explain reality.[1]

Studying media representations means looking at:

Realism: Is this text intended to be realistic? Why do some texts seem more realistic than others?

Telling the truth: How do media claim to tell the truth about the world?

Presence and absence: What is included and excluded from the media world?

Bias and objectivity: Do media texts support particular views about the world? Do they use moral or political values?

Stereotyping: How do media represent particular social groups? Are those representations accurate?

Interpretations: Why do audiences accept some media representations as true, or reject others as false?

Influences: Do media representations affect our views of particular social groups or issues?[1]

Audience[edit]

Studying audiences means looking at how demographic audiences are targeted and measured, and how media are circulated and distributed throughout. It means looking at different ways in which individuals use, interpret, and respond to media. The media increasingly have had to compete for people's attention and interest because research has shown that audiences are now much more sophisticated and diverse than has been suggested in the past decades. Debating views about audiences and attempting to understand and reflect on our own and others' use of media is therefore a crucial element of media education.[1]

Studying media audiences means looking at:

Targeting: How are media aimed at particular audiences?

Address: How do the media speak to audiences?

Circulation: How do media reach audiences?

Uses: How do audiences use media in their daily lives? What are their habits and patterns of use?

Making sense: How do audiences interpret media? What meanings do they make?

Pleasures: What pleasures do audiences gain from media?

Social differences: What is the role of gender. social class, age, and ethnic background in audience behavior?[1]

To elaborate on the concepts presented by David Buckingham, Henry Jenkins discusses the emergence of a participatory culture, in which our students are actively engaged.[7] With the emergence of this participatory culture, schools must focus on what Jenkins calls the "new media literacies", that is a set of cultural competencies and social skills that young people need in the new media landscape.[7] In the new media literacies we see a shift in focus from individual expression to community involvement, involving the development of social skills through collaboration and networking.[7] Jenkins lists the following skills, as essential for students in this new media landscape:

Play: The capacity to experiment with the surroundings as a form of problem solving.

Performance: The ability to adopt alternative identities for the purpose of improvisation and discovery.

Simulation: The ability to interpret and construct dynamic models of real world processes.

Appropriation: The ability to meaningfully sample and remix media content.

Multitasking: The ability to scan the environment and shift focus onto salient details.

Distributed Cognition: The ability to interact meaningfully with tools that expand mental capacities.

Collective Intelligence: The ability to pool knowledge and compare notes with others toward a common goal.

Judgement: The ability to evaluate the reliability and credibility of different information sources.

Transmedia Navigation: The ability to follow the flow of stories and information across multiple modalities.

Networking: The ability to search for, synthesize, and disseminate information.

Negotiation: The ability to travel across diverse communities, discerning and respecting multiple perspectives, and grasping and following alternative norms

Four Eleven Forty Four or 4-11-44 is a phrase that has appeared repeatedly in popular music and as a reference to numbers allegedly chosen commonly by poor African Americans while gambling.

Contents [hide]

1 History of usage

1.1 Twentieth century

2 Further reading

3 References

4 External links

History of usage[edit]

The roots of the phrase can be traced to the illegal lottery known as "policy" in nineteenth-century America. Numbers were drawn on a wheel of fortune, ranging from 1 to 78. A three-number entry was known as a "gig" and a bet on 4, 11, 44 was popular by the time of the Civil War.

The New York Clipper,a sporting and theatrical weekly, ran a serial story by John Cooper Vail in April and May of 1862 titled "'4-11-44!' or The Lottery of Life in the Great City," indicating that the number was already a gambling cliché. The Secrets of the Great City, an 1869 book by Edward Winslow Martin, references 4-11-44 and attributes the section on policy to "the New York correspondent of a provincial journal", but does not name the writer. Nor does he date the article, except to say it was published "recently".

The combination became known as the "washerwoman's gig" after it featured on the cover of Aunt Sally's Policy Players' Dream Book, published by H. J. Wehman of New York sometime in the 1880s. The stereotypical player of the washerwoman's gig was a poor black male.

In the 1890 How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York, Jacob A. Riis wrote:

Notice how there is a lot of fours in there

Of all the temptations that beset him, the one that troubles him and the police most is his passion for gambling. The game of policy is a kind of unlawful penny lottery specially adapted to his means, but patronized extensively by poor white players as well. It is the meanest of swindles, but reaps for its backers rich fortunes wherever colored people congregate. Between the fortune-teller and the policy shop, closely allied frauds always, the wages of many a hard day's work are wasted by the negro; but the loss causes him few regrets. Penniless, but with undaunted faith in his ultimate "luck," he looks forward to the time when he shall once more be able to take a hand at "beating policy." When periodically the negro's lucky numbers, 4-11-44, come out on the slips of the alleged daily drawings, that are supposed to be held in some far-off Western town, intense excitement reigns in Thompson Street and along the Avenue, where someone is always the winner. An immense impetus is given then to the bogus business that has no existence outside of the cigar stores and candy shops where it hides from the law, save in some cunning Bowery "broker's" back office, where the slips are printed and the "winnings" apportioned daily with due regard to the backer's interests.

A song entitled "4-11-44" appeared in The Major, a musical theater piece by Edward Harrigan and David Braham. In 1889, H. J. Wehman listed "Four 'eleven forty-four" in their extensive song book. The published song was possibly as performed in an unsuccessful musical show "4-11-44" by Bert Williams and George Walker, but few details have survived and this has not been verified. Certainly, Bob Cole published a song entitled "4-11-44: A Coon Ditty" in 1897 and he performed this with the Black Patti Troubadour Company in the musical skit "At Jolly Cooney Island" around the same time.

Twentieth century[edit]

The phrase "four eleven forty-four" appeared in the racist coon song, "Every Race Has a Flag but the Coon" by Will A. Heelan and J. Fred Helf, in 1900. In an ironic twist, the song went on to inspire the creation of the Pan-African flag in 1920. Meanwhile, the phrase appeared in a 1909 episode of the newspaper comic Little Nemo in Slumberland by Winsor McCay: the numbers 4, 11 and 44 can be seen on a sign, hanging from the tail end of an imaginary creature.

In 1912, the New York Times anticipated superstition surrounding the date April 11, 1944,

The 4-11-44 that may then be written will of course bring out into the letter writing industry every soul that ever hugged a rabbit's foot, or threw a horseshoe over the left shoulder, or a trembled when he broke a mirror or walked under a ladder.[1]

— New York Times

Many uses of the term "4-11-44" occurred in later blues and jazz recordings; practically without exception the phrase had nothing whatsoever to do with gambling, but rather with sex[according to whom?]. In 1925 the phrase "four eleven forty-four" featured in "The Penitentiary Bound Blues" by Rosa Henderson and the Choo Choo Jazzers. Papa Charlie Jackson recorded a blues number with the title "4-11-44" in 1926. Pinetop & Lindberg released a different song called "4-11-44" in the 1930s.

A jazz piece of the same name was composed and recorded in 1963 by New Orleans saxophone player Pony Poindexter on his album Gumbo for Prestige Records, featuring Booker Ervin and Al Grey. Liverpudlian Pete Wylie released his original song "FourElevenFortyFour" on his 1987 album Sinful. California band The Blasters made their "4-11-44" the name of both their 2004 album, and its title track. Jawbone (AKA Bob Zabor) released yet another track called "4-11-44" in 2005.