Quadrant Model of Reality Book 22 Science Chemistry Biology Psychology Sociology

Chemistry Chapter

Production[edit]

Reactive-ion etching[edit]

Scanning electron micrograph of a single "needle" of black silicon, produced by RIE (ASE process)

In semiconductor technology, reactive-ion etching (RIE) is a standard procedure for producing trenches and holes with a depth of up to several hundred micrometres and very high aspect ratios. In Bosch process RIE, this is achieved by repeatedly switching between an etching and passivation. With cryogenic RIE, the low temperature and oxygen gas achieve this sidewall passivation by forming SiO

2, easily removed from the bottom by directional ions. Both RIE methods can produce black silicon, but the morphology of the resulting structure differs substantially. The switching between etching and passivation of the Bosch process creates undulated sidewalls, which are visible also on the black silicon formed this way.

During etching, however, small debris remain on the substrate; they mask the ion beam and produce structures that are not removed and in the following etching steps and result in tall silicon pillars.[16] The process can be set so that a million needles are formed on an area of one square millimeter.[12]

Mazur's method[edit]

In 1999, a Harvard University group developed a process in which black silicon was produced by irradiating silicon with femtosecond laser pulses.[17] After irradiation in the presence of a gas containing sulfur hexafluoride and other dopants, the surface of silicon develops a self-organized microscopic structure of micrometer-sized cones. The resulting material has many remarkable properties, such as absorption that extends to the infrared range, below the band gap of silicon, including wavelengths for which ordinary silicon is transparent. sulfur atoms are forced to the silicon surface, creating a structure with a lower band gap and therefore the ability to absorb longer wavelengths.

Black silicon made without special gas ambient - laboratory LP3-CNRS

Similar surface modification can be achieved in vacuum using the same type of laser and laser processing conditions. In this case, the individual silicon cones lack sharp tips (see image). The reflectivity of such a micro-structured surface is very low, 3-14% in the spectral range 350–1150 nm.[18] Such reduction in reflectivity is contributed by the cone geometry, which increases the light internal reflections between them. Hence, the possibility of light absorption is increased. The gain in absorption achieved by fs laser texturization was superior to that achieved by using an alkaline chemical etch method,[19] which is a standard industrial approach for surface texturing of mono-crystalline silicon wafers in solar cell manufacturing. Such surface modification is independent of local crystalline orientation. A uniform texturing effect can be achieved across the surface of a multi-crystalline silicon wafer. The very steep angles lower the reflection to near zero and also increase the probability of recombination, keeping it from use in solar cells

QMR Reaction bonded silicon carbide, also known as siliconized silicon carbide or SiSiC, is a type of silicon carbide that is manufactured by a chemical reaction between porous carbon or graphite with molten silicon. Due to the left over traces of silicon, reaction bonded silicon carbide is often referred to as siliconized silicon carbide, or its abbreviation SiSiC. If pure silicon carbide is produced by sintering of silicon carbide powder, it usually contains traces of chemicals called sintering aids, which are added to support the sintering process by allowing lower sintering temperatures. This type of silicon carbide is often referred to as sintered silicon carbide, or abbreviated to SSiC. The silicon carbide powder is gained from silicon carbide produced as described in the article silicon carbide.

QMRThe sharing of an edge of an octahedron gives a structure called bioctahedral. Many metal pentahalide and pentaalkoxide compounds exist in solution and the solid with bioctahedral structures. One example is niobium pentachloride. Metal tetrahalides often exist as polymers with edge-sharing octahedra. Zirconium tetrachloride is an example.[2]

QMRZirconium(IV) chloride, also known as zirconium tetrachloride, (ZrCl4) is an inorganic compound frequently used as a precursor to other compounds of zirconium. This white high-melting solid hydrolyzes rapidly in humid air.

QMRTetrahydrofuran (THF) is an organic compound with the formula (CH2)4O. The compound is classified as heterocyclic compound, specifically a cyclic ether. It is a colorless, water-miscible organic liquid with low viscosity. It is mainly used as a precursor to polymers.[4] Being polar and having a wide liquid range, THF is a versatile solvent.

QMRPolytetrahydrofuran, also called poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol or poly(tetramethylene oxide), is a chemical compound with formula (C

4H

8O)nOH2 or HO-(-(CH2)4O-)n-H. It can be viewed as a polymer of tetrahydrofuran, or as the polyether derived from 1,4-butanediol.

The product is commercially available as polymers of low average molecular weights, between 250 and 3000 daltons. In this form it is a white waxy solid that melts between 20 and 30 °C. The commercial product can be processed further into polymers with molecular weights of 40,000 and higher.

The product is sold under various trade names including Terathane from Invista[1] and PolyTHF from BASF.[2] The BASF plant in Ludwigshafen at one point was producing 250,000 metric tons per year.[3]

Applications[edit]

The main use of polytetrahydrofuran is to make elastic fibers such as spandex (elastan) for stretchable fabrics[4] and for polyurethane resins. The latter are polyurethane prepolymers dissolved in solvent.[5] They are used in the manufacture of artificial leather. These elastomers are either polyurethanes made by reacting PTMEG with diisocyanates, or polyesters made by reacting PTMEG with diacids or their derivatives.[6]

The polymer is also a starting material for thermoplastic polyurethane, thermoplastic polyesters, polyetheramide and cast polyurethane elastomers, used for instance in the wheels of roller skates and skateboards. Synthesis[edit] See also: Heteropoly acid Polytetrahydrofuran is commonly prepared by acid-catalyzed polymerization of tetrahydrofuran.[4] The starting material is natural gas, which is converted to acetylene, then reacted with formaldehyde to make butynediol and then butanediol. The latter is turned into tetrahydrofuran by action of a catalyst and then polymerized.

QMRIn chemistry, octahedral molecular geometry describes the shape of compounds with six atoms or groups of atoms or ligands symmetrically arranged around a central atom, defining the vertices of an octahedron. The octahedron has eight faces, hence the prefix octa. The octahedron is one of the Platonic solids, although octahedral molecules typically have an atom in their centre and no bonds between the ligand atoms. A perfect octahedron belongs to the point group Oh. Examples of octahedral compounds are sulfur hexafluoride SF6 and molybdenum hexacarbonyl Mo(CO)6. The term "octahedral" is used somewhat loosely by chemists, focusing on the geometry of the bonds to the central atom and not considering differences among the ligands themselves. For example, [Co(NH3)6]3+, which is not octahedral in the mathematical sense due to the orientation of the N-H bonds, is referred to as octahedral.[1]

The concept of octahedral coordination geometry was developed by Alfred Werner to explain the stoichiometries and isomerism in coordination compounds. His insight allowed chemists to rationalize the number of isomers of coordination compounds. Octahedral transition-metal complexes containing amines and simple anions are often referred to Werner-type complexes. Octahedral is made up of two orthogonal quadrants

QMRStudies on Vaska's complex helped provide the conceptual framework for homogeneous catalysis. Vaska's complex, with 16 valence electrons, is considered "coordinatively unsaturated" and can thus bind to one two-electron or two one-electron ligands to become electronically saturated with 18 valence electrons. The addition of two one-electron ligands is called oxidative addition. Upon oxidative addition, the oxidation state of the iridium increases from Ir(I) to Ir(III). The four-coordinated square planar arrangement in the starting complex converts to an octahedral, six-coordinate product. Vaska's complex undergoes oxidative addition with conventional oxidants such as halogens, strong acids such as HCl, and other molecules known to react as electrophiles, such as iodomethane (CH3I). Vaska's complex binds O2 reversibly: IrCl(CO)[P(C6H5)3]2 + O2 ⇌ IrCl(CO)[P(C6H5)3]2O2 The dioxygen ligand is bonded to Ir by both oxygen atoms, so-called side-on bonding. In myoglobin and hemoglobin, by contrast, O2 binds "end-on," attaching to the metal via only one of the two oxygen atoms. The resulting dioxygen adduct reverts to the parent complex upon heating or purging the solution with an inert gas, signaled by a colour change from orange back to yellow.[2]

An important class of complexes that violate the 18e rule are the 16e complexes with metal d8 configurations. All high-spin d8metal ions are octahedral (or tetrahedral), but the low-spin d8 metal ions are all square planar. Important examples of square-planar low-spin d8 metal Ions are Rh(I), Ir(I), Ni(II), Pd(II), and Pt(II). At picture below is shown the splitting of the d sub-shell in low-spin square-planar complexes. Examples are especially prevalent for derivatives of the cobalt and nickel triads. Such compounds are typically square-planar. The most famous example is Vaska's complex (IrCl(CO)(PPh3)2), [PtCl4]2−, and Zeise's salt [PtCl3(η2-C2H4)]−. In such complexes, the dz2 orbital is doubly occupied and nonbonding. Chem507f09sqvstet2.png Many catalytic cycles operate via complexes that alternate between 18e and square-planar 16 configurations. Examples include Monsanto acetic acid synthesis, hydrogenations, hydroformylations, olefin isomerizations, and some alkene polymerizations. Other violations can be classified according to the kinds of ligands on the metal center. 16 is the squares of the quadrant model

QMRIn chemistry, a tetravalence is the state of an atom with four electrons available for covalent chemical bonding in its valence (outermost electron shell). An example is methane (CH4): the tetravalent carbon atom forms a covalent bond with four hydrogen atoms. The carbon atom is called tetravalent because it forms 4 covalent bonds. A carbon atom has a total of six electrons occupying the first two shells, i.e., the K-shell has two electrons and the L-shell has four electrons. This distribution indicates that in the outermost shell there are one completely filled 's' orbital and two half-filled 'p' orbitals, showing carbon to be a divalent atom. But in actuality, carbon displays tetravalency in the combined state. Therefore, a carbon atom has four valence electrons. It could gain four electrons to form the C4− anion or lose four electrons to form the C4+ cation. Both these conditions would take carbon far away from achieving stability by the octet rule. To overcome this problem carbon undergoes bonding by sharing its valence electrons. This allows it to be covalently bonded to one, two, three or four carbon atoms or atoms of other elements or groups of atoms. Let us see how carbon forms the single, double and triple bonds in the following examples.

A carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost valence shell. So, it needs four more electrons to complete its octet. A carbon atom completes its octet only by sharing its valence electrons with other atoms. As a result, a carbon atom forms four covalent bonds by sharing valence electrons with other atoms. This is known as tetravalency of carbon ("tetra" means four). These four valences of carbon are directed towards four corners of a tetrahedron, and inclined to each other atomic an angle of a 109° 28´.

The carbon atom is assumed to be atomic the center of the tetrahedron. In common use, the four valences of carbon are shown by four bonds around a carbon atom as shown alongside Methane molecule: Each carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell. Thus, it requires four more electrons to acquire a stable noble gas configuration. Each of the hydrogen atoms has only one electron in its outermost shell and requires one more electron to complete its outermost shell (to acquire He configuration). To achieve this, one carbon atom forms four single covalent bonds with four hydrogen atoms. Carbon dioxide molecule: Each carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell and each oxygen atom has six electrons in its outermost shell. Thus, each carbon atom requires four, and each oxygen atom requires two more electrons to acquire noble gas configurations. To achieve this, two oxygen atoms form a double covalent bond with carbon. Acetylene molecule: Each carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell and each hydrogen atom has only one electron in its outermost shell. Two carbon atoms share two electrons each with hydrogen atoms to form single bonds. Each carbon then requires three more electrons to acquire a stable configuration of the nearest noble gas (neon). This is done by mutually sharing three pairs of electrons between the two carbon atoms to form a triple bond.

QMRTwo-component systems[edit] For binary mixtures of two chemically independent components, C = 2 so that F = 4 – P. In addition to temperature and pressure, the other degree of freedom is the composition of each phase, often expressed as mole fraction or mass fraction of one component. Boiling Point Diagram As an example, consider the system of two completely miscible liquids such as toluene and benzene, in equilibrium with their vapours. This system may be described by a boiling-point diagram which shows the composition (mole fraction) of the two phases in equilibrium as functions of temperature (at a fixed pressure). Four thermodynamic variables which may describe the system include temperature (T), pressure (p), mole fraction of component 1 (toluene) in the liquid phase (x1L), and mole fraction of component 1 in the vapour phase (x1V). However since two phases are in equilibrium, only two of these variables can be independent (F = 2). This is because the four variables are constrained by two relations: the equality of the chemical potentials of liquid toluene and toluene vapour, and the corresponding equality for benzene.

QMR four phases of a pure substance were in equilibrium (P = 4), the phase rule would give F = −1, which is meaningless, since there cannot be −1 independent variables. This explains the fact that four phases of a pure substance (such as ice I, ice III, liquid water and water vapour) are not found in equilibrium at any temperature and pressure. In terms of chemical potentials there are now three equations, which cannot in general be satisfied by any values of the two variables T and p, although in principle they might be solved in a special case where one equation is mathematically dependent on the other two. In practice, however, the coexistence of more phases than allowed by the phase rule normally means that the phases are not all in true equilibrium.

QMRLudwig von Bertalanffy outlines systems inquiry into three major domains: Philosophy, Science, and Technology. In his work with the Primer Group, Béla H. Bánáthy generalized the domains into four integratable domains of systemic inquiry: Domain Description Philosophy the ontology, epistemology, and axiology of systems; Theory a set of interrelated concepts and principles applying to all systems Methodology the set of models, strategies, methods, and tools that instrumentalize systems theory and philosophy Application the application and interaction of the domains

There is an ongoing dispute as to whether anthropology is intrinsically holistic. Supporters of this concept consider anthropology holistic in two senses. First, it is concerned with all human beings across times and places, and with all dimensions of humanity (evolutionary, biophysical, sociopolitical, economic, cultural, psychological, etc.) Further, many academic programs following this approach take a "four-field" approach to anthropology that encompasses physical anthropology, archeology, linguistics, and cultural anthropology or social anthropology.[19] Some leading anthropologists disagree, and consider anthropological holism to be an artifact from 19th century social evolutionary thought that inappropriately imposes scientific positivism upon cultural anthropology.[20] The term "holism" is additionally used within social and cultural anthropology to refer to an analysis of a society as a whole which refuses to break society into component parts. One definition says: "as a methodological ideal, holism implies ... that one does not permit oneself to believe that our own established institutional boundaries (e.g. between politics, sexuality, religion, economics) necessarily may be found also in foreign societies."[21

QMRCoquina, a rock composed of clasts of broken shells, can only form in energetic water. The form of a clast can be described by using four parameters:[14][15] Surface texture describes the amount of small-scale relief of the surface of a grain that is too small to influence the general shape. rounding describes the general smoothness of the shape of a grain. 'Sphericity' describes the degree to which the grain approaches a sphere. 'Grain form' describes the three dimensional shape of the grain.

Biology Chapter

QMRThe ancestors of marsupials, part of a larger group called metatherians, probably split from those of placental mammals (eutherians) during the mid-Jurassic period, though no fossil evidence of metatherians themselves are known from this time.[38] Fossil metatherians are distinguished from eutherians by the form of their teeth; metatherians possess four pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, whereas eutherian mammals (including true placentals) never have more than three pairs.[39] Using this criterion, the earliest known metatherian is Sinodelphys szalayi, which lived in China around 125 million years ago (mya).[40] This makes it a contemporary to some early eutherian species which have been found in the same area.[41]

QMRMale echidnas have a four-headed penis.

QMRMonotremes are mammals that lay eggs (Prototheria) instead of giving birth to live young like marsupials (Metatheria) and placental mammals (Eutheria). The only surviving examples of monotremes are all indigenous to Australia and New Guinea, although there is evidence that they were once more widespread. The existing monotreme species are the platypus and four species of echidnas (or spiny anteaters).

QMRAll mammals except the monotremes, the xenarthrans, the pangolins, and the cetaceans[citation needed] have up to four distinct types of teeth, with a maximum number for each. These are the incisor (cutting), the canine, the premolar, and the molar (grinding). The incisors occupy the front of the tooth row in both upper and lower jaws. They are normally flat, chisel-shaped teeth that meet in an edge-to-edge bite. Their function is cutting, slicing, or gnawing food into manageable pieces that fit into the mouth for further chewing. The canines are immediately behind the incisors. In many mammals, the canines are pointed, tusk-shaped teeth, projecting beyond the level of the other teeth. In carnivores, they are primarily offensive weapons for bringing down prey. In other mammals such as some primates, they are used to split open hard surfaced food. The premolars and molars are at the back of the mouth. Depending on the particular mammal and its diet, these two kinds of teeth prepare pieces of food to be swallowed by grinding, shearing, or crushing. The specialised teeth—incisors, canines, premolars, and molars—are found in the same order in every mammal.[4] In many mammals the infants have a set of teeth that fall out and are replaced by adult teeth. These are called deciduous teeth, primary teeth, baby teeth or milk teeth.[5][6] Animals that have two sets of teeth, one followed by the other, are said to be diphyodont. Normally the dental formula for milk teeth is the same as for adult teeth except that the molars are missing.

QMRWith the exception of the four-toed African hunting dog (Lycaon pictus), there are five toes on the forefeet but the pollex (thumb) is reduced and does not reach the ground. On the hind feet, there are four toes, but in some domestic dogs, a fifth vestigial toe, known as a dewclaw, is sometimes present but has no anatomical connection to the rest of the foot. The slightly curved nails are non-retractile and more or less blunt

QMRLevels of biohazard[edit]

Main article: Biosafety level

Immediate disposal of used needles into a sharps container is standard procedure.

NHS medics practise using protective equipment used to treat Ebola patients

The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) categorizes various diseases in levels of biohazard, Level 1 being minimum risk and Level 4 being extreme risk. Laboratories and other facilities are categorized as BSL (Biosafety Level) 1-4 or as P1 through P4 for short (Pathogen or Protection Level).

Biohazard Level 1: Bacteria and viruses including Bacillus subtilis, canine hepatitis, Escherichia coli, varicella (chicken pox), as well as some cell cultures and non-infectious bacteria. At this level precautions against the biohazardous materials in question are minimal, most likely involving gloves and some sort of facial protection.

Biohazard Level 2: Bacteria and viruses that cause only mild disease to humans, or are difficult to contract via aerosol in a lab setting, such as hepatitis A, B, and C, some influenza A strains, Lyme disease, salmonella, mumps, measles, scrapie, dengue fever, HIV. "Routine diagnostic work with clinical specimens can be done safely at Biosafety Level 2, using Biosafety Level 2 practices and procedures. Research work (including co-cultivation, virus replication studies, or manipulations involving concentrated virus) can be done in a BSL-2 (P2) facility, using BSL-3 practices and procedures.

Biohazard Level 3: Bacteria and viruses that can cause severe to fatal disease in humans, but for which vaccines or other treatments exist, such as anthrax, West Nile virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, SARS virus, MERS coronavirus, hantaviruses, tuberculosis, typhus, Rift Valley fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, yellow fever, and malaria. Among parasites Plasmodium falciparum, which causes Malaria, and Trypanosoma cruzi, which causes trypanosomiasis, also come under this level. Biohazard Level 4: Viruses and bacteria that cause severe to fatal disease in humans, and for which vaccines or other treatments are not available, such as Bolivian and Argentine hemorrhagic fevers, Marburg virus, Ebola virus, Lassa fever virus, Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever, and other hemorrhagic diseases and rishibola. Variola virus (smallpox) is an agent that is worked with at BSL-4 despite the existence of a vaccine, as it has been eradicated. When dealing with biological hazards at this level the use of a positive pressure personnel suit, with a segregated air supply, is mandatory. The entrance and exit of a Level Four biolab will contain multiple showers, a vacuum room, an ultraviolet light room, autonomous detection system, and other safety precautions designed to destroy all traces of the biohazard. Multiple airlocks are employed and are electronically secured to prevent both doors opening at the same time. All air and water service going to and coming from a Biosafety Level 4 (P4) lab will undergo similar decontamination procedures to eliminate the possibility of an accidental release.

QMRPandemic (2008), a cooperative board game in which the players have to discover the cures for four diseases that break out at the same time.

QMRImplications[edit] William Beebe's hypothetical "Tetrapteryx" with four wings, 1915 The unique wing arrangement found in Microraptor raised the question of whether the evolution of flight in modern birds went through a four-winged stage, or whether four-winged gliders like Microraptor were an evolutionary side-branch that left no descendants. As early as 1915, naturalist William Beebe had argued that the evolution of bird flight may have gone through a four-winged (or tetrapteryx) stage.[19] Chatterjee and Templin did not take a strong stance on this possibility, noting that both a conventional interpretation and a tetrapteryx stage are equally possible. However, based on the presence of unusually long leg feathers in various feathered dinosaurs, Archaeopteryx, and some modern birds such as raptors, as well as the discovery of further dinosaur with long primary feathers on their feet (such as Pedopenna), the authors argued that the current body of evidence, both from morphology and phylogeny, suggests that bird flight did shift at some point from shared limb dominance to front-limb dominance, and that all modern birds may have evolved from four-winged ancestors, or at least ancestors with unusually long leg feathers relative to the modern configuration.[4]

QMRWilliam Beebe's hypothetical "Tetrapteryx" with four wings, 1915

QMRMicroraptor

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Microraptor

Temporal range: Early Cretaceous, 125–120 Ma

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Microraptor gui holotype.png

Fossil specimen, with white arrows pointing at preserved feathers

Scientific classification e

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Order: Saurischia

Suborder: Theropoda

Family: †Dromaeosauridae

Clade: †Microraptoria

Genus: †Microraptor

Xu et al., 2000

Type species

†Microraptor zhaoianus

Xu et al., 2000

Species

M. zhaoianus Xu et al., 2000

M. gui Xu et al., 2003

M. hanqingi Gong et al., 2012

Synonyms

Cryptovolans Czerkas et al., 2002

Microraptor (Greek, μίκρος, mīkros: "small"; Latin, raptor: "one who seizes") was a genus of small, four-winged paravian (possibly dromaeosaurid) dinosaurs. Numerous well-preserved fossil specimens have been recovered from Liaoning, China. They date from the early Cretaceous Jiufotang Formation (Aptian stage), 125 to 120 million years ago.[1] Three species have been named (M. zhaoianus, M. gui, and M. hanqingi), though further study has suggested that all of them represent variation in a single species, which is properly called M. zhaoianus. Cryptovolans, initially described as another four-winged dinosaur, is usually considered to be a synonym of Microraptor.[2]

Like Archaeopteryx, well-preserved fossils of Microraptor provide important evidence about the evolutionary relationship between birds and dinosaurs. Microraptor had long pennaceous feathers that formed aerodynamic surfaces on the arms and tail but also on the legs. This led paleontologist Xu Xing in 2003 to describe the first specimen to preserve this feature as a "four-winged dinosaur" and to speculate that it may have glided using all four limbs for lift. Subsequent studies have suggested that it is possible Microraptor were capable of powered flight as well.

Microraptor were among the most abundant non-avian dinosaurs in their ecosystem, and the genus is represented by more fossils than any other dromaeosaurid, with possibly over 300 fossil specimens represented across various museum collections.[3]

Psychology Chapter

QMRBoszormenyi-Nagy is best known for developing the Contextual approach to family therapy and individual psychotherapy. It is a comprehensive model which integrates individual psychological, interpersonal, existential, systemic, and intergenerational dimensions of individual and family life and development.

The contextual model, in its most well-known formulation, proposes four dimensions of relational reality, both as a guide for conducting therapy and for conceptualizing relational reality in general:

(1) Facts (e.g., genetic input, physical health, ethnic-cultural background, socioeconomic status, basic historical facts, events in a person's life cycle, etc)

(2) Individual psychology (the domain of most individual psychotherapies)

(3) Systemic transactions (the domain covered by classical systemic family therapy: e.g., rules, power, alignments, triangles, feedback, etc)

(4) Relational ethics.

These dimensions are taken to be inter-linked, but not equatable or reducible to one another.[1][2]

The contextual model proposes relational ethics—the ethical or "justice" dimension of close relationships—as an overarching integrative conceptual and methodological principle. Relational ethics focuses in particular on the nature and roles of connectedness, caring, reciprocity, loyalty, legacy, guilt, fairness, accountability, and trustworthiness - within and between generations. It is taken to represent not just a set of prescriptive norms, nor simply psychological phenomena, perspectives, or constructions. Rather, relational ethics is seen as (1) having some objective ontological and experiential basis by virtue of being derived from basic needs and from real relationships that have concrete consequences (i.e., as distinct from abstract or "value" ethics[3]); and (2) as being significant explanatory and motivational dynamics operating - in both beneficial and destructive ways - in individuals, families, social groups, and broader society. The construct validity and significance of relational ethics in clinical and educational contexts have been supported by a number of studies.[4][5][6] (See also Relational ethics.)

In a later formulation of the contextual model, Boszormenyi-Nagy proposed a fifth dimension - the ontic dimension - which was implicit in the earlier formulations, but which considers more explicitly the nature of the interconnection between people that allows an individual to exist decisively as a person, and not just a self.[7] (See also Intersubjectivity and Philosophy of dialogue.)

QMRAttachment theory was extended to adult romantic relationships in the late 1980s by Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver. Four styles of attachment have been identified in adults: secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant and fearful-avoidant. These roughly correspond to infant classifications: secure, insecure-ambivalent, insecure-avoidant and disorganized/disoriented.

Securely attached adults tend to have positive views of themselves, their partners and their relationships. They feel comfortable with intimacy and independence, balancing the two. Anxious-preoccupied adults seek high levels of intimacy, approval and responsiveness from partners, becoming overly dependent. They tend to be less trusting, have less positive views about themselves and their partners, and may exhibit high levels of emotional expressiveness, worry and impulsiveness in their relationships. Dismissive-avoidant adults desire a high level of independence, often appearing to avoid attachment altogether. They view themselves as self-sufficient, invulnerable to attachment feelings and not needing close relationships.They tend to suppress their feelings, dealing with rejection by distancing themselves from partners of whom they often have a poor opinion. Fearful-avoidant adults have mixed feelings about close relationships, both desiring and feeling uncomfortable with emotional closeness. They tend to mistrust their partners and view themselves as unworthy. Like dismissive-avoidant adults, fearful-avoidant adults tend to seek less intimacy, suppressing their feelings.[77][78][79][80]

A young couple relax under a tree. The man lies on his back looking up at the woman. The woman, with striking long blond hair and sunglasses, is seated by his head, looking down at him and with her hand placed round his head. Both are laughing

Attachment styles in adult romantic relationships roughly correspond to attachment styles in infants but adults can hold different internal working models for different relationships.

Two main aspects of adult attachment have been studied. The organization and stability of the mental working models that underlie the attachment styles is explored by social psychologists interested in romantic attachment.[81][82] Developmental psychologists interested in the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment generally explore how attachment functions in relationship dynamics and impacts relationship outcomes. The organisation of mental working models is more stable while the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment fluctuates more. Some authors have suggested that adults do not hold a single set of working models. Instead, on one level they have a set of rules and assumptions about attachment relationships in general. On another level they hold information about specific relationships or relationship events. Information at different levels need not be consistent. Individuals can therefore hold different internal working models for different relationships.[82][83]

There are a number of different measures of adult attachment, the most common being self-report questionnaires and coded interviews based on the Adult Attachment Interview. The various measures were developed primarily as research tools, for different purposes and addressing different domains, for example romantic relationships, parental relationships or peer relationships. Some classify an adult's state of mind with respect to attachment and attachment patterns by reference to childhood experiences, while others assess relationship behaviours and security regarding parents and peers.[84]

QMRAinsworth herself was the first to find difficulties in fitting all infant behaviour into the three classifications used in her Baltimore study. Ainsworth and colleagues sometimes observed "tense movements such as hunching the shoulders, putting the hands behind the neck and tensely cocking the head, and so on. It was our clear impression that such tension movements signified stress, both because they tended to occur chiefly in the separation episodes and because they tended to be prodromal to crying. Indeed, our hypothesis is that they occur when a child is attempting to control crying, for they tend to vanish if and when crying breaks through."[43] Such observations also appeared in the doctoral theses of Ainsworth's students. Crittenden, for example, noted that one abused infant in her doctoral sample was classed as secure (B) by her undergraduate coders because her strange situation behavior was "without either avoidance or ambivalence, she did show stress-related stereotypic headcocking throughout the strange situation. This pervasive behavior, however, was the only clue to the extent of her stress."[44]

Drawing on records of behaviours discrepant with the A, B and C classifications, a fourth classification was added by Ainsworth's colleague Mary Main.[45] In the Strange Situation, the attachment system is expected to be activated by the departure and return of the caregiver. If the behaviour of the infant does not appear to the observer to be coordinated in a smooth way across episodes to achieve either proximity or some relative proximity with the caregiver, then it is considered 'disorganised' as it indicates a disruption or flooding of the attachment system (e.g. by fear). Infant behaviours in the Strange Situation Protocol coded as disorganised/disoriented include overt displays of fear; contradictory behaviours or affects occurring simultaneously or sequentially; stereotypic, asymmetric, misdirected or jerky movements; or freezing and apparent dissociation. Lyons-Ruth has urged, however, that it should be more widely "recognized that 52% of disorganized infants continue to approach the caregiver, seek comfort, and cease their distress without clear ambivalent or avoidant behavior."[46]

There is rapidly growing interest in disorganized attachment from clinicians and policy-makers as well as researchers.[47] However, the disorganized/disoriented attachment (D) classification has been criticised by some for being too encompassing, including Ainsworth herself.[48] In 1990, Ainsworth put in print her blessing for the new 'D' classification, though she urged that the addition be regarded as "open-ended, in the sense that subcategories may be distinguished", as she worried that too many different forms of behaviour might be treated as if they were the same thing.[49] Indeed, the D classification puts together infants who use a somewhat disrupted secure (B) strategy with those who seem hopeless and show little attachment behaviour; it also puts together infants who run to hide when they see their caregiver in the same classification as those who show an avoidant (A) strategy on the first reunion and then an ambivalent-resistant (C) strategy on the second reunion. Perhaps responding to such concerns, George and Solomon have divided among indices of disorganized/disoriented attachment (D) in the Strange Situation, treating some of the behaviours as a 'strategy of desperation' and others as evidence that the attachment system has been flooded (e.g. by fear, or anger).[50]

Moreover, Crittenden argues that some behaviour classified as Disorganized/disoriented can be regarded as more 'emergency' versions of the avoidant and/or ambivalent/resistant strategies, and function to maintain the protective availability of the caregiver to some degree. Sroufe et al. have agreed that "even disorganised attachment behaviour (simultaneous approach-avoidance; freezing, etc.) enables a degree of proximity in the face of a frightening or unfathomable parent."[51] However, "the presumption that many indices of 'disorganisation' are aspects of organised patterns does not preclude acceptance of the notion of disorganisation, especially in cases where the complexity and dangerousness of the threat are beyond children's capacity for response."[52] For example, "Children placed in care, especially more than once, often have intrusions. In videos of the Strange Situation Procedure, they tend to occur when a rejected/neglected child approaches the stranger in an intrusion of desire for comfort, then loses muscular control and falls to the floor, overwhelmed by the intruding fear of the unknown, potentially dangerous, strange person."[53

QMRMainly on the basis of their reunion behaviours (although other behaviors are taken into account) in the Strange Situation Paradigm (Ainsworth et al., 1978; see below), infants can be categorized into three 'organized' attachment categories: Secure (Group B); Avoidant (Group A); and Anxious/Resistant (Group C). There are subclassifications for each group (see below). A fourth category, termed Disorganized (D), can also be assigned to an infant assessed in the Strange Situation although a primary 'organized' classification is always given for an infant judged to be disorganized. Each of these groups reflects a different kind of attachment relationship with the mother. A child may have a different type of attachment to each parent as well as to unrelated caregivers. Attachment style is thus not so much a part of the child's thinking, but is characteristic of a specific relationship. However, after about age five children tend to exhibit one primary consistent pattern of attachment in relationships.[30] The pattern the child develops after age five demonstrates the specific parenting styles used during the developmental stages within the child. These attachment patterns are associated with behavioral patterns and can help further predict a child's future personality.[31]

QMRAttachments between infants and caregivers form even if this caregiver is not sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them.[6] This has important implications. Infants cannot exit unpredictable or insensitive caregiving relationships. Instead they must manage themselves as best they can within such relationships. Based on her established Strange Situation Protocol, research by developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth in the 1960s and 70s found that children will have different patterns of attachment depending primarily on how they experienced their early caregiving environment. Early patterns of attachment, in turn, shape — but do not determine — the individual's expectations in later relationships.[7] Four different attachment classifications have been identified in children: secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, anxious-avoidant attachment, and disorganized attachment. Attachment theory has become the dominant theory used today in the study of infant and toddler behavior and in the fields of infant mental health, treatment of children, and related fields. Secure attachment is when children feel they can rely on their caregivers to attend to their needs of proximity, emotional support and protection. It is considered to be the best attachment style.

Separation anxiety is what infants feel when they are separated from their caregivers. Anxious-ambivalent attachment is when the infant feels separation anxiety when separated from his caregiver and does not feel reassured when the caregiver returns to the infant. Anxious-avoidant attachment is when the infant avoids their parents. Disorganized attachment is when there is a lack of attachment behavior. In the 1980s, the theory was extended to attachment in adults. Attachment applies to adults when adults feel close attachment to their parents and their romantic partners.

QMRMarcia defines four identity statuses which combines the presence or absence of the processes of exploration and commitment: Identity diffusion (not engaged in exploration or commitment), identity foreclosure (a lack of exploration, yet committed), moratorium (process of exploration without having made a commitment), and identity achievement (exploration and commitment of identity).

QMRErikson was a student of Anna Freud,[29] the daughter of Sigmund Freud, whose psychoanalytic theory and psychosexual stages contributed to the basic outline of the eight stages, at least those concerned with childhood. Namely, the first four of Erikson's life stages correspond to Freud's oral, anal, phallic, and latency phases, respectively. Also, the fifth stage of adolescence is said to parallel the genital stage in psychosexual development: Although the first three phases are linked to those of the Freudian theory, it can be seen that they are conceived along very different lines. Emphasis is not so much on sexual modes and their consequences as on the ego qualities which emerge from each stages. There is an attempt also to link the sequence of individual development to the broader context of society.[13]

QMRIn a 1997 piece for International Security entitled "Competing Visions for U.S. Grand Strategy," Barry R. Posen and Andrew L. Ross outlined four major grand strategies applicable to U.S. foreign policy in the post-Cold War world:[7] neo-isolationism selective engagement cooperative security primacy

Process operator[edit]

The process operator is responsible for learning and perform the processes (work) necessary to achieve the objectives of the business plans that are created by Business Leaders. This person is accountable for performing the requirements of the process.

Plan: The process operators - in collaboration with their Operational Manager, create and own their performance objectives. Process Operators are responsible to understand the performance objectives of the process they are to perform and the specifications of the product they are to produce.

Do: Process operators are responsible for learning the processes (work) that they are to perform. They ensure the processes are performed to meet the process performance objectives and produce product that meets specification. As the Process Operators perform the processes, they are responsible to communicate to their Operational Manager (supervisor) the bridges that need to be built and the barriers that need to be removed to allow the process and Process Operator performance objectives to be met. Process and Process Operator performance metric data is produced and collected as the process is performed.

Check: The process operator periodically reviews the Key performance indicators (KPI’s). The Process Operator makes adjustments to their work based on their actual performance compared to KPI targets. The Process Operator is responsible for identifying and reporting any performance issues and stopping production if necessary. Act: Process operators practice kaizen to continually challenge the process and communicate improvement suggestions to their operational manager (supervisor).

Operational manager[edit]

The operational Manager is responsible for bringing the resources and processes together to achieve the objectives of the business plans that are created by the business leaders. This person is accountable for how well the process is performed.

Plan: The operational managers - in collaboration with each Process Operator, create Process Operator performance objectives for the employees they supervise. The Operational Manager needs to understand the performance requirements of the process. They match employees (Process Operators) with the competency and skill requirements of the process to be performed. They ensure that the Process Operators have the budget, facilities, and technology available to them that is necessary to achieve the performance objectives of the processes.

Do: The operational manager is responsible for teaching process operators how to perform the processes (work). Process Operator instruction usually consists of classroom and on-the-job training. The Operational Manager oversees the work and ensures Process Operators receive ongoing informal feedback as to their performance. As the Process Operators perform the processes, the Operational Managers are responsible to build bridges and remove barriers that will allow the process and Process Operator performance objectives to be met. Process and Process Operator performance metric data is produced and collected as the process is performed. The Operational Manager ensures that Process Operators are using Kaizen to continually improve the process as they are performing the work.

Check: The operational manager periodically analyzes the key performance indicators (KPIs) during the production cycle to evaluate the work group’s ability to achieve the process and process operator performance objectives. This data is used to visualize the process and process operator capability to meet business plan objectives over time (performance trends), compare actual performance against performance targets, and identify performance issues. They review this performance data and sort out process operator performance issues from process performance issues.

Many organizations use a war room concept to post performance data. Within the war room, the operational manager conducts periodic review and analysis of this performance data. Act: The operational manager is responsible for creating improvement actions to address the performance issues that are identified during their analysis of the process and Process Operator performance data. They address Process Operator performance with ongoing feedback to the Process Operator and/or by using an employee performance management review process. They communicate process performance issues to the Process Operator(s) and the Process Owner.

Process owner[edit]

The process owner is responsible for designing the processes necessary to achieve the objectives of the business plans that are created by the Business Leaders. The process owner is responsible for the creation, update and approval of documents (procedures, work instructions/protocols) to support the process. Many process owners are supported by a process improvement team. The process owner uses this team as a mechanism to help create a high performance process. The process owner is the only person who has authority to make changes in the process and manages the entire process improvement cycle to ensure performance effectiveness. This person is the contact person for all information related to the process. This person is accountable for the effectiveness of the process.

Plan: The process owners create and own the process performance objectives of the organization. The process owner first needs to understand the external and internal customer requirements for the process. This person uses the business plans as a source to help understand the long term and short term customer and business requirements. This person then translates these requirements into process performance objectives and establishes product (includes service) specifications. This person establishes process performance metrics to measure the process’s capability to meet the product specifications and overall process objectives. The set of metrics that are to be reviewed by operational managers and process operators are called key performance indicators (KPIs). The process owner then designs process steps to describe work that when performed will have the capability to produce products that meets the customer and business requirements.

Do: The process owner is responsible to communicate to the operational managers the details of the processes that the operational managers are responsible to execute. As the operational managers and process operators perform the processes, the process owner is responsible to build bridges and remove barriers that will allow the process performance objectives to be met. The process performance metric data is produced and collected as the process is performed by process operators. The process owner is continually involved with the operational managers and process operators as they use kaizen to continually improve the process as they are performing the work.

Check: The Process Owner periodically analyzes the process performance data and use it to visualize the process’s capability to operate within control limits over time (performance trends), compare actual performance against performance targets, and identify performance issues. Act: The Process Owner is responsible for creating improvement actions that address performance issues that are identified during their analysis of the process performance data. Improvement actions may include the initiation of Lean projects to reduce waste from the process or include the initiation of Six Sigma projects to reduce variation in the process. Improvement actions may include the use of problem solving tools that would include risk assessment and root cause analysis. Risk assessment is used to identify and reduce, eliminate, or mitigate risk within the process. This is the proactive approach to avoid problems being created from the process. Root-cause analysis is the reactive way to respond to problems that occur from the process. Root-cause analysis is used to identify the causes of problems within the process and identify and implement improvement actions that will ensure these problems do not occur again.

Plan: The business leaders create and own the business performance objectives of the organization. Senior leaders need to first understand the requirements of their customers, stockholders, workforce, suppliers, and communities. They need to understand their competition. They need to understand the environmental, economic, technological, social, legal, and political environments that they do business within. Senior leaders need to consider all of these elements as they design a Business model and business Strategy map that will meet the customer and business requirements. Business Leaders then translate these requirements and business environment issues into business performance objectives. Business Leaders then create business plans and associated resourcing plans that will cause the organization to achieve these business objectives. The Business Leaders establish business performance metrics to measure the business’s capability to meet these business objectives. Many organizations create a Balanced scorecard to organize and communicate business performance metrics.

Do: The business leaders are responsible for communicating to the organization their business plans. As the organization conducts business, the Business Leaders are responsible to build bridges and remove barriers that will allow the business performance objectives to be met. The business performance metric data is produced and collected as business is performed by the organization. Check: The business leaders periodically analyze the business performance data and use it to visualize the business’s capability to meet business objectives over time (performance trends), compare actual performance against performance targets, and identify performance issues. Act: The business leaders are responsible to create improvement actions to address the performance issues that are identified during their analysis of the business performance data. These improvement actions are created to ensure the organization is able to achieve their business plans.

QMRThere are four roles within a business Management system: Business Leader, Process Owner, Operational Manager, and Process Operator. The responsibilities of each of these roles are unique, but work together as a system. Some employees in an organization may perform as many as all four of these roles over the course of a day, week, month, or year.

The responsibilities of the roles all follow the PDCA (plan, do, check, and act) cycle.[citation needed][5]

Business leaders[edit]

Business leaders are responsible for creating the business plans[citation needed] (including strategic plans created during the strategic planning process) and associated resourcing plans necessary to cause the organization to be successful.

Senior leaders (corporate) are responsible for defining the customer and business objectives which an organization needs[citation needed] to achieve to be successful. This process includes overseeing the development of the organization's mission, vision (goal), and values.[citation needed] These persons are accountable for meeting customer and business objectives.

Lower leader-levels (business unit and functional) are responsible for translating senior leaders' business objectives into business objectives that make sense for their level and that support the accomplishment of the senior leaders' business objectives.[citation needed] These persons are accountable for meeting business unit and functional objectives.

QMRDeming is best known in the United States for his 14 Points (Out of the Crisis, by W. Edwards Deming, Preface) and his system of thought he called the System of Profound Knowledge. The system comprises four components or "lenses" through which to view the world simultaneously: Appreciating a system Understanding variation Psychology Epistemology, the theory of knowledge[5]

Meaning[edit]

The PDCA cycle[2]

Continuous quality improvement with PDCA

PLAN

Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected output (the target or goals). By establishing output expectations, the completeness and accuracy of the spec is also a part of the targeted improvement. When possible start on a small scale to test possible effects.

DO

Implement the plan, execute the process, make the product. Collect data for charting and analysis in the following "CHECK" and "ACT" steps.

CHECK

Study the actual results (measured and collected in "DO" above) and compare against the expected results (targets or goals from the "PLAN") to ascertain any differences. Look for deviation in implementation from the plan and also look for the appropriateness and completeness of the plan to enable the execution, i.e., "Do". Charting data can make this much easier to see trends over several PDCA cycles and in order to convert the collected data into information. Information is what you need for the next step "ACT".

ACT

If the CHECK shows that the PLAN that was implemented in DO is an improvement to the prior standard (baseline), then that becomes the new standard (baseline) for how the organization should ACT going forward (new standards are enACTed). If the CHECK shows that the PLAN that was implemented in DO is not an improvement, then the existing standard (baseline) will remain in place. In either case, if the CHECK showed something different than expected (whether better or worse), then there is some more learning to be done... and that will suggest potential future PDCA cycles. Note that some who teach PDCA assert that the ACT involves making adjustments or corrective actions... but generally it would be counter to PDCA thinking to propose and decide upon alternative changes without using a proper PLAN phase, or to make them the new standard (baseline) without going through DO and CHECK steps.

QMRThere are several variations of the decisional balance sheet.[14] In Janis and Mann's original description there are eight or more cells depending on how many choices there are.[15] For each new choice there are pairs of cells (one for advantages, one for disadvantages) for these four different aspects:[16] anticipated utilitarian effects for self anticipated utilitarian effects for significant others anticipated effect on how one is regarded by significant others anticipated effects on how one views oneself John C. Norcross is among the psychologists who have simplified the balance sheet to four cells: the pros and cons of changing, for self and for others.[17] Similarly, a number of psychologists have simplified the balance sheet to a four-cell format consisting of the pros and cons of the current behaviour and of a changed behaviour.[18] Some authors separate out short- and long-term benefits and risks of a behaviour.[19] The example below allows for three options: carrying on as before, reducing a harmful behaviour to a level where it might be less harmful, or stopping it altogether; it therefore has six cells consisting of a pro and con pair for each of the three options.

QMRFormula for change

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The formula for change was created by David Gleicher while he was working at Arthur D. Little in the early 1960s,[1] and refined by Kathie Dannemiller in the 1980s.[2] This formula provides a model to assess the relative strengths affecting the likely success of organisational change programs.

Dannemiller version: D x V x F > R[edit]

Three factors must be present for meaningful organizational change to take place. These factors are:

D = Dissatisfaction with how things are now;

V = Vision of what is possible;

F = First, concrete steps that can be taken towards the vision;

If the product of these three factors is greater than

R = Resistance

then change is possible. Because D, V, and F are multiplied, if any one is absent (zero) or low, then the product will be zero or low and therefore not capable of overcoming the resistance.

To ensure a successful change it is necessary to use influence and strategic thinking in order to create vision and identify those crucial, early steps towards it. In addition, the organization must recognize and accept the dissatisfaction that exists by listening to the employee voice while sharing industry trends, leadership ideas, best practices and competitor analysis to identify the necessity for change.

QMRRecent empirical literature on folk psychology has shown that people's theories regarding intentional actions involve four distinct factors: beliefs, desires, causal histories, and enabling factors.[7] Here, beliefs and desires represent the central variables responsible for the folk theories of intention.

QMRKeirsey Temperament Sorter developed by David Keirsey is influenced by Isabel Myers sixteen types and Ernst Kretschmer's four types.

QMRSocial Cognition and Object Relations SCOR[22] scale. This assesses four different dimensions of object relations: Complexity of Representations of People, Affect-Tone of Relationship Paradigms, Capacity for Emotional Investment in Relationships and Moral Standards, and Understanding of Social Causality.

QMRRelationship awareness theory[edit]

Relationship awareness theory blended unique forms of psychological thought. The theory recognizes the behaviorist ideas of Edward Tolman, the empiricism of Kurt Lewin, Rogerian client-centered therapy and personality theories of Neo-Feudians Erich Fromm and Karen Horney.[12] The theory itself is founded on four premises:

Behavior is driven by motivation[edit]

Porter drew from Tolman’s concept that “Behavior traits arise from purposive striving for gratification, mediated by concepts or hypotheses about how to obtain those gratifications.” [13] When combined with his research into Fromm’s non-productive orientations and his frame of reference from University of Chicago peers Rogers and Maslow, Porter concluded that the primary motive all people share is a desire to feel worthwhile about themselves – and that each person is motivated to achieve feelings of self-worth in different ways. Those different ways were first expressed by Sigmund Freud as psychic energy being stuck or fixed at various stages of the infant’s relationship with the mother. They were then modified by Fromm and expressed as non-productive orientations of adults in society. Porter took Fromm’s Freudian frame of reference and modified it based on the principle that the primary drive is for self-worth, or self-actualization. Hence, relationship awareness theory highlights seven distinct motivational value systems (which can be traced through Freud and Fromm) and describes them in terms of positive strivings for self-worth by adults in relationships. Porter was the first known psychometrician to use colors (red, green and blue) as shortcuts to communicate the results of a personality test.[14]

Motivation changes in conflict[edit]

This premise is Porter’s work and perhaps his most significant contribution to the field of psychology. Based on his observations with clients and ongoing research into the results of his own psychometrics, he stated, “When we are free to pursue our gratifications, we are more or less uniformly predictable, but in the face of continuing conflict or opposition we undergo changes in motivations that link into different bodies of beliefs and concepts that are, in turn, expressed in yet different behavior traits.”[15] Porter’s description of the conflict sequence suggests that people experience changes in their motivation predictably and sequentially in up to three stages. The first stage characterized by a concern for one’s self, the problem and the other person; the second by a concern for one’s self and the problem and the third by a concern only for the self. The theory further states that the universal productive motive of behavior in conflict is to preserve personal integrity and self-worth.

Personal weaknesses are overdone strengths[edit] Porter accepted Fromm’s premise that strengths taken to excess become weaknesses.[16] While Fromm’s work focused on describing the four non-productive orientations and advocating a fifth “productive orientation”, Porter combined Fromm’s ideas with the first premise (striving for self-worth) and concluded that what Fromm described as non-productive behavior was in fact ineffective behavior being driven by positive motivation. Clarity and face validity enhance self-discovery[edit] Porter stated that “The more clearly the concepts in a personality theory approximate how one experiences oneself, the more effectively they serve as devices for self-discovery.”[17] This premise is consistent with Rogerian or person-centered approaches; it further connects with Rogerian thought by suggesting that the use of the theory should have congruence. Just as Rogers suggests that a person should have congruence between, their experience, awareness, and communication,[18] Porter suggests that a psychometric test should communicate to the user in such a way that it heightens the awareness of the life-experience of the test-taker and becomes useful to the test-taker regarding making behavioral choices. Consistent with Porter’s other significant works, the emphasis was placed on practical application in relationships, not on diagnostic or predictive capabilities. The Strength Deployment Inventory, Porter’s psychometric test based on relationship awareness theory, provides the test-taker with a description of motivation and related behavior set in the context of relationships under two conditions: when things are going well and when faced with conflict. The theory claims that one of the primary causes of conflict is the overdoing or perceived overdoing of strengths in relationships; because people experience these overdone strengths as potential threats to self-worth. He suggested that personal filters influence perception; that people tend to use their own motivational values as a standard when evaluating the behavior of others and that the more different two people’s motivational values are from each other, the more likely they would each be to perceive the behaviors of the others as overdone.

QMRPsychometric testing and evaluation[edit] Porter’s earliest known psychometric evaluations were performed with Rogers, and they measured the degree of directiveness or non-directiveness of a counselor using client-centered techniques.[9] The Person-Relatedness Test measured and validated Erich Fromm’s four non-productive orientations.[10] In 1967 he restructured the Person Relatedness Test and published it as LIFO.[11] In 1971, Porter abandoned LIFO and published the Strength Deployment Inventory, which modified Fromm’s ideas and incorporated Porter’s original concepts. In the early 1970s he introduced the Feedback Edition of the Strength Deployment Inventory and the Interpersonal Requirements Inventory (since retitled Expectations Edition of the Strength Deployment Inventory).

QMREysenck initially conceptualized personality as two biologically-based independent dimensions of temperament, E and N, measured on a continuum, but then extending this to include a third, P.

E - Extraversion/Introversion: Extraversion is characterized by being outgoing, talkative, high on positive affect (feeling good), and in need of external stimulation. According to Eysenck's arousal theory of extraversion, there is an optimal level of cortical arousal, and performance deteriorates as one becomes more or less aroused than this optimal level. Arousal can be measured by skin conductance, brain waves or sweating. At very low and very high levels of arousal, performance is low, but at a better mid-level of arousal, performance is maximized. Extraverts, according to Eysenck's theory, are chronically under-aroused and bored and are therefore in need of external stimulation to bring them UP to an optimal level of performance. About 16 percent of the population tend to fall in this range. Introverts, on the other hand, (also about 16 percent of the population) are chronically over-aroused and jittery and are therefore in need of peace and quiet to bring them DOWN to an optimal level of performance. Most people (about 68 percent of the population) fall in the midrange of the extraversion/introversion continuum, an area referred to as ambiversion.[2]

N - Neuroticism/Stability: Neuroticism or emotionality is characterized by high levels of negative affect such as depression and anxiety. Neuroticism, according to Eysenck's theory, is based on activation thresholds in the sympathetic nervous system or visceral brain. This is the part of the brain that is responsible for the fight-or-flight response in the face of danger. Activation can be measured by heart rate, blood pressure, cold hands, sweating and muscular tension (especially in the forehead). Neurotic people — who have low activation thresholds, and unable to inhibit or control their emotional reactions, experience negative affect (fight-or-flight) in the face of very minor stressors — are easily nervous or upset. Emotionally stable people — who have high activation thresholds and good emotional control, experience negative affect only in the face of very major stressors — are calm and collected under pressure.

The two dimensions or axes, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability, define four quadrants. These are made up of:

Stable extraverts (sanguine qualities such as outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, leadership)

Unstable extraverts (choleric qualities such as touchy, restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive, irresponsible)

Stable introverts (phlegmatic qualities such as calm, even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive)

Unstable introverts (melancholic qualities such as quiet, reserved, pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious, moody)

Further research demonstrated the need for a third category of temperament:[3]

P - Psychoticism/Socialisation: Psychoticism is associated not only with the liability to have a psychotic episode (or break with reality), but also with aggression. Psychotic behavior is rooted in the characteristics of toughmindedness, non-conformity, inconsideration, recklessness, hostility, anger and impulsiveness. The physiological basis suggested by Eysenck for psychoticism is testosterone, with higher levels of psychoticism associated with higher levels of testosterone.

The following table describes the traits that are associated with the three dimensions in Eysenck's model of personality: Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism Aggressive Sociable Anxious Assertive Irresponsible Depressed Egocentric Dominant Guilt Feelings Unsympathetic Lack of reflection Low self-esteem Manipulative Sensation-seeking Tense Achievement-oriented Impulsive Moody Dogmatic Risk-taking Hypochondriac Masculine Expressive Lack of autonomy Tough-minded Active Obsessive A fourth dimension, the L - Lie scale, was introduced later[4] in an attempt to measure to what extent subjects were deliberately attempting to control their scores.

QMRThe Newcastle Personality Assessor (NPA) is a personality test designed to measure the test-taker's personality on five dimensions: Extroversion, Neuroticism, Conscientious, Agreeableness, and Openness.[1] The 10-questions assessor was developed by Daniel Nettle, a behavioral scientist at the Centre for Behaviour & Evolution, Newcastle University

QMRTrue Colors (personality) is a personality profiling system created by Don Lowry in 1979.[1] It was originally created to categorize four basic learning styles using the colors blue, orange, gold and green to identify the strengths and challenges of these core personality types.[2] According to this personality temperament theory, which is a refined version of the popular Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, everyone's personality consists of a combination of all four colors, with the dominant two colors representing the core of a person's personality temperament.[3] In general, green personality types are independent thinkers, gold personality types are pragmatic planners, orange personality types are very action-oriented, and blue personality types are very people-oriented.[4] The idea behind True Colors is that it does not pigeonhole people into one personality type over another with the understanding that one's personality might make adjustments based on his or her environment or associations. True Colors is a way to understand the behaviors and motivations of others relative to our own personalities to help mitigate potential conflict by learning to recognize personality differences and characteristics.[5] Mary Miscisin wrote the definitive guide to True Colors entitled "Showing Our True Colors"[6] After 10 years of additional research, development, story gathering and making additional distinctions Mary Miscisin has released an updated version of Showing Our True Colors called "Personality Lingo.[7]

Scientific Basis[edit] There has been one significant study done of the True Colors system.[8] It found good correlation with standard personality measures, and subjects rated the predictions that are made about them by true colors as accurate. Subjects retested after a 30-50 day delay were given the same classification ~95% of the time. However the research was performed by an 11 year True Colors Certified Trainer; the research was not published in a peer reviewed journal; and there are no published replications. True Colors has not been validated by independent, unaffiliated research.

The BPS Code of Ethics and Conduct similarly sets a high standard for psychologist. It is based on four principles: respect, competence, responsibility and integrity.

Four main schools[edit]

The field is dominated in terms of training and practice by essentially four major schools of practice: psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral/cognitive behavioral, and systems or family therapy.[2]

Psychodynamic[edit]

Main article: Psychodynamic psychotherapy

The psychodynamic perspective developed out of the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud. The core objective of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious—to make the client aware of his or her own primal drives (namely those relating to sex and aggression) and the various defenses used to keep them in check.[55] The essential tools of the psychoanalytic process are the use of free association and an examination of the client's transference towards the therapist, defined as the tendency to take unconscious thoughts or emotions about a significant person (e.g. a parent) and "transfer" them onto another person (i.e., the therapist). Major variations on Freudian psychoanalysis practiced today include self psychology, ego psychology, and object relations theory. These general orientations now fall under the umbrella term psychodynamic psychology, with common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.[55]

Humanistic[edit] Main article: Humanistic psychology Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, largely due to the person-centered therapy of Carl Rogers (often referred to as Rogerian Therapy) and existential psychology developed by Viktor Frankl and Rollo May.[2] Rogers believed that a client needed only three things from a clinician to experience therapeutic improvement: congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding.[57] By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just the fragmented parts of the personality.[58] This aspect of holism links up with another common aim of humanistic practice in psychotherapy, which is to seek an integration of the whole person, also called self-actualization. According to humanistic thinking,[59] each individual person already has inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept. The mission of the humanistic psychologist is to help the individual employ these resources via the therapeutic relationship.[citation needed] Behavioral and cognitive behavioral[edit] Main articles: Cognitive behavioral therapy and Behavior therapy Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) developed from the combination of cognitive therapy and rational emotive behavior therapy, both of which grew out of cognitive psychology and behaviorism. CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion), and how we act (behavior) are related and interact together in complex ways. In this perspective, certain dysfunctional ways of interpreting and appraising the world (often through schemas or beliefs) can contribute to emotional distress or result in behavioral problems. The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify the biased, dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies help clients transcend these in ways that will lead to increased well-being.[60] There are many techniques used, such as systematic desensitization, socratic questioning, and keeping a cognition observation log. Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including dialectical behavior therapy and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.[61] Behavior therapy is a rich tradition. It is well-researched with a strong evidence base. Its roots are in behaviorism. In behavior therapy, environmental events predict the way we think and feel. Our behavior sets up conditions for the environment to feed back on it. Sometimes the feedback leads the behavior to increase (reinforcement), and sometimes the behavior decreases (punishment). Often behavior therapists are called applied behavior analysts. They have studied many areas from developmental disabilities to depression and anxiety disorders. In the area of mental health and addictions a recent article looked at APA's list for well-established and promising practices and found a considerable number of them based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning.[62] Multiple assessment techniques have come from this approach including functional analysis (psychology), which has found a strong focus in the school system. In addition, multiple intervention programs have come from this tradition including community reinforcement approach and family training for treating addictions, acceptance and commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, integrative behavioral couples therapy including dialectical behavior therapy and behavioral activation. In addition, specific techniques such as contingency management and exposure therapy have come from this tradition.[citation needed] Systems or family therapy[edit] Main article: Family therapy Systems or family therapy works with couples and families, and emphasizes family relationships as an important factor in psychological health. The central focus tends to be on interpersonal dynamics, especially in terms of how change in one person will affect the entire system.[63] Therapy is therefore conducted with as many significant members of the "system" as possible. Goals can include improving communication, establishing healthy roles, creating alternative narratives, and addressing problematic behaviors. Contributors include John Gottman, Jay Haley, Sue Johnson, and Virginia Satir.[citation needed]

QMRClinical psychologists provide psychotherapy, psychological testing, and diagnosis of mental illness. They generally train within four primary theoretical orientations: psychodynamic, humanistic, cognitive-behavioral (CBT), and systems or family therapy. Many continue clinical training in post-doctoral programs in which they might specialize in disciplines such as psychoanalytic approaches or child and adolescent treatment modalities.

Sociology Chapter

QMRAn aggregate demand curve is the sum of individual demand curves for different sectors of the economy. The aggregate demand is usually described as a linear sum of four separable demand sources:[4]

AD = C + I + G + (X - M)

where

C is consumption (may also be known as consumer spending), which is given by a_c + b_c(Y - T) where Y is consumers' income and T the taxes paid by consumers,

I is investment,

G is government spending,

NX = X - M is net export, where

X is total exports, and

M total imports, given bya_m + b_m(Y - T).

These four major parts, which can be stated in either 'nominal' or 'real' terms, are:

personal consumption expenditures (C) or "consumption," demand by households and unattached individuals; its determination is described by the consumption function. The consumption function is C = a + MPC \times (Y - T), where

a is autonomous consumption, MPC the marginal propensity to consume, and (Y - T) the disposable income.

In Keynesian economics, not all of gross private domestic investment counts as part of aggregate demand. Much or most of the investment in inventories can be due to a short-fall in demand (unplanned inventory accumulation or "general over-production"). The Keynesian model forecasts a decrease in national output and income when there is unplanned investment. (Inventory accumulation would correspond to an excess supply of products; in the National Income and Product Accounts, it is treated as a purchase by its producer.) Thus, only the planned or intended or desired part of investment (I_p) is counted as part of aggregate demand. (So, I does not include the 'investment' in running up or depleting inventory levels.)

Investment is affected by the output and the interest rate (i). Consequently, we can write it as I(Y, i). Investment has positive relationship with the output and negative relationship with the interest rate. For example, an increase in the interest rate will cause aggregate demand to decline. Interest costs are part of the cost of borrowing and as they rise, both firms and households will cut back on spending. This shifts the aggregate demand curve to the left. This lowers equilibrium GDP below potential GDP. As production falls for many firms, they begin to lay off workers, and unemployment rises. The declining demand also lowers the price level. The economy is in recession.

gross government investment and consumption expenditures (G). net exports (NX and sometimes (X - M)), i.e., net demand by the rest of the world for the country's output. In sum, for a single country at a given time, aggregate demand (D or AD) is given by C + I_p + G + (X - M).

QMRvon Neumann–Morgenstern expected utility[edit]

Main article: Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem

Von Neumann and Morgenstern addressed situations in which the outcomes of choices are not known with certainty, but have probabilities attached to them.

A notation for a lottery is as follows: if options A and B have probability p and 1 − p in the lottery, we write it as a linear combination:

L = p A + (1-p) B

More generally, for a lottery with many possible options:

L = \sum_i p_i A_i,

where \sum_i p_i =1.

By making some reasonable assumptions about the way choices behave, von Neumann and Morgenstern showed that if an agent can choose between the lotteries, then this agent has a utility function such that the desirability of an arbitrary lottery can be calculated as a linear combination of the utilities of its parts, with the weights being their probabilities of occurring.

This is called the expected utility theorem. The required assumptions are four axioms about the properties of the agent's preference relation over 'simple lotteries', which are lotteries with just two options. Writing B\preceq A to mean 'A is weakly preferred to B' ('A is preferred at least as much as B'), the axioms are:

completeness: For any two simple lotteries L and M, either L\preceq M or M\preceq L (or both, in which case they are viewed as equally desirable).

transitivity: for any three lotteries L,M,N, if L\preceq M and M\preceq N, then L\preceq N.

convexity/continuity (Archimedean property): If L \preceq M\preceq N, then there is a p between 0 and 1 such that the lottery pL + (1-p)N is equally desirable as M.

independence: for any three lotteries L,M,N and any probability p, L \preceq M if and only if pL+(1-p)N \preceq pM+(1-p)N. Intuitively, if the lottery formed by the probabilistic combination of L and N is no more preferable than the lottery formed by the same probabilistic combination of M and N, then and only then L \preceq M.

Axioms 3 and 4 enable us to decide about the relative utilities of two assets or lotteries.

In more formal language: A von Neumann–Morgenstern utility function is a function from choices to the real numbers:

u\colon X\to \R

which assigns a real number to every outcome in a way that captures the agent's preferences over simple lotteries. Under the four assumptions mentioned above, the agent will prefer a lottery L_2 to a lottery L_1 if and only if, for the utility function characterizing that agent, the expected utility of L_2 is greater than the expected utility of L_1:

L_1\preceq L_2 \text{ iff } u(L_1)\leq u(L_2). Repeating in category language: u is a morphism between the category of preferences with uncertainty and the category of reals as an additive group. Of all the axioms, independence is the most often discarded. A variety of generalized expected utility theories have arisen, most of which drop or relax the independence axiom.

QMREfficiency[edit] Situations are considered to have distributive efficiency when goods are distributed to the people who can gain the most utility from them. Many economists use Pareto efficiency as their efficiency goal. According to this measure of social welfare, a situation is optimal only if no individuals can be made better off without making someone else worse off. This ideal state of affairs can only come about if four criteria are met: The marginal rates of substitution in consumption are identical for all consumers. This occurs when no consumer can be made better off without making others worse off. The marginal rate of transformation in production is identical for all products. This occurs when it is impossible to increase the production of any good without reducing the production of other goods. The marginal resource cost is equal to the marginal revenue product for all production processes. This takes place when marginal physical product of a factor must be the same for all firms producing a good. The marginal rates of substitution in consumption are equal to the marginal rates of transformation in production, such as where production processes must match consumer wants.

QMRUnderstanding the Tool

The Outsourcing Decision Matrix, shown in Figure1, helps you consider two important factors in outsourcing a task:

How strategically important is the task to your business? Strategically important tasks are sources of competitive advantage.

What is the task's impact on your organization's operational performance? Tasks which have a high impact on operational performance are those which, if done well, contribute greatly to the smooth running of the organization or, if done badly, greatly disrupt it.

Outsourcing Decision Matrix Diagram

The quadrants are as follows:

The quadrants are as follows:

Form a strategic alliance – Tasks in this quadrant are high in strategic importance, but contribute little to operational performance. So, although you need to retain control of them to ensure they are done exactly as you want, or you get the quality you want, they are relatively insignificant in terms of cost or smooth running and so not worthy of full in-house focus. This means that you should form a strategic alliance Add to My Personal Learning Plan. For example, an auto manufacturer could align with an advertising agency. The manufacturer needs to be closely involved in the message and tone of adverts, but advertising has little impact on the day-to-day operational performance of the company.

Retain – Tasks in this quadrant are high in strategic importance and have a big impact on operational performance. These tasks should be kept in-house so that your organization keeps maximum control. In our auto manufacturer, the assembly of cars would be retained as it is strategically critical – it should be one of the organization's core competences Add to My Personal Learning Plan, in fact – and it makes a massive contribution to the smooth running of the organization.Outsource – Tasks this quadrant are important for successful operational performance, but are not strategically important. These tasks could safely be outsourced. They're simply not worth spending in-house time managing. For example, the auto manufacturer in the example above could outsource its delivery logistics to a specialist company. How you deliver cars to dealers is generally not a source of competitive advantage, as it doesn't touch the customer's experience, but how well it's done has a huge impact on operational performance. If transporters are late, stock builds up at the manufacturing plant, and dealers don't have the vehicles they need in their show rooms for customers to test drive. You can learn more about outsourcing in Working with Outsourced Suppliers Add to My Personal Learning Plan.

Eliminate – Tasks in this quadrant are not important to your organization's overall strategy and nor do they make a significant contribution to its day-to-day operational performance. Although you might not be able to eliminate these tasks completely, it's important to check why you're doing them. An example might be running a subsidized staff crèche.

Although having an in-house childcare facility might help you to attract certain staff (strategic importance) or reduce absenteeism caused by childcare problems (operational performance), does the effort involved justify doing it? Perhaps it does, but equally, perhaps you might be better off paying your people a little more, so that they can afford to use independent crèches situated nearby.

3. The zone of Reflection (passive) The zone of reflection is a powerful source of fresh new thinking, a zone of renewal and regeneration. Newton’s theory of universal gravitation, Archimedes’ eureka moment and Steve Jobs’ insights about the future of the music business all came in moments of reflection, when they weren’t actively ‘thinking’ about the matter at hand. There are countless ways of entering a state of reflection and contemplation. I’ve had numerous examples from clients over the years (including walking, sitting by the ocean, riding, meditating, reading, listening to certain music, sitting in the bath etc.) As you continue exploring the inside-out nature of life, and the principles behind clarity, you’ll find yourself being guided into the zone of reflection more easily and spontaneously. (For more on the zone of reflection, check out 'The 5 Reasons Why You Don't Need to Meditate'). And from time to time, you’ll get struck with inspiration, an insight that shows you the way forward. When that happens, it’s time for inspired action… 4. The zone of Inspired Action (active) The zone of inspired action is where you can’t seem to put a foot wrong, where everything’s falling into place and you feel guided and directed. Enjoy it when it comes, and stay in the game when it’s nowhere to be found. As you continue deepening your understanding of the principles behind clarity, you’ll find yourself in the zone of inspired action more often. And when you’re not there, you’ll know that it’s never far away.

The zone of Rumination (passive)

People oscillate between periods of clarity, and periods of getting caught up in their thinking. When we’re caught up in our thoughts, it’s almost always an example of what I call ‘superstitious thinking’, the mistaken belief that our feelings are coming from somewhere other than our thinking in the moment.

The zone of rumination is unhelpful and unproductive. Nevertheless, we all end up there from time to time. Here are some of the signals that let you know a person may be caught up in the zone of rumination:

- Using their habitual thought-patterns to try and think their way out of a problem

- Caught up in ‘analysis paralysis’ as they try and create a foolproof plan

- Worry and anxiety about a future or past situation

- Caught up in dissatisfaction and “I’ll be happy when…” thinking

- Feeling frustrated as they wait for inspiration to strike

We have seasons, just like the rest of nature. We’re not all 100% productive 100% of the time. Here are a couple of tips for when you find yourself in the zone of rumination. These aren’t ‘how tos’, but rather some perspectives you might like to consider if you should find yourself struggling:

- Give up on your habitual patterns of superstitious thinking. The feeling of stress / anxiety / frustration is often a reliable indicator that you’ve slipped into superstitious, outside-in thinking. Just recognising this fact can often help you loosen your grip on it.

- Look away from your thinking and towards what’s creating it; the principle of thought. We’re always living in the feeling of our thinking, and we’re connected to an infinite source of fresh new thinking. Looking to the universal nature of thought is often more fruitful than struggling with habitual thought patterns.

- Jump into uninspired action…

2. The zone of Uninspired Action (active)

The zone of uninspired action is the ‘perspiration reality’ I referred to earlier. Getting into action gives you something to be doing and focusing on. Your mind is a self-correcting system, so you’re going to get new thinking sooner or later. When you’re taking action, it’s surprising how often new thinking shows up. When a person’s in the zone of uninspired action, there’s sometimes a sense of strain, struggle and ‘slogging away at it’. That’s OK. Stay in the game. (For more on this, check out last week’s tip, “The Myth of Inspiration”). A couple of tips for navigating the zone of uninspired action: - If you’re particularly caught up in your thinking, do your best to avoid making any important decisions / having those really important conversations. - Pay attention to the subtle (or not so subtle) signals of your wisdom / intuition. Stop and rest when it occurs to you to do so. If it strikes you that having a break (eg. going for a walk, relaxing etc) would be a good idea, go with it. - You may even find yourself pausing and easing into the zone of reflection…

QMRLast week, I wrote an article called ‘The Myth of Inspiration’, in which I revealed one of the most limiting ideas that I see many people suffering from; the mistaken belief that they need to feel inspired before they take action. This misguided idea keeps people in the zone of passivity, waiting for metaphorical lightning to strike so they can start moving forward. In this week’s article, I’ll be revealing why and how passivity can actually be a source of power and inspiration, and how you can get it to work for you rather than against you…

The alternative to the inspiration myth (what I call ‘the perspiration reality’) involves taking action even when you’re not feeling inspired, secure in the knowledge that inspiration will show up when you need it. When you’re not feeling inspired, (as my dear friend, Stillpower author Garret Kramer says), “Stay in the game.”

But there are times when it pays to be ‘passive’. Many of the great discoveries through history have come as the result of an insight, fresh new thinking that shows up when the thinker is in a state of contemplation, reflection or meditation. So how does this reconcile with ‘the perspiration reality’? Many of my clients appreciate the following diagram, which I call The Inspired Productivity Quadrant.

The quadrant describes four zones, which I describe below:

QMRQuality meets Maturity

Maturity alone does not give enough detail about the quality of a particular IP design. For example, the IP may have been tested and have all views, but may not have a robust specification or design. Maturity indicates completeness of the IP that can be represented as a workflow composed of a list of deliverables. Quality indicates the excellence of the IP that can be represented with checklists. Both the workflow and checklist methods of input can be used to calculate a maturity and quality score.

The combination of quality and maturity together present the best picture of an IP’s suitability for usage in a SoC. In the student analogy, a university student will have high maturity and could have a “C” average score indicating low quality, but still will not be the most accomplished student. On the other hand, a 1st grade student will have low maturity and could have an “A” average score indicating high quality, but still will not be the most accomplished student. Ideally, the most accomplished student would be a PhD student with high maturity and an “A” average score indicating high quality.

For IP blocks, the best ones to use would have both high maturity and high quality. If either maturity or quality is low, then there is risk in using the IP for a particular design. Figure 3 shows a quadrant diagram illustrating the relationship of Maturity to Quality on the predicted outcome of an IP. If given a choice, a SoC team would choose to have all of its IP in the quadrant with both high Maturity and high Quality. Fig.3: Quadrant Diagram of Quality & Maturity Design Reality

QMRThe woman then palpates her breasts with the pads of her fingers to feel for lumps (either superficial or deeper in tissue) or soreness. There are several common patterns, which are designed to ensure complete coverage. The vertical strip pattern involves moving the fingers up and down over the breast. The pie-wedge pattern starts at the nipple and moves outward. The circular pattern involves moving the fingers in concentric circles from the nipple outward. Some guidelines suggest mentally dividing the breast into four quadrants and checking each quadrant separately. The palpation process covers the entire breast, including the "axillary tail" of each breast that extends toward the axilla (armpit). This is usually done once while standing in front of the mirror and again while lying down.

QMRThe IS–LM model, or Hicks–Hansen model, is a macroeconomic tool that shows the relationship between interest rates and real output, in the goods and services market and the money market (also known as the assets market). The intersection of the "investment–saving" (IS) and "liquidity preference–money supply" (LM) curves is the "general equilibrium" where there is simultaneous equilibrium in both markets.[1] Two equivalent interpretations are possible: first, the IS–LM model explains changes in national income when the price level is fixed in the short-run; second, the IS–LM model shows why the aggregate demand curve shifts.[2] Hence, this tool is sometimes used not only to analyse the fluctuations of the economy but also to find appropriate stabilisation policies.[3] The model was developed by John Hicks in 1937,[4] and later extended by Alvin Hansen,[5] as a mathematical representation of Keynesian macroeconomic theory. Between the 1940s and mid-1970s, it was the leading framework of macroeconomic analysis.[6] While it has been largely absent from macroeconomic research ever since, it is still the backbone of many introductory macroeconomics textbooks.[7] The lines cross

QMRThe Keynesian cross diagram demonstrates the relationship between aggregate demand (shown on the vertical axis) and aggregate supply (shown on the horizontal axis, measured by output).

QMRChinese asterisms Sze Fūh, the Four Great Canals; Kwan Kew; and Wae Choo, the Outer Kitchen, all lay within the boundaries of Monoceros.[12]