Science chapter
Ryan Merkle QMRIn object-oriented programming, the command pattern is a behavioral design pattern in which an object is used to encapsulate all information needed to perform an action or trigger an event at a later time. This information includes the method name, the object that owns the method and values for the method parameters.
Four terms always associated with the command pattern are command, receiver, invoker and client. A command object knows about receiver and invokes a method of the receiver. Values for parameters of the receiver method are stored in the command. The receiver then does the work. An invoker object knows how to execute a command, and optionally does bookkeeping about the command execution. The invoker does not know anything about a concrete command, it knows only about command interface. Both an invoker object and several command objects are held by a client object. The client decides which commands to execute at which points. To execute a command, it passes the command object to the invoker object.
Ryan Merkle QMr Stillman, T. F., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). Uncertainty, belongingness, and four needs for meaning. Psychological Inquiry, 20(4), 249-251. doi:10.1080/10478400903333544
Ryan Merkle QMRMcMillan & Chavis's (1986) theory (and instrument) are the most broadly validated and widely utilized in this area in the psychological literature. They prefer the abbreviated label "sense of community", and propose that sense of community is composed of four elements.
Four elements of sense of community[edit]
There are four elements of "sense of community" according to the McMillan & Chavis theory:
Membership[edit]
Membership includes five attributes:
boundaries
emotional safety
a sense of belonging and identification
personal investment
a common symbol system
Influence[edit]
Influence works both ways: members need to feel that they have some influence in the group, and some influence by the group on its members is needed for group cohesion. Current researches (e.g. Chigbu, 2013) on rural and urban communities have found that sense of community is a major factor in development.
Integration and fulfillment of needs[edit]
Members feel rewarded in some way for their participation in the community.
Shared emotional connection[edit]
The "definitive element for true community" (1986, p. 14), it includes shared history and shared participation (or at least identification with the history).
QMRSocial support can be categorized and measured in several different ways.
There are four common functions of social support:[2][3][4]
Emotional support is the offering of empathy, concern, affection, love, trust, acceptance, intimacy, encouragement, or caring.[5][6] It is the warmth and nurturance provided by sources of social support.[7] Providing emotional support can let the individual know that he or she is valued.[6] It is also referred to as "esteem support" or "appraisal support."[2]
Tangible support is the provision of financial assistance, material goods, or services.[8][9] Also called instrumental support, this form of social support encompasses the concrete, direct ways people assist others.[5]
Informational support is the provision of advice, guidance, suggestions, or useful information to someone.[2][10] This type of information has the potential to help others problem-solve.[5][11]
Companionship support is the type of support that gives someone a sense of social belonging (and is also called belonging).[2] This can be seen as the presence of companions to engage in shared social activities.[12]
Physics Chapter
Ryan Merkle QMREudoxus of Cnidus was the first astronomer to develop the concept of concentric spheres. He was originally a student at Plato’s academy and is believed to have been influenced by the cosmological speculations of Plato and Pythagoras.[3][4] He came up with the idea of homocentric spheres in order to explain the perceived inconsistent motions of the planets and to develop a uniform model for accurately calculating the movement of celestial objects.[5] None of his books have survived to the modern day and everything we know about his cosmological theories comes from the works of Aristotle and Simplicius. According to these works, Eudoxus’ model had twenty-seven homocentric spheres with each sphere explaining a type of observable motion for each celestial object. Eudoxus assigns one sphere for the fixed stars which is supposed to explain their daily movement. He assigns three spheres to both the sun and the moon with the first sphere moving in the same manner as the sphere of the fixed stars. The second sphere explains the movement of the sun and the moon on the ecliptic plane. The third sphere was supposed to move on a “latitudinally inclined” circle and explain the latitudinal motion of the sun and the moon in the cosmos. Four spheres were assigned to Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn which were the only known planets at that time. The first and second spheres of the planets moved exactly like the first two spheres of the sun and the moon. According to Simplicius, the third and fourth sphere of the planets were supposed to move in a way that created a curve known as a hippopede. The hippopede was a way to try and explain the retrograde motions of planets.[6] Many historians of science, such as Michael J. Crowe, have argued that Eudoxus did not consider his system of concentric spheres to be a real representation of the universe but thought it was merely a mathematical model for calculating planetary motion.[7]
Ryan Merkle QMRClassical types[edit]
Objects named nebulae belong to four major groups. Before their nature was understood, galaxies ("spiral nebulae") and star clusters too distant to be resolved as stars were also classified as nebulae, but no longer are.
H II regions, large diffuse nebulae containing ionized hydrogen
Planetary nebulae
Supernova remnant (e.g., Crab Nebula)
Dark nebula
Not all cloud-like structures are named nebulae; Herbig–Haro objects are an example
Chemistry Chapter
Ryan Merkle QMR Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere;[25] these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere.
Biology Chapter
QMRFemale shapes[edit]
Independent of fat percentage, weight or width, female body shapes are categorised in some Western cultures into one of four elementary geometric shapes,[19] though there are very wide ranges of actual sizes within each shape:
Rectangular
The waist measurement is less than 9 inches smaller than the hips and bust measurement.[19] Body fat is distributed predominantly in the abdomen, buttocks, chest, and face. This overall fat distribution creates the typical ruler (straight) shape.
Inverted triangle
Apple shaped women have broad(er) shoulders compared with their (narrower) hips.[19] The legs and thighs tend to be slim, while the abdomen and chest look larger compared with the rest of the body. Fat is mainly distributed in the abdomen, chest and face.
Spoon
The hip measurement is greater than the bust measurement.[19] The distribution of fat varies, with fat tending to deposit first in the buttocks, hips, and thighs. As body fat percentage increases, an increasing proportion of body fat is distributed around the waist and upper abdomen. The women of this body type tend to have a relatively larger rear, thicker thighs, and a small(er) bosom.
Hourglass or X shape (triangles opposing, facing in)
Main article: hourglass figure
The hips and bust are almost of equal size with a narrow waist.[19] Body fat distribution tends to be around both the upper body and lower body. This body type enlarges the arms, chest, hips, and rear before other parts, such as the waist and upper abdomen.
A study of the shapes of over 6,000 women, carried out by researchers at the North Carolina State University circa 2005,[24] found that 46% were rectangular, just over 20% spoon, just under 14% inverted triangle, and 8% hourglass.[19] Another study has found "that the average woman's waistline had expanded by six inches since the 1950s" and that women in 2004 were taller and had bigger busts and hips than those of the 1950s.[19]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe baboon has a four-level social system called a multilevel society. Most social interaction occurs within small groups called one-male units or harems containing one male and up to ten females which the males lead and guard. A harem will typically include a younger "follower" male who may be related to the leader.[8][9][10] Two or more harems unite repeatedly to form clans.[11] Within clans, the dominant males of the units are probably close relatives of one another and have an age-related dominance hierarchy.[12][13] Bands are the next level. Two to four clans form bands of up to 200 individuals which usually travel and sleep as a group.[8][9][13] Both males and females rarely leave their bands. The dominant males will prevent infants and juveniles from interacting with infants and juveniles from other bands. Bands may fight with one another over food, etc., and the adult male leaders of the units are usually the combatants.[8][10] Bands also contain solitary males that are not harem leaders or followers and move freely within the band. Several bands may come together to form a troop. Several bands in a troop also often share a cliff-face where they sleep.[8][9][13]
Ryan Merkle QMRHamadryas baboons often appear in ancient Egyptian art, as they were considered sacred to Thoth,[20] a major and powerful deity with many roles that included being the scribe of the gods. Astennu, attendant to Thoth, is represented as a hamadryas in his roles as recorder of the result of the Weighing of the Heart and as one of the four hamadryas baboons guarding the lake of fire in Duat, the ancient Egyptian underworld. A pre-dynastic precursor to Astennu was Babi, or "Bull of the Baboons", a bloodthirsty god said to eat the entrails of the unrighteous dead. Babi was also said to give the righteous dead continued virility, and to use his penis as the mast of a boat to convey them to the Egyptian paradise.
Sometimes Thoth himself appears in the form of a hamadryas (often shown carrying the moon on his head), as an alternative to his more common representation as an ibis-headed figure. Hapi, one of the Four Sons of Horus that guarded the organs of the deceased in ancient Egyptian religion, is also represented as hamadryas-headed: Hapi protected the lungs, hence the common sculpting of a stone or clay hamadryas head as the lid of the canopic jar that held the lungs and/or represented the protection of the lungs. Hamadryas baboons were revered because certain behaviors that they perform were seen as worshiping the sun.[20]
Primates are among the most social of animals, forming pairs or family groups, uni-male harems, and multi-male/multi-female groups.[88] Richard Wrangham stated that social systems of non-human primates are best classified by theamount of movement by females occurring between groups.[89] He proposed four categories:
Female transfer systems – females move away from the group in which they were born. Females of a group will not be closely related whereas males will have remained with their natal groups, and this close association may be influential in social behavior. The groups formed are generally quite small. This organization can be seen in chimpanzees, where the males, who are typically related, will cooperate in defense of the group's territory. Among New World Monkeys, spider monkeys and muriquis use this system.[90]
A social huddle of ring-tailed lemurs. The two individuals on the right exposing their white ventral surface are sunning themselves.
Male transfer systems – while the females remain in their natal groups, the males will emigrate as adolescents. Polygynous and multi-male societies are classed in this category. Group sizes are usually larger. This system is common among the ring-tailed lemur, capuchin monkeys and cercopithecine monkeys.[56]
Monogamous species – a male–female bond, sometimes accompanied by a juvenile offspring. There is shared responsibility of parental care and territorial defense. The offspring leaves the parents' territory during adolescence. Gibbons essentially use this system, although "monogamy" in this context does not necessarily mean absolute sexual fidelity.[91]
Solitary species – often males who defend territories that include the home ranges of several females. This type of organization is found in the prosimians such as the slow loris. Orangutans do not defend their territory but effectively have this organization.[92]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe four-striped grass mouse or four-striped grass rat (Rhabdomys pumilio) is a species of rodent in the family Muridae.[1]
Ryan Merkle QMRFour subspecies of the common chimpanzee have been recognised,[10][11] with the possibility of a fifth:[12]
Central chimpanzee or tschego, P. t. troglodytes, in Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Western chimpanzee, P. t. verus, in Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana
Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, P. t. ellioti (also known as P. t. vellerosus),[10] in Nigeria and Cameroon
Eastern chimpanzee, P. t. schweinfurthii, in the Central African Republic, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, and Zambia
Southeastern chimpanzee, P. t. marungensis, in Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda: Colin Groves argues that this subspecies is the result of enough variation between the northern and southern populations of P. t. schweinfurthii.[12]
The fourth is always different the fifth is always questionable
Ryan Merkle QMRGibbons (/ˈɡɪbənz/[3]) are apes in the family Hylobatidae /ˌhaɪloʊbəˈtaɪdeɪ, -diː/[4]. The family historically contained one genus, but now is split into four genera and 17 species. Gibbons occur in tropical and subtropical rainforests from eastern Bangladesh and northeast India to southern China and Indonesia (including the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java).
Ryan Merkle QMRNucleic acid structure refers to the structure of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. Chemically speaking, DNA and RNA are very similar. Nucleic acid structure is often divided into four different levels: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
Ryan Merkle Nucleic acid design can be used to create nucleic acid complexes with complicated secondary structures such as this four-arm junction. These four strands associate into this structure because it maximizes the number of correct base pairs, with A's matched to T's and C's matched to G's. Image from Mao, 2004.[5]
Ryan Merkle A Tetraloop is a four-base pairs hairpin RNA structure. There are three common families of tetraloop in ribosomal RNA: UNCG, GNRA, and CUUG (N is one of the four nucleotides and R is a purine).UNCG is the most stable tetraloop.[8] Pseudoknot is a RNA secondary structure first identified in turnip yellow mosaic virus.[9] Pseudoknots are formed when nucleotides from the hairpin loop pairs with a single stranded region outside of the hairpin to form a helical segment. H-type fold pseudoknots are best characterized. In H-type fold, nucleotides in the hairpin loop pairs with the bases outside the hairpin stem forming second stem and loop. This causes formation of pseudoknots with two stems and two loops.[10] Pseudoknots are functional elements in RNA structure having diverse function and found in most classes of RNA. DotKnot-PW method is used for comparative pseudoknots prediction .The main points in the DotKnot-PW method is scoring the similarities found in stems, secondary elements and H-type pseudoknots.[11]
Ryan Merkle QMRTetraloops are a type of four-base hairpin loop motifs in RNA secondary structure that cap many double helices.[2] There are many variants of the tetraloop, the published ones include ANYA,[3][4] CUYG,[5] GNRA,[6] UMAC[7] and UNCG.[8]
Three types of tetraloops are common in ribosomal RNA: GNRA, UNCG and CUUG. The GNRA tetraloop has a guanine-adenine base-pair where the guanine is 5' to the helix and the adenine is 3' to the helix. Tetraloops with the sequence UMAC have essentially the same backbone fold as the GNRA tetraloop,[9] but may be less likely to form tetraloop-receptor interactions. They may therefore be a better choice for closing stems when designing artificial RNAs.
QMRThe nucleic acid notation currently in use was first formalized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) in 1970.[1] This universally accepted notation uses the Roman characters G, C, A, and T, to represent the four nucleotides commonly found in deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA). Given the rapidly expanding role for genetic sequencing, synthesis, and analysis in biology, researchers have been compelled to develop alternate notations to further support the analysis and manipulation of genetic data. These notations generally exploit size, shape, and symmetry to accomplish these objectives.
Contents [hide]
1 IUPAC notation
2 Visually enhanced notations
2.1 Stave projection
2.2 Geometric symbols
2.3 DNA Skyline
3 Functional ambigraphic notations
3.1 AmbiScript
4 References
IUPAC notation[edit]
Symbol[2] Description Bases represented
A Adenine A 1
C Cytosine C
G Guanine G
T Thymine T
U Uracil U
W Weak A T 2
S Strong C G
M aMino A C
K Keto G T
R puRine A G
Y pYrimidine C T
B not A (B comes after A) C G T 3
D not C (D comes after C) A G T
H not G (H comes after G) A C T
V not T (V comes after T and U) A C G
N or - any Nucleotide (not a gap) A C G T 4
Degenerate base symbols in biochemistry are an IUPAC[2] representation for a position on a DNA sequence that can have multiple possible alternatives. These should not be confused with non-canonical bases because each particular sequence will have in fact one of the regular bases. These are used to encode the consensus sequence of a population of aligned sequences and are used for example in phylogenetic analysis to summarise into one multiple sequences or for BLAST searches, even though IUPAC degenerate symbols are masked (as they are not coded).
Under the commonly used IUPAC system, nucleobases are represented by the first letters of their chemical names: [G]uanine, [C]ytosine, [A]denine, and [T]hymine.[1] This shorthand also includes eleven "ambiguity" characters associated with every possible combination of the four DNA bases.[3] The ambiguity characters were designed to encode positional variations found among families of related genes. The IUPAC notation, including ambiguity characters and suggested mnemonics, is shown in Table 1.
Despite its broad and nearly universal acceptance, the IUPAC system has a number of limitations, which stem from its reliance on the Roman alphabet. The poor legibility of upper-case Roman characters, which are generally used when displaying genetic data, may be chief among these limitations. The value of external projections in distinguishing letters has been well documented.[4] However, these projections are absent from upper case letters, which in some cases are only distinguishable by subtle internal cues. Take for example the upper case C and G used to represent cytosine and guanine. These characters generally comprise half the characters in a genetic sequence but are differentiated by a small internal tick (depending on the typeface). Nevertheless, these Roman characters are available in the ASCII character set most commonly used in textual communications, which reinforces this system's ubiquity.
Another shortcoming of the IUPAC notation arises from the fact that its eleven ambiguity characters have been selected from the remaining characters of the Roman alphabet. The authors of the notation endeavored to select ambiguity characters with logical mnemonics. For example, S is used to represent the possibility of finding cytosine or guanine at genetic loci, both of which form [S]trong cross-strand binding interactions. Conversely, the weaker interactions of thymine and adenine are represented by a W. However, convenient mnemonics are not as readily available for the other ambiguity characters displayed in Table 1. This has made ambiguity characters difficult to use and may account for their limited application.
Visually enhanced notations[edit]
Legibility issues associated with IUPAC-encoded genetic data have led biologists to consider alternate strategies for displaying genetic data. These creative approaches to visualizing DNA sequences have generally relied on the use of spatially distributed symbols and/or visually distinct shapes to encode lengthy nucleic acid sequences. Several of these approaches are summarized below.
Stave projection[edit]
The Stave Projection uses spatially distributed dots to enhance the legibility of DNA sequences.
In 1986, Cowin et al. described a novel method for visualizing DNA sequence known as the Stave Projection.[5] Their strategy was to encode nucleotides as circles on series of horizontal bars akin to notes on musical stave. As illustrated in Figure 1, each gap on the five-line staff corresponded to one of the four DNA bases. The spatial distribution of the circles made it far easier to distinguish individual bases and compare genetic sequences than IUPAC-encoded data.
The order of the bases (from top to bottom, G, A, T, C) is chosen so that the complementary strand can be read by turning the projection upside down.
Geometric symbols[edit]
Zimmerman et al. took a different approach to visualizing genetic data.[6] Rather than relying on spatially distributed circles to highlight genetic features, they exploited four geometrically diverse symbols found in a standard computer font to distinguish the four bases. The authors developed a simple WordPerfect macro to translate IUPAC characters into the more visually distinct symbols.
DNA Skyline[edit]
With the growing availability of font editors, Jarvius and Landegren devised a novel set of genetic symbols, known as the DNA Skyline font, which uses increasingly taller blocks to represent the different DNA bases.[7] While reminiscent of Cowin et al.'s spatially distributed Stave Projection, the DNA Skyline font is easy to download and permits translation to and from the IUPAC notation by simply changing the font in most standard word processing applications.
Functional ambigraphic notations[edit]
Additional functionality can be found in nucleic acid notations that use ambigrams to mirror structural symmetries found in the DNA double helix. As defined by Douglas Hofstadter, ambigrams are words or symbols that convey the same or different meaning when viewed in a different orientation.[8] It turns out that by assigning ambigraphic characters to complementary bases (i.e. guanine = b, cytosine = q, adenine = n, and thymine = u), it is possible to complement entire DNA sequences by simply rotating the text 180 degrees.[9] An ambigraphic nucleic acid notation also makes it easy to identify genetic palindromes, such as endonuclease restriction sites, as sections of text that can be rotated 180 degrees without changing the sequence.
AmbiScript[edit]
AmbiScript uses ambigrams to reflect DNA symmetries and support the manipulation and analysis of genetic data.
The latest in a series of rationally designed nucleic acid notations, AmbiScript combines many of the visual and functional features of its predecessors.[10] As its name implies, AmbiScript is an ambigraphic nucleic acid notation that permits rapid complementation of genetic sequence and identification of biologically significant palindromes. However, notation also uses spatially offset characters to facilitate the visual review and analysis of genetic data. One novel feature that AmbiScript brings to the world of genetic notations is its use of compound symbols to convey the possibility of finding two or more different bases at a given position. This strategy appears to offer far less cumbersome solution to the use of ambiguity characters first proposed by the IUPAC.[3] As with Jarvius and Landegren's DNA Skyline fonts, AmbiScript fonts are easily downloaded and applied to IUPAC-encoded sequence data.
QMRThe possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand — adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine — covalently linked to a phosphodiester backbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the 5' to 3' direction. With regards to transcription, a sequence is on the coding strand if it has the same order as the transcribed RNA.
One sequence can be complementary to another sequence, meaning that they have the base on each position is the complementary (i.e. A to T, C to G) and in the reverse order. For example, the complementary sequence to TTAC is GTAA. If one strand of the double-stranded DNA is considered the sense strand, then the other strand, considered the antisense strand, will have the complementary sequence to the sense strand.
Ryan Merkle QMRIn 1989, Troiden proposed a four-stage model for the development of homosexual sexual identity.[117] The first stage, known as sensitization, usually starts in childhood, and is marked by the child's becoming aware of same-sex attractions. The second stage, identity confusion, tends to occur a few years later. In this stage, the youth is overwhelmed by feelings of inner turmoil regarding their sexual orientation, and begins to engage sexual experiences with same-sex partners. In the third stage of identity assumption, which usually takes place a few years after the adolescent has left home, adolescents begin to come out to their family and close friends, and assumes a self-definition as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.[118] In the final stage, known as commitment, the young adult adopts their sexual identity as a lifestyle. Therefore, this model estimates that the process of coming out begins in childhood, and continues through the early to mid 20s. This model has been contested, and alternate ideas have been explored in recent years.
Ryan Merkle QMRZebras have four gaits: walk, trot, canter and gallop. They are generally slower than horses, but their great stamina helps them outrun predators. When chased, a zebra will zig-zag from side to side, making it more difficult for the predator to attack. When cornered, the zebra will rear up and kick or bite its attacker.
QMRMating systems[edit]
In sociobiology and behavioural ecology, the term "mating system" is used to describe the ways in which animal societies are structured in relation to sexual behaviour. The mating system specifies which males mate with which females, and under what circumstances. There are four basic systems:
The four basic mating systems[4]:160–161[5]
Single female Multiple females
Single male Monogamy Polygyny
Multiple males Polyandry Polygynandry
These four are determined by two dichotomies in a quadrant
Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas, 186 were found to be monogamous; 453 had occasional polygyny; 588 had more frequent polygyny; and 4 had polyandry.[4] Polyandry is less rare than this figure which listed only those examples found in the Himalayan mountains (28 societies). More recent studies have found more than 50 other societies practicing polyandry.[5]
The fourth Polyandry is different. The fourth is always different
Ryan Merkle QMRfour veined octopus (Amphioctopus marginatus) individuals were witnessed retrieving coconut shells, manipulating them, stacking them, transporting them some distance (up to 20 metres), and then reassembling them to use as a shelter
Ryan Merkle QMRThe winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), also known as the Goa bean, four-angled bean, four-cornered bean, Manila bean, Mauritius bean, is a tropical legume plant native to New Guinea.
QMRIn 2012, researchers said that there are four genetically distinct types of the breast cancer and that in each type, hallmark genetic changes lead to many cancers.[58]
QMRSchedules of Controlled Substances[edit]
The list of Schedules and the substances presently therein can be found on the International Narcotics Control Board's website.[9]
The Convention has four Schedules of controlled substances, ranging from Schedule I (most restrictive) to Schedule IV (least restrictive). A list of psychotropic substances, and their corresponding Schedules, was annexed to the 1971 treaty. The text of the Convention does not contain a formal description of the features of the substances fitting in each Schedule, in contrast to the US Controlled Substances Act of 1970, which gave specific criteria for each Schedule in the US system. The amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS), a legal class of stimulants – not all of which are substituted amphetamines – were defined in the 1971 treaty and in subsequent revisions.[10] A 2002 European Parliament report and a 1996 UNODC report on ATS describe the international Schedules as listed below.[10][11]
Schedule I includes drugs claimed to create a serious risk to public health, whose therapeutic value is not currently acknowledged by the Commission on Narcotic Drugs. It includes synthetic psychedelics such as LSD in addition to natural psychedelics like DMT isomers. ATS such as cathinone, MDA, and MDMA (ecstasy) also fall under this category.[10]
Schedule II includes certain ATS with therapeutic uses, such as amphetamine and methylphenidate,[10] as well as some analgesics such as morphine. Dronabinol, which is a THC isomer, is also included.
Schedule III includes barbiturate products with fast or average effects, which have been the object of serious abuse even though useful therapeutically, flunitrazepam and some analgesics like buprenorphine. The only ATS in this category is cathine.[10]
Schedule IV includes some weaker barbiturates like (phenobarbital) and other hypnotics, hypnotic, anxiolytic benzodiazepines (except flunitrazepam), and some weaker stimulants. It has been suggested that THC be moved to this category but it is still listed as schedule I. Over a dozen ATS are included in this category, including the substituted amphetamine phentermine.[10]
QMRThe four main mechanisms by which microorganisms exhibit resistance to antimicrobials are:
Drug inactivation or modification: for example, enzymatic deactivation of penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases. Most commonly, the protective enzymes produced by the bacterial cell will add an acetyl or phosphate group to a specific site on the antibiotic, which will reduce its ability to bind to the bacterial ribosomes and disrupt protein synthesis.[123]
Alteration of target site: for example, alteration of PBP—the binding target site of penicillins—in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria. Another protective mechanism found among bacterial species is ribosomal protection proteins. These proteins protect the bacterial cell from antibiotics that target the cell’s ribosomes to inhibit protein synthesis. The mechanism involves the binding of the ribosomal protection proteins to the ribosomes of the bacterial cell, which in turn changes its conformational shape. This allows the ribosomes to continue synthesizing proteins essential to the cell while preventing antibiotics from binding to the ribosome to inhibit protein synthesis.
Alteration of metabolic pathway: for example, some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides, instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to using preformed folic acid.
Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface[124] These specialized pumps can be found within the cellular membrane of certain bacterial species and are used to pump antibiotics out of the cell before they are able to do any damage. These efflux pumps are often activated by a specific substrate associated with an antibiotic.[125
QMRLife cycle[edit]
The monarch undergoes the four stages of complete metamorphosis:
Eggs[edit]
The eggs are derived from materials ingested as a larvae and from the spermataphores received from males during mating.[31] Eggs are laid singly on the underside of a young leaf of a milkweed plant during the spring and summer months.[32] The eggs are cream-colored or light green, ovate to conical in shape, and about 1.2×0.9 mm in size. The eggs weigh less than 0.5 mg each and have raised ridges that form longitudinally from the point to apex to the base. Though each egg is 1/1000th the mass of the female, she may lay up to her own mass in eggs. Females lay smaller eggs as they age. Larger females lay larger eggs.[31] The number of eggs laid by a female, who may mate several times, ranges from 290 to 1180. [33] Females lay their eggs on milkweed that make their offspring less sick.[34][35] Eggs take 3 to 8 days to develop and hatch into larva or caterpillars.[8]:(p21)Monarchs will lay eggs along the southern migration route.[36]
Larvae[edit]
The caterpillar goes through five major, distinct stages of growth and after each one, it molts. Each caterpillar, or instar, that molts is larger than the previous as it eats and stores energy in the form of fat and nutrients to carry it through the nonfeeding pupal stage.
5th instar with the white spots visible on the prolegs
The first instar caterpillar that emerges out of the egg is pale green and translucent. It lacks banding coloration or tentacles. The larvae or caterpillar eats its egg case and begins to feed on milkweed. It is during this stage of growth that the caterpillar begins to sequester cardenolides. The circular motion a caterpillar uses while eating milkweed prevents the flow of latex that could entrap it.
The second instar larva develops a characteristic pattern of white, yellow and black transverse bands. It is no longer translucent but is covered in short setae. Pairs of black tentacles (stinkhorns) begin to grow. One pair grows on the thorax and another pair on the abdomen.
The third instar larva has more distinct bands and the two pairs of tentacles become longer. Legs on the thorax differentiate into a smaller pair near the head and larger pairs further back. These third stage caterpillars began to eat along the leaf edges.
The fourth instar has a different banding pattern. It develops white spots on the prolegs near the back of the caterpillar.
The fifth instar larva has a more complex banding pattern and white dots on the prolegs, with front legs that are small and very close to the head.
At this stage of development, it is relatively large compared to the earlier instars. The caterpillar completes its growth. At this point, it is 25 to 45 mm long and 5 to 8 mm wide. This can be compared to the first instar, which was 2 to 6 mm long and 0.5 to 1.5 mm wide. Fifth instar larvae increase 2000 times from first instars. Fifth-stage instar larva chew through the petiole or mid-rev of milkweed leaves and stop the flow of latex. After this, they eat more leaf tissue. Before pupation, larva must consume milkweed to increase their mass. Larva stop feeding and search for a pupation site. The caterpillar attaches itself securely to a horizontal surface, using a silk pad. At this point, it latches on with its hind legs and hangs down. It then molts into an opaque, blue-green chrysalis with small gold dots. At normal summer temperatures, it matures in a few weeks. The cuticle of the chrysalis becomes transparent and the monarch's characteristic orange and black wings become visible. At the end of metamorphosis, the adult emerges from the chrysalis, expands and dries its wings and flies away. Monarch metamorphosis from egg to adult occurs during the warm summer temperatures in as little as 25 days, extending to as many as seven weeks during cool spring conditions. During the development, both larva and their milkweed hosts are vulnerable to weather extremes, predators, parasites and diseases; commonly fewer than 10% of monarch eggs and caterpillars survive.[8]:(pp21-22)
Pupa[edit]
In the pupa or chrysalis stage, the caterpillar spins a silk pad on to a horizontal substrate. It then hangs from the pad by the last pair of prolegs upside down, resembling the letter 'J'. It sheds its skin, leaving itself encased in an articulated green exoskeleton. During this pupal stage, the adult butterfly forms inside. The exoskeleton becomes transparent before it ecloses (emerges), and its adult colors can finally be seen.
Adult[edit]
An adult butterfly emerges after about two weeks as a chyrsalid, and hangs upsidedown until its wings are dry. Fluids are pumped into wings, and they expand and stiffen. The monarch expands and retracts its wings, and once conditions allow it then flies and feeds on a variety of nectar plants. During the breeding season adults reach sexual maturity in four or five days, however, the migrating generation does not reach maturity until overwintering is complete.[37] Monarchs typically live two through five weeks during their breeding season.[8]:(pp22-23) Larvae growing in high densities are smaller, have lower survival, and weigh less as adults compared to lower densities.[38]
Reproduction[edit]
File:Monarch butterfly mating.webm
Monarch butterfly mating
Healthy males are more likely to mate than unhealthy ones. Females and males typically mate more than once. Females that mate several times lay more eggs.[39] Mating for the overwintering populations occurs in the spring, prior to dispersion. Mating is less dependent on pheromones than other species in its genus.[40]
Courtship occurs in two phases. During the aerial phase, a male pursues and often forces a female to the ground. During the ground phase, the butterflies copulate and remain attached for about 30 through 60 minutes.[41] Only 30% of mating attempts end in copulation, suggesting that females may be able to avoid mating, though some have more success than others.[42][43] During copulation, a male transfers his spermatophore to a female. Along with sperm, the spermatophore provides a female with nutrition, which aids her in egg-laying. An increase in spermatophore size increases the fecundity of female monarchs. Males that produce larger spermatophores also fertilize more females' eggs.[44]
QMRIn Chinese culture, the bamboo, plum blossom, orchid, and chrysanthemum (often known as méi lán zhú jú 梅兰竹菊) are collectively referred to as the Four Gentlemen. These four plants also represent the four seasons and, in Confucian ideology, four aspects of the junzi ("prince" or "noble one"). The pine (sōng 松), the bamboo (zhú 竹), and the plum blossom (méi 梅) are also admired for their perseverance under harsh conditions, and are together known as the "Three Friends of Winter" (岁寒三友 suìhán sānyǒu) in Chinese culture. The "Three Friends of Winter" is traditionally used as a system of ranking in Japan, for example in sushi sets or accommodations at a traditional ryokan. Pine (matsu 松) is of the first rank, bamboo (také 竹) is of second rank, and plum (ume 梅) is of the third.
The Bozo ethnic group of West Africa take their name from the Bambara phrase bo-so, which means "bamboo house". Bamboo is also the national plant of St. Lucia.
QMRA bamboo cane is also the weapon of Vietnamese legendary hero, Saint Giong, who had grown up immediately and magically since the age of three because of his wish to liberate his land from Ân invaders. An ancient Vietnamese legend (The Hundred-knot Bamboo Tree) tells of a poor, young farmer who fell in love with his landlord's beautiful daughter. The farmer asked the landlord for his daughter's hand in marriage, but the proud landlord would not allow her to be bound in marriage to a poor farmer. The landlord decided to foil the marriage with an impossible deal; the farmer must bring him a "bamboo tree of 100 nodes". But Gautama Buddha (Bụt) appeared to the farmer and told him that such a tree could be made from 100 nodes from several different trees. Bụt gave to him four magic words to attach the many nodes of bamboo: Khắc nhập, khắc xuất, which means "joined together immediately, fell apart immediately". The triumphant farmer returned to the landlord and demanded his daughter. Curious to see such a long bamboo, the landlord was magically joined to the bamboo when he touched it, as the young farmer said the first two magic words. The story ends with the happy marriage of the farmer and the landlord's daughter after the landlord agreed to the marriage and asked to be separated from the bamboo
Psychology Chapter
QMRFactors affecting self-efficacy[edit]
Bandura identifies four factors affecting self-efficacy.
1. Experience, or "Enactive Attainment"
The experience of mastery is the most important factor determining a person's self-efficacy. Success raises self-efficacy, while failure lowers it.
"Children cannot be fooled by empty praise and condescending encouragement. They may have to accept artificial bolstering of their self-esteem in lieu of something better, but what I call their accruing ego identity gains real strength only from wholehearted and consistent recognition of real accomplishment, that is, achievement that has meaning in their culture." (Erik Erikson)
2. Modeling, or "Vicarious Experience"
Modeling is experienced as, "If they can do it, I can do it as well." When we see someone succeeding, our own self-efficacy increases; where we see people failing, our self-efficacy decreases. This process is most effectual when we see ourselves as similar to the model. Although not as influential as direct experience, modeling is particularly useful for people who are particularly unsure of themselves.
3. Social Persuasion
Social persuasion generally manifests as direct encouragement or discouragement from another person. Discouragement is generally more effective at decreasing a person's self-efficacy than encouragement is at increasing it.
4. Physiological Factors
In stressful situations, people commonly exhibit signs of distress: shakes, aches and pains, fatigue, fear, nausea, etc. Perceptions of these responses in oneself can markedly alter self-efficacy. Getting 'butterflies in the stomach' before public speaking will be interpreted by someone with low self-efficacy as a sign of inability, thus decreasing self-efficacy further, where high self-efficacy would lead to interpreting such physiological signs as normal and unrelated to ability. It is one's belief in the implications of physiological response that alters self-efficacy, rather than the physiological response itself.
Ryan Merkle QMRCentral do Brasil clock in Rio de Janeiro, a 20-metre diameter four-face clock on top of a 135-metre tower in a railway station, built in 1943.
Ryan Merkle QMRAllen-Bradley Clock Tower, four 12.25-meter clocks on an 86-metre tower, started keeping time on October 31, 1962 and was the biggest four-faced clock at the time. Each hour hand is 4.8 m long and weighs 220 kg. Each minute hand is 6.1 m long and weighs 240 kg. The hour markings are 1.2 m high.
Ryan Merkle QMRMetropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower, 8-meter clocks on all four side of this 213-meter tower built in 1909. Each hours hand weighs 350 kg and each minutes hand weighs 500 kg.
Ryan Merkle QMrPhiladelphia City Hall, 7.9 meters clocks on all four sides of the metal portion of this 167 meters tower built in 1901.
Ryan Merkle QMrRoyal Liver Building clock, Liverpool, four 7.6 meters clocks on two 90 meters towers, three on the riverside tower and one on the landward tower, built in 1911.
Emerson Bromo-Seltzer Tower, Baltimore, Maryland, four 7.3 meters clocks on an 88 meters tower built in 1911. The largest four dial gravity clock in the world.
Minneapolis City Hall, 7.0 meter clocks on four sides with chimes on the quarter, half, and full hour. 345 feet (105 m) tower. Largest four-faced chiming clock.[12][13]
Big Ben, London, 6.9 meter clocks on all four sides of this 96-meter tower built in 1859.
Custom House Tower, in Boston, Massachusetts, features 6.7-meter clocks on each of the four sides of the 1915 tower, 151 meters in the sky.
Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw, Poland, four 6.2 meters clocks were in 2000 on this 237 meters tower built in 1955. The world's second-tallest clock tower.
Kremlin clock, Moscow, 6.12 meters chiming clock on all four sides of the Spasskaya Tower of Moscow Kremlin. First clock on the Spasskaya Tower was installed in the 16th century; current (fully mechanical) mechanism dates back to 1851.
Ryan Merkle Big Ben, London, 6.9 meter clocks on all four sides of this 96-meter tower built in 1859.
Custom House Tower, in Boston, Massachusetts, features 6.7-meter clocks on each of the four sides of the 1915 tower, 151 meters in the sky.
Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw, Poland, four 6.2 meters clocks were in 2000 on this 237 meters tower built in 1955. The world's second-tallest clock tower.
Kremlin clock, Moscow, 6.12 meters chiming clock on all four sides of the Spasskaya Tower of Moscow Kremlin. First clock on the Spasskaya Tower was installed in the 16th century; current (fully mechanical) mechanism dates back to 1851.
Old City Hall, Toronto, four 6-meter clocks with chimes every quarter hour on a 103.6-meter tower. Part of Toronto's third city hall (1899), it serves as a terminating vista for Bay Street, and it was first rung at midnight, 1 January 1900
Ryan Merkle qMRPeace Tower, Ottawa, four 4.8-meter clocks with chimes every quarter hour.[16][17] Named for the thousands of Canadians who lost their lives in World War I, the Peace Tower is the central, tallest, and most dominant feature of Centre
Sociology Chapter
QMRthere are four common models of employment:[34]
Mainstream economics: employment is seen as a mutually advantageous transaction in a free market between self-interested legal and economic equals
Human resource management (unitarism): employment is a long-term partnership of employees and employers with common interests
Pluralist industrial relations: employment is a bargained exchange between stakeholders with some common and some competing economic interests and unequal bargaining power due to imperfect labor markets[26]
Critical industrial relations: employment is an unequal power relation between competing groups that is embedded in and inseparable from systemic inequalities throughout the socio-politico-economic system.
Globalization has effected these issues by creating certain economic factors that disallow or allow various employment issues. Economist Edward Lee (1996) studies the effects of globalization and summarizes the four major points of concern that affect employment relations:
International competition, from the newly industrialized countries, will cause unemployment growth and increased wage disparity for unskilled workers in industrialized countries. Imports from low-wage countries exert pressure on the manufacturing sector in industrialized countries and foreign direct investment (FDI) is attracted away from the industrialized nations, towards low-waged countries.[38]
Economic liberalization will result in unemployment and wage inequality in developing countries. This happens as job losses in uncompetitive industries outstrip job opportunities in new industries.
Workers will be forced to accept worsening wages and conditions, as a global labor market results in a “race to the bottom”. Increased international competition creates a pressure to reduce the wages and conditions of workers.[38]
Globalization reduces the autonomy of the nation state. Capital is increasingly mobile and the ability of the state to regulate economic activity is reduced.
QMRThe field size (along with the specific amount of perspective distortion) greatly affects the narrative power of a shot. There are a number of standardized field sizes, the names of which are commonly derived from varying camera-subject distances while not changing the lens. The four basic kinds of field sizes (marked with an asterisk* in the gallery below) are:[2]
the long shot (often used as an establishing shot),
the full shot,
the medium shot,
the close-up.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe use of multiple film cameras dates back to the development of narrative silent films, with the earliest (or at least earliest known) example being the first Russian feature film "Defence of Sevastopol" (1911), written and directed by Vasily Goncharov and Aleksandr Khanzhonkov.[1] When sound came into the picture multiple cameras were used to film multiple sets at a single time. Early sound was recorded onto wax discs that could not be edited.
The use of multiple video cameras to cover a scene goes back to the earliest days of television; three cameras were used to broadcast The Queen's Messenger in 1928, the first drama performed for television.[2] The BBC routinely used multiple cameras for their live television shows from 1936 onward.[3]
Although it is often claimed that the multiple-camera setup was pioneered for television by Desi Arnaz and cinematographer Karl Freund on I Love Lucy in 1951, other filmed television shows had already used it, including the CBS comedy, The Amos 'n Andy Show, which was filmed at the Hal Roach Studios and was on the air four months earlier. The technique was developed for television by Hollywood short-subject veteran Jerry Fairbanks, assisted by producer-director Frank Telford, and first seen on the anthology series The Silver Theater, another CBS program, in February 1950.[4] Desilu's innovation was to use 35mm film instead of 16mm, and to film with a multiple-camera setup before a live studio audience.
In the late 1970s Garry Marshall was credited with adding the fourth camera (known then as the "X" Camera, and occasionally today known as the "D" Camera) to the multi-camera set-up for his series Mork & Mindy. Actor Robin Williams could not stay on his marks due to his physically active improvisations during shooting,[citation needed] so Marshall had them add the fourth camera just to stay on Williams so they would have more than just the master shot of the actor.[citation needed] Soon after, many productions followed suit and now having four cameras (A, B, C and X or D) is the norm for multi-camera situation comedies.[citation needed]
Ryan Merkle QMR35 Shots of Rum (French: 35 Rhums) is a 2008 film, directed by Claire Denis, the French filmmaker. It made its North American premiere at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival,[1] and was shown outside of competition at the Venice Film Festival.[2] It was later released to limited theaters in 2009. Claire Denis was in part inspired by Yasujirō Ozu's Late Spring.[3]
It is about four friends
QMRWriting[edit]
"It's the flotsam and jetsam from the period when I was twelve years old. All the books and films and comics that I liked when I was a child. The plot is simple—good against evil—and the film is designed to be all the fun things and fantasy things I remember. The word for this movie is fun."
—George Lucas, 1977[27]
Since commencing his writing process in January 1973, Lucas had done "various rewrites in the evenings after the day's work." He would write four different screenplays for Star Wars, "searching for just the right ingredients, characters and storyline. It's always been what you might call a good idea in search of a story."[28] By May 1974, he had expanded the film treatment into a rough draft screenplay, adding elements such as the Sith, the Death Star, and a general by the name of Annikin Starkiller. He changed Starkiller to an adolescent boy, and he shifted the general into a supporting role as a member of a family of dwarfs.[10][24] Lucas envisioned the Corellian smuggler, Han Solo, as a large, green-skinned monster with gills. He based Chewbacca on his Alaskan Malamute dog, Indiana (whom he would later use as namesake for his character Indiana Jones), who often acted as the director's "co-pilot" by sitting in the passenger seat of his car.[24]
Lucas began researching the science fiction genre by watching films and reading books and comics.[41] His first script incorporated ideas from many new sources. The script would also introduce the concept of a Jedi Master father and his son, who trains to be a Jedi under his father's friend; this would ultimately form the basis for the film and, later, the trilogy. However, in this draft, the father is a hero who is still alive at the start of the film.[42]
Lucas completed a second draft of The Star Wars in January 1975, making heavy simplifications and introducing the young hero on a farm as Luke Starkiller. Annikin became Luke's father, a wise Jedi knight. "The Force" was also introduced as a mystical energy field.[43] This second draft still had some differences from the final version in the characters and relationships. For example, Luke had several brothers, as well as his father, who appears in a minor role at the end of the film. The script became more of a fairy tale quest as opposed to the action-adventure of the previous versions. This version ended with another text crawl, previewing the next story in the series. This draft was also the first to introduce the concept of a Jedi turning to the dark side: the draft included a historical Jedi who became the first to ever fall to the dark side, and then trained the Sith to use it. Impressed with his works, Lucas hired conceptual artist Ralph McQuarrie to create paintings of certain scenes around this time. When Lucas delivered his screenplay to the studio, he included several of McQuarrie's paintings.[44]
A third draft, dated August 1, 1975, was titled The Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Starkiller. This third draft had most of the elements of the final plot, with only some differences in the characters and settings. The draft characterized Luke as an only child, with his father already dead, replacing him with a substitute named Ben Kenobi.[43] This script would be re-written for the fourth and final draft, dated January 1, 1976, as The Adventures of Luke Starkiller as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars. Lucas worked with his friends Gloria Katz and Willard Huyck to revise the fourth draft into the final pre-production script.[45] 20th Century Fox approved a budget of $8.25 million; American Graffiti's positive reception afforded Lucas the leverage necessary to renegotiate his deal with Alan Ladd, Jr. and request the sequel rights to the film. For Lucas, this deal protected Star Wars' unwritten segments and most of the merchandising profits.[10]
Lucas finished writing his script in March 1976, when the crew started filming. He said, "What finally emerged through the many drafts of the script has obviously been influenced by science-fiction and action-adventure I've read and seen. And I've seen a lot of it. I'm trying to make a classic sort of genre picture, a classic space fantasy in which all the influences are working together. There are certain traditional aspects of the genre I wanted to keep and help perpetuate in Star Wars."[28] During production, he changed Luke's name from Starkiller to Skywalker[10] and altered the title to The Star Wars and later Star Wars.[43] He would also continue to tweak the script during filming, including adding the death of Obi-Wan after realizing he served no purpose in the ending of the film.[46
Ryan Merkle QMrBy the end of the war, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire had ceased to exist. National borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germany's colonies were parceled out among the winners. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four (Britain, France, the United States and Italy) imposed their terms in a series of treaties. The League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This, however, failed with economic depression, renewed European nationalism, weakened member states, and the German feeling of humiliation contributing to the rise of Nazism. These conditions eventually contributed to World War II.
Ryan Merkle qMRThe Four Diamonds Fund is a charitable organization based out of Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center. Its ultimate objective is to "conquer childhood cancer".
The fund was established in 1972 by Charles and Irma Millard following the death of their son Chris from pediatric cancer. The name refers to The Four Diamonds, a fantasy story written by Chris shortly before succumbing to the disease at the age of 14.[1]
Ryan Merkle The Four Diamonds is a fantasy themed, allegorical short story written by Chris Millard in 1972 shortly before succumbing to cancer at the age of 14. After returning from summer vacation, his teacher told Chris' class to write a story about what they did during their vacation. Chris had spent the summer being treated for his illness, and asked his teacher if he could write something else, to which she agreed. He wrote about adventures and struggle of an aspiring knight, also named Millard, to conquer Raptenahad (a play on the name of Millard's form of leukemi, often misspelled as Raptemahad in books and articles), a magic-wielding evil queen who symbolised his illness. To defeat her, the story's Millard has to complete four difficult tasks.[1][2]
The story gave name to Four Diamonds Fund, a childhood cancer-centered charitable organization established in 1972 by Chris' parents Charles and Irma. The story was also turned into a Disney TV movie in 1995.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Diamonds are a Canadian vocal quartet that rose to prominence in the 1950s and early 1960s with 16 Billboard hit records. The original members were Dave Somerville (lead), Ted Kowalski (tenor), Phil Levitt (baritone), and Bill Reed (bass). They were most noted for interpreting and introducing rhythm and blues vocal group music to the wider pop music audience. Contrary to popular myth, the father of Tom Hanks was never a member of the group.[1]
QMR"Four Little Diamonds" is a song by the British rock music group Electric Light Orchestra (ELO) from their 1983 album Secret Messages. It was also featured on their compilation albums Afterglow (with a slightly longer intro) and Flashback. The single did not do very well in the USA, spending only 2 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and peaking at number 86.[1][2] It also charted low in the UK peaking at number 84.
Ryan Merkle QMRPorter (p. 1)[2] raises the basic question of international competitiveness: "Why do some nations succeed and others fail in international competition?" As its title suggests, the book is meant to be a contemporary equivalent of the wealth of nations, a new-forged version of Adam Smith's opus.[10] Porter argues that nations are most likely to succeed in industries or industry segments where the national 'diamond' is the most favorable. The diamond has four interrelated components: (1) factor conditions, (2) demand conditions, (3) related and supporting industries, and (4) firm strategy, structure, and rivalry, and two exogenous parameters (1) government and (2) chance, as shown above.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Four Lords of the Diamond is a series of four science fiction novels by author Jack L. Chalker. Each volume of the series primarily follows a duplicate of a government agent as he lands on his prison planet and begins to both investigate the menace to the civilized worlds and find his position in his new society. The duplicates realize the stagnancy and corruption of the Confederacy, the intergalactic government in the series, and question their position as tools of the hierarchy. As the series progresses, the primary agent experiences each of his counterparts' divergent experiences and begins to question his beliefs as well. Like much of Chalker's work, the series deals with the effects physical transformations have on a character's personality.
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