Quadrant Model of Reality Book 22 Religion

QMR"The greatest cluster of Neoplatonic themes is found in religious mystical writings, which in fact transform purely orthodox doctrines such as creation into doctrines such as emanationism, which allow for a better framework for the expression of Neoplatonic themes and the emergence of the mystical themes of the ascent and mystical union.[51]" Islamic philosophers used the framework of Islamic mysticism in their interpretation of Neoplatonic writings and concepts. Parviz Morewedge gives four suppositions about the nature of Islamic Mysticism: The Unity of Being "An inherent potential unity among all dimensions of world-experience." The Mediator Figure "The mediation between finite man and the ultimate being." The Way of Salvation "Knowledge is embedded in the path of self-realization." Passing trials advances one through stages until transcendence. The Language of Symbolic Allegory "Mystical texts are often written in the allegorical language of tales."[52]

QMRPost-Temple developments[edit] According to historian Shaye Cohen, by the time three generations had passed after the destruction of the Second Temple, most Jews concluded that the Temple would not be rebuilt during their lives, nor in the foreseeable future. Jews were now confronted with difficult and far-reaching questions: How to achieve atonement without the Temple? How to explain the disastrous outcome of the rebellion? How to live in the post-Temple, Romanized world? How to connect present and past traditions? Regardless of the importance they gave to the Temple, and despite their support of Bar Koseba’s revolt, the Pharisees’ vision of Jewish law as a means by which ordinary people could engage with the sacred in their daily lives provided them with a position from which to respond to all four challenges in a way meaningful to the vast majority of Jews. Their responses would constitute Rabbinic Judaism.

QMRThe first historical mention of the Pharisees and their beliefs comes in the four gospels and the book of Acts, in which both their meticulous adherence to their interpretation of the Torah as well as their eschatological views are described. A later historical mention of the Pharisees comes from the Jewish-Roman historian Josephus (37–100 CE) in a description of the "four schools of thought," or "four sects," into which he divided the Jews in the 1st century CE. (The other schools were the Essenes, who were generally apolitical and who may have emerged as a sect of dissident priests who rejected either the Seleucid-appointed or the Hasmonean high priests as illegitimate; the Sadducees, the main antagonists of the Pharisees; and the "fourth philosophy"[10] Other sects emerged at this time, such as the Early Christians in Jerusalem and the Therapeutae in Egypt.

QMR The Roman cavalry saddle had four horns [2] and was believed to have been copied from Celtic peoples.

QMRBias was born at Priene and was the son of Teutamus.[1] He is said to have been distinguished for his skill as an advocate, and for his use of it in defence of the right.[2] In reference to which Demodicus of Alerius uttered the following saying – "If you are a judge, give a Prienian decision," and Hipponax said, "More powerful in pleading causes than Bias of Priene."[3] He was always reckoned among the Seven Sages, and was mentioned by Dicaearchus as one of the Four to whom alone that title was universally given — the remaining three being Thales, Pittacus, and Solon.[4] Satyrus placed him at the head of the Seven Sages,[1] and even Heraclitus, who poured scorn on figures such as Hesiod and Pythagoras,[5] referred to Bias as "a man of more consideration than any."[6] One of the examples of his great goodness is the legend that says that Bias paid a ransom for some women who had been taken prisoner. After educating them as his own daughters, he sent them back to Messina, their homeland, and to their fathers.[1]

QMRPersian literature was considered by Goethe one of the four main bodies of world literature

QMRÇahar Makala (Four Discourses) by Nizamuddin Arudi

QMRSunni enumerate Qadar as one aspect of their creed (Arabic: aqidah). They believe that the divine destiny is when God wrote down in the Preserved Tablet ("al-Lawhu 'l-Mahfuz") all that has happened and will happen, which will come to pass as written.

According to this belief, a person's action is not caused by what is written in the Preserved Tablet but, rather, the action is written in the Preserved Tablet because God already knows all occurrences without the restrictions of time.[4]

An individual has power to choose, but since God created time and space he knows what will happen. God is without any bond of time and space. Therefore, what will happen has meaning only to humans, who are limited in time and space. An analogy is someone who watches a movie for the second time, who knows what will happen next, while for the first time watcher the next move is unknown.

Belief in al-Qadar is based on four things[edit]

– العلم Al-'Alam – Knowledge: i.e., that Allah knows what His creation will do, by virtue of His eternal knowledge, including their choices that will take place.

– كتابة Kitabat – Writing: i.e., that Allah has written every thing that exists including the destiny of all creatures in al-Lauh al-Mahfuz prior to creation.

– مشيئة Mashii'at – Will: i.e., that what Allah wills happens and what He does not will does not happen. There is no movement in the heavens or on earth but happens by His will. This does not mean that He forces things to happen the way they happen in the area of human beings' voluntary actions. It means that He knew what they will choose, wrote it and now lets it happen.

– الخلق Al-Khalq – Creation and formation: i.e., that Allah is the Creator of all things, including the actions of His servants. They do their actions in a real sense, and Allah is the Creator of them and of their actions.

Stages of Taqdeer (fate)[edit]

There are five stages where Qadar is determined and prescribed/send to creation:

The Decree of Allah that is written in Al-Lawh Al-Mahfuud before the creation of the universe. This destiny written in the preserved tablet is never changed and encompasses everything that will be. Allah made a divine decree after the creation of Adam. Allah took out all of the progeny of Adam (i.e. all of the humans from the beginning of time until the end of time), and asked them "Am I not your Lord?" and all of the humans responded "We testify that You are our Lord!" Then Allah decreed to them who shall go to paradise and who shall go to hell. The Life-time decree. This occurs when a person is in the womb of their mother, specifically 120 days after conception. Allah sends an angel to put a soul into the person, and the angel writes down the decree that Allah has made; their life-span, their sex, their sustenance (how much they will earn throughout their lifetime) and whether they will be a dweller of paradise or a dweller of hell. The yearly decree. This is during the Night of Qadr (Night of Decree) where Allah sends down his decrees from heaven to earth, in it he destines the actions (deeds, sustenance, births, deaths, etc.) of creation for the next year. The word Qadar should not be confused with Qadr; Qadar is destiny, Qadr is that which has been destined, i.e. decree, thus the translation – Night of Decree. The Daily Decree. Allah decrees the daily actions of his creation.

Hinduism Chapter

QMRPrapatti[edit] In the ego-destroying principle of prapatti (Sanskrit, "Throwing oneself down"), the level of the submission of the will of the shishya to the will of God or the guru is sometimes extreme, and is often coupled with an attitude of personal helplessness, self-effacement and resignation. This doctrine is perhaps best expressed in the teachings of the four Samayacharya saints, who shared a profound and mystical love of Siva expressed by: Deep humility and self-effacement, admission of sin and weakness; Total surrender to God as the only true refuge; and A relationship of lover and beloved known as bridal mysticism, in which the devotee is the bride and Siva the bridegroom.

QMRParampara (Sanskrit: परम्परा, paramparā) denotes a succession of teachers and disciples in traditional Vedic culture and Indian religions such as Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism. It is also known as guru-shishya tradition ("succession from guru to disciple").

The Sanskrit word literally means an uninterrupted row or series, order, succession, continuation, mediation, tradition.[1] In the traditional residential form of education, the shishya remains with his or her guru as a family member and gets the education as a true learner.[2]

In some traditions there is never more than one active master at the same time in the same guruparamaparya (lineage).[3]

In the paramparā system, knowledge (in any field) is passed down (undiluted) through successive generations. E.g. division of Veda and its transfer through paramparas describes Bhagavata Purana.[4]

The fields of knowledge taught may include, for example, spiritual, artistic (music or dance) or educational.

Titles of Gurus in Parampara[edit]

In paramapara, not only is the immediate guru revered, the three preceding gurus are also worshipped or revered. These are known variously as the kala-guru or as the "four gurus" and are designated as follows:[5]

Guru - the immediate guru Parama-guru - the Guru of the Parampara or specific tradition (e.g. for the Śankaracharya's this is Adi Śankara) Parātpara-Guru - the Guru who is the source of knowledge for many traditions (e.g. for the Śankaracharya's this is Vedavyāsa) Parameṣṭhi-guru - the highest Guru, who has the power to bestow mokṣa (usually depicted as Śiva, being the highest Guru)

QMRHindus believe that human civilization degenerates spiritually during the Kali Yuga,[8] which is referred to as the Dark Age because in it people are as far away as possible from God. Hinduism often symbolically represents morality (dharma) as a bull. In Satya Yuga, the first stage of development, the bull has four legs, but in each age morality is reduced by one quarter. By the age of Kali, morality is reduced to only a quarter of that of the golden age, so that the bull of Dharma has only one leg.

The Rigveda is the largest of the four Vedas, and many of its verses appear in the other Vedas.[42] Almost all of the 1,875 verses found in Samaveda are taken from different parts of the Rigveda, either once or as repetition, and rewritten in a chant song form. The Books 8 and 9 of the Rigveda are by far the largest source of verses for Sama Veda. The Book 10 contributes the largest number of the 1,350 verses of Rigveda found in Atharvaveda, or about one fifth of the 5,987 verses in the Atharvaveda text.[41] A bulk of 1,875 ritual-focussed verses of Yajurveda, in its numerous versions, also borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.[42][43] The fourth is always transcendent yet encompasses the previous three

QMRThe Rigveda (Sanskrit: ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, from ṛc "praise, shine"[1] and veda "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. It is one of the four canonical sacred texts (śruti) of Hinduism known as the Vedas.[2][3] The text is a collection of 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses, organized into ten books (Mandalas).[4] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.[4] Notice how veda means knowledge. Hinduism is the fourth square religion,and thus is related to knowledge, as knowledge is the fourth quadrant

Creation[edit] Verses 5-15 hold the creation of the Rig Veda. Creation is described to have started with the origination of Virat or the cosmic body from the Purusha. In Virat, omnipresent intelligence manifests itself which causes the appearance of diversity. In the verses following, it is held that Purusha through a sacrifice of himself, brings forth the avian, forest-dwelling and domestic animals, the three Vedas, the metres (of the mantras). Then follows a verse which states that from his mouth, arms, thighs, feet the four Varnas (classes) are born. This four varna-related verse is controversial and is believed by many scholars, such as Max Müller, to be a corruption and a medieval or modern era insertion into the text.[1][2] After the verse, the sukta states that the moon takes birth from the Purusha's mind and the sun from his eyes. Indra and Agni descend from his mouth and from his vital breath, air is born. The firmament comes from his navel, the heavens from his head, the earth from his feet and quarters of space from his ears.[3] Through this creation, underlying unity of human, cosmic and divine realities is espoused, for all are seen arising out of same original reality, the Purusha.[5]

QMRPurusha sukta (puruṣasūkta) is hymn 10.90 of the Rigveda, dedicated to the Purusha, the "Cosmic Being". One version of the suktam has 16 verses, 15 in the anuṣṭubh meter, and the final one in the triṣṭubh meter. Another version of the suktam consists of 24 verses with the first 18 mantras designated as the Purva-narayana and the later portion termed as the Uttara-narayana probably in honour of Rishi Narayana. Some scholars state that some verses of Purusha sukta are later interpolations to the Rigveda.[1][2]

QMRKshatriya (from kshatra, "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of the Hindu society. The Sanskrit term kshatriya is used in the context of Vedic society wherein members organised themselves into four classes: brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya and sudra.[1] Traditionally, the kshatriya constituted the ruling and military elite. Their role was to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime.

It takes the form of a quincunx cross with five parts in the form of a cross or quadrant

QMRArchitectural style[edit]

Mahabodhi Temple is constructed of brick and is one of the oldest brick structures to have survived in eastern India. It is considered to be a fine example of Indian brickwork, and was highly influential in the development of later architectural traditions. According UNESCO, "the present temple is one of the earliest and most imposing structures built entirely in brick from Gupta period" (300–600 CE).[3] Mahabodhi Temple's central tower rises 55 metres (180 ft), and were heavily renovated in the 19th century. The central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers, constructed in the same style.

The Mahabodhi Temple is surrounded on all four sides by stone railings, about two metres high. The railings reveal two distinct types, both in style as well as the materials used. The older ones, made of sandstone, date to about 150 BCE, and the others, constructed from unpolished coarse granite, are believed to be of the Gupta period. The older railings have scenes such as Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth, being bathed by elephants; and Surya, the Hindu sun god, riding a chariot drawn by four horses. The newer railings have figures of stupas (reliquary shrines) and garudas (eagles). Images of lotus flowers also appear commonly.

Images of the site include Avalokiteśvara (Padmapani, Khasarpana), Vajrapani, Tara, Marichi, Yamantaka, Jambhala and Vajravārāhī.[2] Images of Vishnu, Shiva, Surya and other Vedic deities are also associated with the site.[2]

QMRVaikhanasa Agama[edit] Main article: Vaikhanasa Maharishi Vikhanasa is considered to have guided in the compilation of a set of Agamas named Vaikhānasa Agama. Sage Vikhanasa is conceptualized as a mind-born creation, i.e., Maanaseeka Utbhavar of Lord Narayana.[41] Originally Vikhanasa passed on the knowledge to nine disciples in the first manvantara -- Atri, Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa, Vasishta, Pulaha, Pulasthya, Krathu and Angiras. However, only those of Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa and Atri are extant today. The four rishis are said to have received the cult and knowledge of Vishnu from the first Vikahansa, i.e., the older Brahma in the Svayambhuva Manvanthara. Thus, the four sages Atri, Bhrigu, Marichi, Kashyapa, are considered the propagators of vaikhānasa śāstra. A composition of Sage Vikhanasa's disciple Marichi, namely, Ananda-Samhita states Vikhanasa prepared the Vaikhanasa Sutra according to a branch of Yajurveda and was Brahma himself

QMRThe Saiva Agamas are found in four main schools - Kapala, Kalamukha, Pashupata and Shaiva—and number 28 in total as follows:

Kamikam

Yogajam

Chintyam

Karanam

Ajitham

Deeptham

Sukskmam

Sahasram

Ashuman

Suprabedham

Vijayam

Nishwasam

Swayambhuvam

Analam

Veeram

Rouravam

Makutam

Vimalam

Chandragnanam

Bimbam

Prodgeetham

Lalitham

Sidham

Santhanam Sarvoktham Parameshwaram Kiranam Vathulam

QMREach Agama consists of four parts:[12][24] Jnana pada , also called Vidya pada[12] – consists of doctrine, the philosophical and spiritual knowledge, knowledge of reality and liberation. Yoga pada - precepts on yoga, the physical and mental discipline. Kriya pada - consists of rules for rituals, construction of temples (Mandir); design principles for sculpting, carving, and consecration of idols of deities for worship in temples;[26] for different forms of initiations or diksha. This code is analogous to those in Puranas and in the Buddhist text of Sadhanamala.[12] Charya pada - lays down rules of conduct, of worship (puja), observances of religious rites, rituals, festivals and prayaschittas.

QMRThe Agamas (Sanskrit: आगम) are a collection of scriptures of several Hindu devotional schools.[1][2] The term literally means tradition or "that which has come down", and the Agama texts describe cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, temple construction, deity worship and ways to attain sixfold desires.[1][3] These canonical texts are in Sanskrit[1] and in south Indian languages such as Tamil (written in Grantha script and Tamil script).

QMRMarked as its influence had been, the Pragatishila wave was already in decline by the close of the 1950s. Legendary writers of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the Navodaya style. In poetry, Bendre's Naku Tanti ("Four Strings", 1964) and Kuvempu's Aniketana (1964) stand out. V.K. Gokak brought out the innate insufficiencies of the more advanced western cultures in Indilla Nale (1965).[155] Navodaya-style novels continued to be successful with such noteworthy works as Karanth's Mookajjiya Kanasugalu ("Mookajji's visions", 1968), where Karanth explored the origins of man's faith in the mother goddess and the stages of evolution of civilisation. Kuvempu's Malegallali Madumagalu ("The Bride of the Hills", 1967) is about loving relationships that exist in every level of society

QMRThe Dharmasutras[edit] The Dharmasutras are the first four texts of the Dharmashastra tradition and they focus on the idea of dharma, the principal guide by which Hindus strive to live their lives. The Dharmasutras are written in concise prose, leaving much up to the educated reader to interpret.The most important of these texts are the sutras of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana, and Vasistha.[13] The Dharmasutras can be called the guidebooks of dharma as they contain the rules of conduct and rites as practiced in the Vedic schools. They discuss the duties of people at different stages of life like studenthood, householdership, retirement and renunciation. These stages are also called ashramas. They also discuss the rites and duties of kings, judicial matters, and even personal practices like the regulations in diet, offenses and expiations, daily oblations, and funerary practices.[13]

Four main divisions[edit] There are four main divisions of Kalpa: Shrauta Sutram, Grihya Sutram, Dharma Sutram and Kalpa Sutram, and three subordinate divisions: Kaushika Sutram, Vaitana Sutram and Shulba Sutram. Kalpa represents the principle of transformation-transformation of point values, taking into consideration the totality of expression.[3] Sutram, also known as Sutratman, is the Suksmasariram comprising the vijnanamayakosha, manomayakosha and pranomayakosha; Prana ("vital breath"), Manas ("mind") and "understanding", these three sheaths have the nature of Sutratman. Sutram is an adjunct of Hiranyagarbha who is the origin of Viraj, the gross material constituting the world. Vijnanam is Sutram, and even though Sutram preceded Viraj as the cause of Viraj there is no difference between these two, for when there is no product i.e. Viraj, Sutram has the compact form of Prajnanaghanarupa (intelligence), it then reverts to its true undefined state.[4] In the Buddhist lexicon emphasis is on the meanings of the Sutras, the Sutras of the teaching of Aksayamati explain that the sutras of expedient meaning are those that teach seeming reality. The sutras of definitive meaning are those that are taught in order to reveal the ultimate reality. The former assist entry on to the path, deal with the seeming, afflicted by phenomena, how to engage in proper actions, cause weariness with cyclic existence, teach variety of terms and definitions, give detailed explanations about the sentient beings, self, etc.,. The latter guide disciples to engage in fruition, teaches about purified phenomena, shows how karmas and afflictions become exhausted, demonstrate that the cyclic existence and nirvana are indifferentiable, teaches the profound true reality that is difficult to see and realize, focuses on precise and pithy instructions for cultivating meditative concentration and teaches about the three doors to liberation, non-application, non-organizing, etc.,.[5] Sri Aurobindo had said that the fundamental necessity of our embodied life is to seek infinite creativity on a finite basis, therefore, according to the Theosophists death is a transformative experience. Sutratman, the spiritual thread, thread of life, is the Monad, the golden thread of the transcendent contexts on which all the immanent incarnate of each individual human are strung like pearls on a thread.[6][7] The subtle principle of life is that thread whereon this life and the next life and all beings are strung (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad III.vii.2). Vayu is also known as Sutratman and Sutratman is svatahsiddha i.e. self-established. It is through Vak (speech) a devotee attains the nature of Sutratman (Saptanna Brahmana verse 329).[8] Viraj is described as the god marked by spatial directions, etc., who wears a body consisting of the five elements and who arises in/from the notion- "I am everything", before that it was Sutratman.[9] The Sun is identified with the Breath-spirit, and every being is connected with the Sun by a thread of Breath, the Sutratman, that is also a ray of light.[10] The soul or God, as pervading the totality, is called Sutratman.[11]

QMRThe dictionary gives the meaning of the Sanskrit or Tamil expression, Sutram (सूत्रम्) or Sutra (सूत्र), as string or thread, formula, short sentence or aphoristic rule, girdle, stroke, yarn or plan. Unique to Sanskrit literature, Tamil literature and Pali literature of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, they are short cryptic sentences, methodically written as memory-aids, stringing step by step a particular topic or text in its entirety. There are hundreds of Sanskrit texts found written in the Sutra-format such as Kapila Sutram, Samkhya-pravachana Sutram, Brahma Sutra, Jaimini Sutram, Tatvartha Sutram, Kalpa Sutra, etc.[1]

QMRThe 14th Dalai Lama explains the mantra[46] both as an instruction for practice and as a device for measuring one's own level of spiritual attainment, and translates it as "go, go, go beyond, go thoroughly beyond, and establish yourself in enlightenment". In the discourse, he gives a similar explanation to the four stages (the four "go"s) as in the previous paragraph.

QMRThe long version of the Sanskrit Heart Sutra is a prose text of some 280 words. In the Chinese version of the short text attributed to Xuanzang (T251), it has 260 Chinese characters.[4] In English it is composed of sixteen sentences. This makes it one of the shortest texts in the Perfection of Wisdom genre, which contains scriptures in lengths up to 100,000 lines. "The Essence of Wisdom Sutra (Heart Sūtra) is much shorter than the other Perfection of Wisdom sūtras but it contains explicitly or implicitly the entire meaning of the longer Sutras."[5] This sutra is classified by Edward Conze as belonging to the third of four periods in the development of the Prajnaparamita canon, although because it contains a mantra (sometimes called a dhāraṇī), it does overlap with the final, tantric phase of development according to this scheme, and is included in the tantra section of at least some editions of the Kangyur.[6] Conze estimates the sutra's date of origin to be 350 CE; some others consider it to be two centuries older than that.[7] Recent scholarship is unable to verify its existence before any date earlier than the 7th century CE.[8]

QMRIn the first chapter of the Aitareya Upanishad, Atman is asserted to have existed alone prior to the creation of the universe. It is this Atman, the Soul or the Inner Self, that is then portrayed as the creator of everything from itself and nothing, through heat. The text states that the Atman created the universe in stages. First came four entities: space, maram (earth, stars), maricih (light-atom) and apas (ur-water, cosmic fluid).[2] After these came into existence, came the cosmic self and eight psyches and principles (speech, in-breathing, sight, hearing, skin/hair, mind, out-breathing, reproductivity). Atman then created eight guardians corresponding to these psyches and principles.[2] Then, asserts Aitareya Upanishad, came the connective principles of hunger and thirst, where everything became interdependent on everything else through the principle of apana (digestion). Thereafter came man, who could not exist without a sense of Self and Soul (Atman). But this sense then began cogitating on itself, saying that "I am more than my sensory organs, I am more than my mind, I am more than my reproductive ability", and then asked (abridged),

कोऽहमिति Who am I?

— Aitareya Upanishad, Chapter 1, Hymn 11[2][5] Paul Deussen summarizes the first chapter of Aitareya Upanishad as follows, The world as a creation, the Man as the highest manifestation of the Atman who is also named as the Brahman - this is the basic idea of this section. — Paul Deussen, Aitareya Upanishad, Chapter 1[6]

QMRThe Mundaka Upanishad is the source of the phrase Satyameva Jayate, which the national motto of India. It appears in its national emblem with four lions. सत्यमेव जयते नानृतं[56] Translation 1: Truth alone triumphs, not falsehood.[57] Translation 2: Truth ultimately triumphs, not falsehood.[58] Translation 3: The true prevails, not the untrue.[38] — Mundaka Upanishad, 3.1.6[45]

QMRStructure[edit]

Kena Upanishad has three parts: 13 verses in the first part, 15 paragraphs in the second part, and 6 paragraphs in the epilogue. These are distributed in four khaṇḍas (खण्ड, sections or volumes). The first Khanda has 8 verses, the second has 5 verses. The third Khanda has 12 paragraphs, while the fourth khanda has the remaining 9 (3 paragraphs of main text and 6 paragraphs of the epilogue).[2][8]

The first two Khandas of Kena Upanishad are poems, the last two are prose, with one exception. Paragraph 9 is prose and structurally out of place, which has led scholars to state that the paragraph 9 was inserted or is a corrupted version of the original manuscript in a more modern era.[2] Another odd structural feature of Kena Upanishad's poetic Khandas is verse 3, which has 8 lines (typically marked as 3a and 3b), while all other poetic verses in the first two sections are only 4 lines of mathematical metric construction.

There are some differences in the positioning of Kena Upanishad in manuscripts discovered in different parts of India. It is, for example, the ninth chapter of Talavakara Brahmana in south Indian manuscripts and as mentioned in the Bhasya (commentary) by Shankara,[14] while the Burnell manuscript of sections of Sama Veda[15] places it in the tenth Anuvaka of the fourth chapter (inside Jaiminia Brahmana).[16] The Kena Upanishad is accepted as part of Sama Veda, but it is also found in manuscripts of Atharva collection. The difference between the two versions is minor and structural - in Sama Veda manuscripts, the Kena Upanishad has four sections, while the Atharva manuscripts show no such division into sections.[17

QMRThe Kausitaki Upanishad is a prose text, divided into four chapters, containing 6,[11] 15, 9 and 20 verses respectively. There is some evidence that the Kaushitaki Upanishad, in some manuscripts, had nine chapters, but these manuscripts are either lost or yet to be found.[

QMRThe Brahma Sūtras consist of 555 aphorisms or sūtras, in four chapters (adhyāya), with each chapter divided into four parts (pāda).[22] Each part is further subdivided into sections called Adhikaraņas with sutras.[22] Some scholars, such as Francis Clooney, call the Adhikaraņas as "case studies" with a defined hermeneutic process. Therefore there are 16 parts. There are 16 squares in the quadrant model. Brahma has four heads

QMRThe Nyāya sutras asserts and then discusses four reliable means of obtaining knowledge (pramāṇa), viz., Perception, Inference, Comparison and Reliable

Patañjali divided his Yoga Sutras into four chapters or books (Sanskrit pada), containing in all 196 aphorisms, divided as follows:[17][18][19]

Samadhi Pada[17][18][19] (51 sutras). Samadhi refers to a blissful state where the yogi is absorbed into the One. Samadhi is the main technique the yogin learns by which to dive into the depths of the mind to achieve Kaivalya. The author describes yoga and then the nature and the means to attaining samādhi. This chapter contains the famous definitional verse: "Yogaś citta-vritti-nirodhaḥ" ("Yoga is the restraint of mental modifications").[20]

Sadhana Pada[17][18][19] (55 sutras). Sadhana is the Sanskrit word for "practice" or "discipline". Here the author outlines two forms of Yoga: Kriya Yoga (Action Yoga) and Ashtanga Yoga (Eightfold or Eightlimbed Yoga).

Kriya Yoga is closely related to Karma Yoga, which is also expounded in Chapter 3 of the Bhagavad Gita, where Arjuna is encouraged by Krishna to act without attachment to the results or fruit of action and activity. It is the yoga of selfless action and service.

Ashtanga Yoga describes the eight limbs that together constitute Rāja Yoga.

Vibhuti Pada[17][18][19] (56 sutras). Vibhuti is the Sanskrit word for "power" or "manifestation". 'Supra-normal powers' (Sanskrit: siddhi) are acquired by the practice of yoga. Combined simultaneous practice of Dhāraṇā, Dhyana and Samādhi is referred to as Samyama, and is considered a tool of achieving various perfections, or Siddhis. The temptation of these powers should be avoided and the attention should be fixed only on liberation. The purpose of using samadhi is not to gain siddhis but to achieve Kaivalya. Siddhis are but distractions from Kaivalaya and are to be discouraged. Siddhis are but maya, or illusion. Kaivalya Pada[17][18][19] (34 sutras). Kaivalya literally means "isolation", but as used in the Sutras stands for emancipation, liberation and used interchangeably with moksha (liberation), which is the goal of yoga. The Kaivalya Pada describes the process of liberation and the reality of the transcendental ego.

QMRBaudhāyana Dharmasūtra[edit]

The Dharmasūtra of Baudhāyana like that of Apastamba also forms a part of the larger Kalpasutra. Likewise, it is composed of praśnas which literally means ‘questions’ or books. The structure of this Dharmasūtra is not very clear because it came down in an incomplete manner. Moreover, the text has undergone alterations in the form of additions and explanations over a period of time. The praśnas consist of the Srautasutra and other ritual treatises, the Sulvasutra which deals with vedic geometry, and the Grhyasutra which deals with domestic rituals.[3]

There are no commentaries on this Dharmasūtra with the exception of Govindasvāmin's Vivaraṇa. The date of the commentary is uncertain but according to Olivelle it is not very ancient. Also the commentary is inferior in comparison to that of Haradatta on Āpastamba and Gautama.[4]

This Dharmasūtra is divided into four books. Olivelle states that Book One and the first sixteen chapters of Book Two are the ‘Proto-Baudhayana’[3] even though this section has undergone alteration. Scholars like Bühler and Kane agree that the last two books of the Dharmasūtra are later additions. Chapter 17 and 18 in Book Two lays emphasis on various types of ascetics and acetic practices.[3] The first book is primarily devoted to the student and deals in topics related to studentship. It also refers to social classes, the role of the king, marriage, and suspension of Vedic recitation. Book two refers to penances, inheritance, women, householder, orders of life, ancestral offerings. Book three refers to holy householders, forest hermit and penances. Book four primarily refers to the yogic practices and penances along with offenses regarding marriage.[5]

Apastamba's rules for building right angles in altars use the following four Pythagorean triples:[2][7] (3, 4, 5) (5, 12, 13) (8, 15, 17) (12, 35, 37) The same triples are easily derived from an old Babylonian rule, which makes Mesopotamian influence on the sutras likely.[2]

QMRThe Shulba Sutras or Śulbasūtras (Sanskrit śulba: "string, cord, rope") are sutra texts belonging to the Śrauta ritual and containing geometry related to fire-altar construction. The Shulba Sutras are part of the larger corpus of texts called the Shrauta Sutras, considered to be appendices to the Vedas. They are the only sources of knowledge of Indian mathematics from the Vedic period. Unique fire-altar shapes were associated with unique gifts from the Gods. For instance, "he who desires heaven is to construct a fire-altar in the form of a falcon"; "a fire-altar in the form of a tortoise is to be constructed by one desiring to win the world of Brahman" and "those who wish to destroy existing and future enemies should construct a fire-altar in the form of a rhombus".[1] The four major Shulba Sutras, which are mathematically the most significant, are those attributed to Baudhayana, Manava, Apastamba and Katyayana.[1] Their language is late Vedic Sanskrit, pointing to a composition roughly during the 1st millennium BC,[1] The oldest is the sutra attributed to Baudhayana, possibly compiled around 800 BCE to 600 BCE.[1] while the youngest content may date to about 200 CE.[2]

Presence of comparable practice in Jainism[edit] In an authoritative Jain scripture, the Tattvartha Sutra (Chapter 7, sutra 11), there is a mention of four right sentiments: Maitri, pramoda, karunya, madhyastha. "Benevolence towards all living beings, joy at the sight of the virtuous, compassion and sympathy for the afflicted, and tolerance towards the insolent and ill-behaved" A Cavern of Treasures (mDzod-phug)[edit] A Cavern of Treasures (Tibetan: མཛོད་ཕུག, Wylie: mdzod phug) is a Bonpo terma uncovered by Shenchen Luga (Tibetan: གཤེན་ཆེན་ཀླུ་དགའ, Wylie: gshen-chen klu-dga') in the early eleventh century. A segment of it enshrines a Bonpo evocation of the four immeasurables.[19] Martin (n.d.: p. 21) identifies the importance of this scripture for studies of the Zhang-Zhung language.[20]

Brahmavihāra practice in the Visuddhimagga[edit] The four immeasurables are explained in The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), written in the fifth century CE by the scholar and commentator Buddhaghoṣa. They are often practiced by taking each of the immeasurables in turn and applying it to oneself (a practice taught by many contemporary teachers and monastics that was established after the Pali Suttas were completed), and then to others nearby, and so on to everybody in the world, and to everybody in all universes.

The four immeasurables are:

Loving-kindness (Pāli: mettā, Sanskrit: maitrī) towards all: the hope that a person will be well; "the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy."[11]

Compassion (Pāli and Sanskrit: karuṇā): the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; "the wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering."[11]

Empathetic joy (Pāli and Sanskrit: muditā): joy in the accomplishments of a person—oneself or another; sympathetic joy; "the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings."[11]

Equanimity (Pāli: upekkhā, Sanskrit: upekṣā): learning to accept loss and gain, good-repute and ill-repute, praise and censure, sorrow and happiness (Attha Loka Dhamma),[12] all with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others. Equanimity is "not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind—not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation."[13]

Loving-kindness and compassion can both be viewed as hopes for the future leading, where possible, to action aimed at realizing those hopes. Joy and equanimity can be seen as attitudes useful for reflecting on what has already past and, through this reflection, present us with an opportunity to apply knowledge to our actions. Consequently while the four immeasurables might be delineated as attitudes to the future or past, they contain the seed of the "present" within their core; as they manifest new ways to act (a living embodied practice). In this context, a living bodied practice can be a dedicated intention that we are in the "here and now"; that is to say we experience both a tranquil awareness of at once a) our own and other being's gifts and accomplishments and b) tranquil awareness of moments where our own and other being's actions do not reflect the four immeasurables.[14]

All we experience is preceded by mind,

Led by mind, made by mind. Speak or act with a corrupted mind

And suffering follows

As the wagon wheel follows the hoof of the ox.

All we experience is preceded by mind,

Led by mind, made by mind.

Speak or act with a peaceful mind

And happiness follows like a shadow that never leaves.

— Dhammapada 1–2

Central to Buddhist spiritual practice is a deep appreciation of the present moment and the possibilities that exist in the present for waking up and being free of suffering.[15] The four immeasurables can represent a way of experiencing the past and the future in an enlightened manner, a manner that avoids

suffering and encourages peace and happiness.

Etymology & translations[edit] Pāli: cattāri brahmavihārā Sanskrit: चत्वारि ब्रह्मविहाराः (IAST: catvāri brahmavihārāḥ) Brahmavihāra may be parsed as "Brahmā" and "vihāra"; which is often rendered into English as "sublime" or "divine abodes".[7] Apramāṇa, usually translated as "the immeasurables," means "boundlessness, infinitude, a state that is illimitable".[8] When developed to a high degree in meditation, these attitudes are said to make the mind "immeasurable" and like the mind of the loving Brahmā (gods).[9] Other translations: English: four divine abodes, four divine emotions, four sublime attitudes. East Asia: (traditional Chinese: 四無量心; ; pinyin: Sì wúliàng xīn; Korean: 사무량심; Vietnamese: Tứ Vô Lượng Tâm; literally: "immeasurable states of mind, from apramāṇa-citta"), (traditional Chinese: 四等(心); ; pinyin: sì děng; literally: "four equalities/universals"), (traditional Chinese: 四梵行; ; pinyin: sì fàn xíng; literally: "noble Brahma-acts/characteristics").[10] Tibetan: ཚད་མེད་བཞི, Wylie: tshad med bzhi or Tibetan: ཚངས་གནས་བཞི་, Wylie: tshangs gnas bzhi.

QMRThe brahmavihāras (sublime attitudes, lit. "abodes of brahma") are a series of four Buddhist virtues and the meditation practices made to cultivate them. They are also known as the four immeasurables (Sanskrit: apramāṇa, Pāli: appamaññā).[1][2] According to the Metta Sutta, Gautama Buddha held that cultivation of the four immeasurables has the power to cause the practitioner to be reborn into a "Brahmā realm" (Pāli: Brahmaloka).[3] The meditator is instructed to radiate out to all beings in all directions the states of: loving-kindness or benevolence compassion empathetic joy equanimity The four immeasurables are also found in the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali (1.33),[4] a text composed long after the beginning of Buddhism and substantially influenced by Buddhism.[5][6] These virtues are also highly regarded by Buddhists as powerful antidotes to negative mental states (non-virtues) such as avarice, anger and pride.

In Theravāda Buddhism's Pali Canon, mettā is one of the four "divine abodes" (Pali: brahmavihāra) recommended for cultivating interpersonal harmony and meditative concentration (see, for instance, kammaṭṭhāna). In later canonical works (such as the Cariyāpiṭaka), mettā is one of ten "perfections" (pāramī) that facilitates the attainment of awakening (Bodhi) and is a prerequisite to attaining Buddhahood. According to post-canonical Sutta Nipāta commentary, the background story for the Mettā Sutta is that a group of monks were harassed by tree-dwelling deities in a forest; when the monks seek the Buddha's aid in dealing with the deities, the Buddha teaches the monks the Mettā Sutta for them to recite regularly; the monks do so and, as a result, win over the deities' good will.[4][5]

QMRThe Mettā Sutta is the name used for two Buddhist discourses (Pali, sutta) found in the Pali Canon. The one, more often chanted by Theravadin monks, is also referred to as Karaṇīyamettā Sutta after the opening word, Karaṇīyam, "(This is what) should be done."[1] It is found in the Suttanipāta (Sn 1.8) and Khuddakapāṭha (Khp 9). It is ten verses in length and it extols both the virtuous qualities and the meditative development of mettā (Pali), traditionally translated as "loving kindness"[2] or "friendliness."[3] The other, also chanted by Theravadin Buddhist monks at times, extols the benefits of the practice of mettā (Pali) and it is found in the Anguttara Nikaya (AN 11.15). is also referred to as Mettānisamsa Sutta. This article will focus on the first version.

Various possibilities for liberation[edit]

Schmithausen notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[13][3][page needed][2][page needed] Schmithausen discerns three possible roads to liberation as described in the suttas, to which Vetter adds a fourth possibility:[49]

Mastering the four Rupa Jhanas, where-after "liberating insight" is attained;

Mastering the four Rupa Jhanas and the four Arupa Jhanas, where-after "liberating insight" is attained;

Liberating insight itself suffices;

The four Rupa Jhanas themselves constituted the core liberating practice of early Buddhism, c.q. the Buddha.[50]QMRQualities of the jhānas[edit]

The Pāli canon describes eight progressive states of jhāna. Four are called meditations of form (rūpa jhāna), and four are formless meditations (arūpa jhāna).

The Rupa Jhānas[edit]

There are four stages of deep collectedness which are called the Rupa Jhāna (Fine-material Jhāna).

Jhana and samadhi[edit]

According to Henepola Gunaratana the term "jhana" is closely connected with "samadhi", which is generally rendered as "concentration." The word "samadhi" is almost interchangeable with the word "samatha," serenity.[37]

In the suttas samadhi is defined as mental one-pointedness.[37] Buddhaghosa explains samadhi etymologically as

... the centering of consciousness and consciousness concomitants evenly and rightly on a single object... the state in virtue of which consciousness and its concomitants remain evenly and rightly on a single object, undistracted and unscattered (Vism.84-85; PP.85).[37]

In the widest sense the word samadhi is being used for the practices which lead to the development of serenity. In this sense, samadhi and jhana are close in meaning. Nevertheless, they are not exactly identical. Samadhi signifies only one mental factor, namely one-pointedness, while the word "jhana" encompasses the whole state of consciousness.[37]

Samadhi also covers another type of concentration, namely "momentary concentration" (khanikasamadhi), "the mobile mental stabilization produced in the course of insight contemplation of the passing flow of phenomena."[37]

Rupa Jhana related factors[edit]

The rupa-jhānas are described according to the nature of the mental factors which are present in these states:

Movement of the mind onto the object (vitakka; Sanskrit: vitarka)

Retention of the mind on the object (vicāra)

Joy (pīti; Sanskrit: prīti)

Happiness (sukha)

Equanimity (upekkhā; Sanskrit: upekṣā)

One-pointedness (ekaggatā; Sanskrit: ekāgratā)[note 3]

Qualities of the Four Rupa Jhanas[edit]

Main article: Rupajhana

For each Jhāna are given a set of qualities which are present in that jhana:[38]

First Jhāna — the five hindrances have completely disappeared and intense unified bliss remains. Only the subtlest of mental movement remains, perceivable in its absence by those who have entered the second jhāna. The ability to form unwholesome intentions ceases. The remaining qualities are: "directed thought, evaluation, rapture, pleasure, unification of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity & attention"

Second Jhāna — all mental movement utterly ceases. There is only bliss. The ability to form wholesome intentions ceases as well. The remaining qualities are: "internal assurance, rapture, pleasure, unification of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, & attention"

Third Jhāna — one-half of bliss (joy) disappears. The remaining qualities are: "equanimity-pleasure, unification of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity & attention"

Fourth Jhāna — The other half of bliss (happiness) disappears, leading to a state with neither pleasure nor pain, which the Buddha said is actually a subtle form of happiness (more sublime than pīti and sukha). The breath is said to cease temporarily in this state. The remaining qualities are: "a feeling of equanimity, neither pleasure nor pain; an unconcern due to serenity of awareness; unification of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity & attention".[38]

Psychic powers[edit]

Traditionally, the fourth jhāna is seen as the beginning of attaining psychic powers (abhijñā).[note 4]

The Arupa Jhānas[edit]

See also: Arūpajhāna and Formless Realm

Beyond the four jhānas lie four attainments, referred to in the early texts as aruppas. These are also referred to in commentarial literature as immaterial/the formless jhānas (arūpajhānas), also translated as The Formless Dimensions, in distinction from the first four jhānas (rūpa jhānas). In the Buddhist canonical texts, the word "jhāna" is never explicitly used to denote them, but they are always mentioned in sequence after the first four jhānas. The immaterial attainments have more to do with expanding, while the Jhanas (1-4) focus on concentration. The enlightenment of complete dwelling in emptiness is reached when the eighth jhāna is transcended.

The four formless jhanas are:

Dimension of Infinite Space - In this dimension the following qualities are "ferreted out":[38] "the perception of the dimension of the infinitude of space, singleness of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, & attention".[38]

Dimension of Infinite Consciousness - In this dimension the following quailities are "ferreted out":[38] "the perception of the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, unification of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, & attention".[38] Dimension of Nothingness - In this dimension the following qualities are "ferreted out":[38] "the perception of the dimension of nothingness, singleness of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, & attention" Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception No qualities to be "ferreted out" are being mentioned for this dimension.[38] Although the "Dimension of Nothingness" and the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception" are included in the list of nine Jhanas taught by the Buddha, they are not included in the Noble Eightfold Path. Noble Path number eight is "Samma Samadhi" (Right Concentration), and only the first four Jhanas are considered "Right Concentration". If he takes a disciple through all the Jhanas, the emphasis is on the "Cessation of Feelings and Perceptions" rather than stopping short at the "Dimension of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception". Nirodha

QMRSatipaṭṭhāna is the Pāli word for the Buddhist concept of the establishment or foundations of mindfulness. The corresponding word in Sanskrit (Skt.) is smṛtyupasthāna and in Chinese it is ‘mindfulness-place’ (念處).

Satipaṭṭhāna is a compound word, consisting of sati ("to remember"), and upaṭṭhāna ("attendance", underscoring the mental qualities co-existent with or antecedent to mindfulness) or paṭṭhāna ("setting forth," "starting point," "foundation," underscoring the object used to gain mindfulness).

The fourfold "establishment of mindfulness" (Pāli cattāro satipaṭṭhānā) is set out in the Satipatthana Sutta for attaining and maintaining moment-by-moment mindfulness or retention (Sati) of four domains, "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths."[1] The four domains are:[2]

mindfulness of the body;[3][web 1]

mindfulness of feelings or sensations (vedanā);[4]

mindfulness of mind or consciousness (citta);[5] and

mindfulness of dhammās (the elements of the Buddhist teachings).[6]

The Buddha referred to the fourfold establishment of mindfulness as a "direct" or "one-way path" for purification and the realisation of nirvana.[note 1]

The modern Theravadan Buddhism and the Vipassana or Insight Meditation Movement promote satipatthana as key techniques for achieving mindfulness, promoting "mindfulness" as meaning careful attention instead of the recollection of the dhamma.

QMRAnapanasati Sutta- 16 is the squares of the quadrant model and the quadrant model is comprised of four tetrads/ quadrants.

The Ānāpānasati Sutta (Pāli) or Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra (Sanskrit), "Breath-Mindfulness Discourse," is a discourse that details the Buddha's instruction on using awareness of the breath (anapana) as an initial focus for meditation.

In Theravada Buddhism[edit]

The Theravadin version of the Anapanasati Sutta lists sixteen steps to relax and compose the mind. According to Ajahn Sujato, the ultimate goal of Anapanasati is to bear insight and understanding into the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (Satipaṭṭhāna), the Seven Factors of Awakening (Bojjhangas), and ultimately Nibbana.[1]

The Anapanasati Sutta is a celebrated text among Theravada Buddhists.[2] In the Theravada Pali Canon, this discourse is the 118th discourse in the Majjhima Nikaya (MN) and is thus frequently represented as "MN 118".[3] In addition, in the Pali Text Society edition of the Pali Canon, this discourse is in the Majjhima Nikaya (M)'s third volume, starting on the 78th page and is thus sometimes referenced as "M iii 78".

In East Asian Buddhism[edit]

The Ānāpānasmṛti Sūtra, as the text was known to Sanskritic early Buddhist schools in India, exists in several forms. There is a version of the Ānāpānasmṛti Sutra in the Ekottara Āgama preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon. This version also teaches about the Four Dhyānas, recalling past lives, and the Divine Eye. The earliest translation of Ānāpānasmṛti instructions, however, was by An Shigao as a separate sutra (T602) in the 2nd century CE.[4] It is not part of the Sarvastivada Madhyama Āgama, but is instead an isolated text, although the sixteen steps are found elsewhere in the Madhyama and Samyukta Āgamas.[5] The versions preserved in the Samyukta Agama are SA 815, SA 803, SA 810–812 and these three sutras have been translated into English by Thich Nhat Hanh.[6]

Core instructions[edit]

Next, the 16 objects or instructions are listed, generally broken into four tetrads, as follows:[11]

First Tetrad: Contemplation of the Body (kāya)

Discerning the in and out breathing

Discerning long or short breaths

Experiencing the whole body (sabbakāaya)

Calming bodily formations

Second Tetrad: Contemplation of the Feeling (vedanā)

Being sensitive to rapture (pīti)[12]

Being sensitive to pleasure (sukha)

Being sensitive to mental fabrication (citta-saṃskāra)

Calming mental fabrication

Third Tetrad: Contemplation of the Mind (citta)

Being sensitive to the mind

Satisfying the mind

Steadying the mind

Releasing the mind

Fourth Tetrad: Contemplation of the Mental Objects (dhammā)

Dwelling on impermanence

Dwelling on dispassion

Dwelling on cessation

Dwelling on relinquishment

16 is the squares of the quadrant model

Discourses including the core instructions[edit]

In addition to being in the Anapanasati Sutta, all four of the aforementioned core instructional tetrads can also be found in the following canonical discourses:

the "Greater Exhortation to Rahula Discourse" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta, MN 62);[14]

sixteen discourses of the Samyutta Nikaya's (SN) chapter 54 (Anapana-samyutta): SN 54.1, SN 54.3–SN 54.16, SN 54.20;[15]

the "To Girimananda Discourse" (Girimananda Sutta, AN 10.60); and,[16]

the Khuddaka Nikaya's Patisambhidamagga's section on the breath, Anapanakatha.[17]

The first tetrad identified above (relating to bodily mindfulness) can also be found in the following discourses:

the "Great Mindfulness Arousing Discourse" (Mahasatipatthana Sutta, DN 22)[18] and, similarly, the "Mindfulness Arousing Discourse" (Satipatthana Sutta, MN 10),[19] in the section on Body Contemplation; and,

the "Mindfulness concerning the Body Discourse" (Kayagatasati Sutta, MN 119) as the first type of body-centered meditation described.[20]

Expanded contexts[edit]

Great fruit, great benefit[edit]

The Anapanasati Sutta refers to sixteenfold breath-mindfulness as being of "great fruit" (mahapphalo) and "great benefit" (mahānisaṃso). "The Simile of the Lamp Discourse" (SN 54.8) states this as well and expands on the various fruits and benefits, including:

unlike with other meditation subjects, with the breath one's body and eyes do not tire and one's mind, through non-clinging, becomes free of taints[27]

householder memories and aspirations are abandoned[28]

one dwells with equanimity towards repulsive and unrepulsive objects

one enters and dwells in the four material absorptions (rupajhana) and the four immaterial absorptions (arupajhana)

all feelings (vedana) are seen as impermanent, are detached from and, upon the death of the body, "will become cool right here." [29]

Pali commentaries[edit]

In traditional Pali literature, the 5th-century CE commentary (atthakatha) for this discourse can be found in two works, both attributed to Ven. Buddhaghosa:

the Visuddhimagga provides commentary on the four tetrads.

the Papañcasūdanī provides commentary on the remainder of this discourse.[30]

Interpretations[edit]

Different traditions (such as Sri Lankan practitioners who follow the Visuddhimagga versus Thai forest monks) interpret a number of aspects of this sutta in different ways. Below are some of the matters that have multiple interpretations:

Are the 16 core instructions to be followed sequentially or concurrently (Bodhi, 2000, p. 1516; Brahm, 2006, pp. 83–101; Rosenberg, 2004)?

Must one have reached the first jhana before (or in tandem with) pursuing the second tetrad (Rosenberg, 2004)?

In the preparatory instructions, does the word "parimukham" mean: around the mouth (as favored by Goenka, 1998, p. 28), in the chest area (as supported by a use of the word in the Vinaya), in the forefront of one's mind (as favored at times by Thanissaro) or simply "sets up mindfulness before him" (per Bodhi in Wallace & Bodhi, 2006, p. 5) or "to the fore" (Thanissaro, 2006d) or "mindfulness alive" (Piyadassi, 1999) ?

In the first tetrad's third instruction, does the word "sabbakaya" mean: the whole "breath body" (as indicated in the sutta itself [Nanamoli, 1998, p. 7: "I say that this, bhikkhus, is a certain body among the bodies, namely, respiration."], as perhaps supported by the Patisambhidamagga [Nanamoli, 1998, p. 75], the Visuddhimagga [1991, pp. 266–267], Nyanaponika [1965, pp. 109–110], Buddhadasa [1988, p. 35], and Brahm [2006, p. 84]) or the whole "flesh body" (as supported by Bhikkhu Bodhi's revised second translation of the sutta [in Nanamoli & Bodhi, 2001, see relevant footnote to MN 118], Goenka [1988, pp. 29–30], Nhat Hanh [1988, p. 26] and Rosenberg [1998, pp. 40, 43]), and the commentary, which explains that the "body among bodies" refers to the wind element as opposed to other ways of relating to the body?

The Buddha's Assurances[edit]

The first and main part of the Kalama Sutta is often quoted, but an equally important section of the Kalama Sutta follows on from this. This section (17) features the Buddha's four assurances, or solaces. The Buddha asserts that a happy and moral life would be correct even if there is no karma and reincarnation.

The disciple of the Noble Ones, Kalamas, who has such ahate-free mind, such a malice-free mind, such an undefiled mind, and such a purified mind, is one by whom four solaces are found here and now.

'Suppose there is a hereafter and there is a fruit, result, of deeds done well or ill. Then it is possible that at the dissolution of the body after death, I shall arise in the heavenly world, which is possessed of the state of bliss.' This is the first solace found by him.

'Suppose there is no hereafter and there is no fruit, no result, of deeds done well or ill. Yet in this world, here and now, free from hatred, free from malice, safe and sound, and happy, I keep myself.' This is the second solace found by him.

Suppose evil (results) befall an evil-doer. I, however, think of doing evil to no one. Then, how can ill (results) affect me who do no evil deed?' This is the third solace found by him. 'Suppose evil (results) do not befall an evil-doer. Then I see myself purified in any case.' This is the fourth solace found by him. The disciple of the Noble Ones, Kalamas, who has such a hate-free mind, such a malice-free mind, such an undefiled mind, and such a purified mind, is one by whom, here and now, these four solaces are found. — [2] On these four solaces, Soma Thera wrote: The Kalama Sutta, which sets forth the principles that should be followed by a seeker of truth, and which contains a standard things are judged by, belongs to a framework of the Dhamma; the four solaces taught in the sutta point out the extent to which the Buddha permits suspense of judgment in matters beyond normal cognition. The solaces show that the reason for a virtuous life does not necessarily depend on belief in rebirth or retribution, but on mental well-being acquired through the overcoming of greed, hate, and delusion.[2]

QMRThe Kālāma Sutta is a discourse of the Buddha contained in the Aṅguttara Nikaya of the Tipiṭaka.[1] It is often cited by those of the Theravada and Mahayana traditions alike as the Buddha's "charter of free inquiry."

Understanding unwholesome and wholesome[edit] According to the Pali commentary, the unwholesome and the wholesome can be understood within the four-phase framework (suffering-origin-cessation-path) used to analyze this discourse's other fifteen cases. From one perspective, the unwholesome and the wholesome are a form of suffering (dukkha). Likewise, their respective roots (greed, nongreed, etc.) are thus "the origin of suffering" (dukkha-samudaya); the non-arising of the roots is the cessation of this suffering (dukkha-nirodha); and, the understanding of unwholesome and wholesome actions and their roots, abandoning the roots, and understanding their cessation is the noble path (ariya-magga).[37] In addition, the ten courses of unwholesome action and ten courses of wholesome action can be understood in terms of the following five aspects: mental state (whether or not volition was a primary factor); category (result of prior action or roots or both); object (formation or beings); feeling (painful, pleasant or neutral); and, root (greed, hate and/or delusion).[38]

Magga-vibhanga Sutta (SN 45.8)[edit]

In the "An Analysis of the Path" discourse (SN 45.8), the Buddha is recorded as uttering a brief formula for defining "right view":

"Knowledge with regard to stress [dukkha],

knowledge with regard to the origination of stress,

knowledge with regard to the stopping of stress,

knowledge with regard to the way of practice

leading to the stopping of stress...."[21]

... dukkhe ñāṇaṃ

dukkhasamudaye ñāṇaṃ

dukkhanirodhe ñāṇaṃ

dukkhanirodhagāminiyā

paṭipadāya ñāṇaṃ....

[22]

This pithy phrase reflects the core process of the Sammaditthi Sutta insomuch that each of the discourse's cases is analyzed in terms of its existence, its origin, its cessation and the way leading to its cessation (that is, the Noble Eightfold Path).[23]

This condensed formulaic definition of "right view" is found in other canonical discourses as well as in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.[24] In addition, in the Pali literature, this same definition is provided for "wisdom" (vijjā),[25] "non-delusion" (amoho),[26] and the "four knowledges of this world" (aparāni cattāri ñāṇāni).[

Ven. Sariputta describes the Four Noble Truths using traditional canonical phrases:[17] suffering (dukkha) is birth, aging, sickness, death, ... in short, the five aggregates of clinging. the origin of suffering (dukkhasamudaya) is craving (tanha) ... for sensual pleasures, being and non-being. the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodha) is ... the letting go and rejecting of craving. the way leading to the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodhagāminī paṭipadā) is the Noble Eightfold Path (ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo). Understanding suffering, its origin, cessation and the way leading to its cessation, the noble disciple abandons greed, aversion, conceit and ignorance, arouses wisdom, ends suffering and is one of right view.

Nutriments[edit] Ven. Sariputta describes the "nutriments" (āhāro) as fourfold: physical food (kabaliṅkāro) contact (phasso) mental volition (manosañcetanā) consciousness (viññāṇa) The arising (origin) of nutriment is due to the arising of craving. The cessation of nutriment is the cessation of craving. The way leading to the cessation of nutriment is the Noble Eightfold Path. Understanding nutriment, its origin, cessation and the way leading to its cessation, the noble disciple abandons greed, aversion, conceit and ignorance, arouses wisdom, ends suffering and is one of right view.

In this discourse, Ven. Sariputta addresses a congregation of monks (bhikkhu) about how (in English and Pali): "... a noble disciple is one of right view, whose view is straight, who has perfect confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma."[10][11][12] ... ariyasāvako sammādiṭṭhi hoti. Ujugatāssa diṭṭhi. Dhamme aveccappasādena samannāgato āgato imaṃ saddhammanti.[13] At the monks' repeated urging, Ven. Sariputta then identifies the following sixteen cases (pariyāya)[14] through which a noble disciple could achieve right view: the Unwholesome and the Wholesome Nutriments the Four Noble Truths (discussed as one case) the twelve causes (nidana) of Dependent Origination (discussed as twelve individual cases) the Taints Right view is achieved for the last fifteen of these cases by understanding (pajānāti) the four phases of each case:[15] the constituents of the case its origin its cessation the way leading to its cessation

QMRCommentarial literature[edit] The Twelve Nidānas are explained in detail in the Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa, the central text of the Mahāvihāra commentarial tradition. Buddhaghosa recounts four methods to interpret the Twelve Nidanas: Working from "bottom to top", Working from the "middle to the top", Working from "top to bottom", Working from the "middle to the source".[c] The first method begins with ignorance and proceeds to sickness, old age, and death. The second method begins with attachment and proceeds to birth. The third method begins with birth and proceeds back to ignorance. The fourth method begins with attachment and proceeds to ignorance.

QMRThe Sammādiṭṭhi Sutta (Pali for "Right View Discourse") is a Pali Canon discourse that provides an elaboration on the Buddhist notion of "right view" by the Buddha's chief disciple, Ven. Sariputta. The Chinese canon contains two corresponding translations,[1] the Maha Kotthita Sutra (大拘絺羅經)[2] and the Kotthita Sutra (拘絺羅經).[3]

QMRFour Dharma Seals are the four characteristics which reflect true Buddhist teaching .[1][2] It is said that if a teaching contains the Four Dharma Seals then it can be considered Buddha Dharma.[3] although the Dharma Seals were all introduced after Gautama Buddha died.[4] The Four Seals[edit] The Four Seals are as follows:[1] All compounded things are impermanent All conditioned phenomena and experiences are unsatisfactory All phenomena are non-self Nirvana is true peace As suffering is not an inherent aspect of existence[4] sometimes the second seal is omitted to make Three Dharma Seals

QMRThe Mūlapariyāya Sutta (MN 1, The Root of all things or The Root Sequence) is a Theravada Buddhist discourse which "is one of the deepest and most difficult suttas in the Pali Canon." [1] This discourse analyzes the thinking process of four different types of people and shows how the arising of dukkha is due to an intricate process which begins with perception and can only be ended by insight into the true nature of reality.

In this first sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya, the Buddha looks at thought process of four kinds of persons - untaught ordinary persons (puthujjana), disciples of the higher training (a sekha, who has at least achieved stream entry), arahants, and the Tathagata and how they deal with the root or foundation (mūla) of suffering which is desire born of ignorance.

The first kind of person is said to be a regular person and hence ignorant of the dhamma. The Buddha states how this kind of person deals with experience in the following manner:

Perceiving earth as earth, he conceives [things] about earth, he conceives [things] in earth, he conceives [things] coming out of earth, he conceives earth as 'mine,' he delights in earth. Why is that? Because he has not comprehended it, I tell you.

The discourse then continues to list all of the things the ordinary ignorant person conceives (maññanā) and delights in. These objects of thought are termed the 'Twenty-four bases (vatthus) of cognition' are range from the most gross aspects of experience to the most subtle. The vatthus are:[2]

The four elements - ie matter.

The different beings in the universe and their planes of existence, from normal beings to the divine realms of the devas and Brahma.

The dimensions of "infinite space", "infinite consciousness", "infinite nothingness" and "neither perception nor non perception".

Four classes of sense data - the seen, heard, sensed (smelling, tasting and touching) and cognizance.

The abstract categories of diversity, unity and totality or “The All.”

Nibbāna.

The ordinary process of the untaught world-ling's conception of the world is filled with ignorance and conceptual proliferation (papañca) from the initial moment of sensory perception. This leads to conceiving 'things in' and 'coming out' of whatever he perceives. This refers to how everyone develops views (diṭṭhi) about how things are, how they should be and how they should relate to them, from simple views to complex metaphysical speculations. People also develop conceptions of themselves as having a solid Self, and they also become attached to things when they delight (nandi) in them which leads to craving and clinging. Ordinary people conceive of things by identifying with them, by wanting to possess them, by seeing their self as being contained in them or by seeing their self as being separate from them.[3] This process begins at perception, which is already distorted for the untaught person who conceives and projects self-hood, solidity and expectations into his field of experience.[4] The stage of "conceiving" (mañati) is really a state of cognitive distortion, which is led by the three defilements of craving (taṇhā), conceit (māna), and views (diṭṭhi). It is in this sense that the untaught person is said to be deluded.

This process is an outline of the interdependent arising of suffering in the minds different kinds of people and how this process is counteracted by those who have taken up the teachings of the Buddha. The sutta goes on to elucidate how each other type of person gets closer and closer to the goal of nibbana by knowing things as they are and not delighting and clinging to them. The disciple in the higher training attempts not to conceive of things in a wrong way by not identifying with them and by not clinging to them. He does this by directly knowing things as they are, ie as impermanent, suffering, and non-self. He disciple must be vigilant because he has still not eradicated subtle mental dispositions of clinging.[5] The arahant and the Tathagata are awakened beings and therefore see directly into the truth of reality with no distorted conceptions, having uprooted all trace of the three defilements.

According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, this sutta is a response to the Indian philosophical school called Samkhya and parallels their philosophy while at the same time critiquing it. This school was said to have been founded by a philosopher called Uddalaka who posited there was a "root" principle which was in all things and gave birth to all things, a sort of "ground of being"[6] called Mula-Prakṛti. According to the Theravadan commentaries, the monks listening in this sutta were Brahmins who even after being ordained continued to hold to some of their previous views. This helps explains why the sutta ends with the very rare sentence: "Displeased, the monks did not delight in the Blessed One's words."[6]

King Vessavana[edit] Vulture's Peak at Rajgir, India where was the "Atanatiya" conference held. On one occasion the Blessed One was living on the Vulture's Peak near Rajagaha (Rajagir). The Four Heavenly Kings(2) having placed a guard over the four quarters, with a large army of Yakkhas, of Gandhabbas, of Kumbhandas, of Nagas; having placed troops; having placed a barricade of soldiers on four sides, came to the presence of the Blessed One, when the night was far advanced, illuminating the entire Vulture's Peak with their surpassing radiance, saluted the Blessed One and sat on one side. From among the (attendant) Yakkhas, some saluted the Blessed One, and sat on one side; some exchanged greetings with the Blessed One conversing in a friendly and courteous manner, and sat on one side; some saluted him with clasped hands, and sat on one side; some announced their name and lineage, and sat on one side; some sat on one side in silence.

QMRAtanatiya Sutta is the 32nd Sutta(1) described in the Digha Nikaya ("Long Discourses of Buddha").[1] The King Vessavana gave the Buddha a poem for his followers, male and female, monastic and lay, to recite for protection from evil spirits.

QMRCanonical commentary[edit] While the nikayas do not elaborate on what the Buddha meant by sampajañña, the Pali commentaries analyze it further in terms of four contexts for one's comprehension:[9] purpose (Pāli: sātthaka): refraining from activities irrelevant to the path. suitability (sappāya): pursuing activities in a dignified and careful manner. domain (gocara):[10] maintaining sensory restraint consistent with mindfulness. non-delusion (asammoha): seeing the true nature of reality (see three characteristics).

Personality-based typography[edit]

experiential orientation

(character)

affective

(extrovert) cognitive

(introvert)

reactivity /

temperament slow body mind

quick sensations mental contents

According to Analāyo[13] and Soma[14] the Papañcasudani recommends a different satipaṭṭhāna depending on whether a person:

tends more toward affective craving or intellectual speculation; and,

is more measured in their responses or quick reacting.

Based on these two dimensions the commentary's recommended personality-based satipaṭṭhāna is reflected in the grid shown at right.

Soma (2003, p. xxiv) adds that all practitioners (regardless of their character and temperament) should also practice mindfulness of Postures (moving, standing, sitting, lying down) and Clear Understanding, about which he writes: "The whole practice of mindfulness depends on the correct grasp of the exercises included in the two parts referred to here."

Single-focused, successive and simultaneous practices[edit]

There are a variety of ways that one could use the methods described in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta including:

1. Focus on a single method.[note 9] The method most written about in the English language is that of mindfulness of breath.[15]

2. Practice the various methods individually in succession.

3. Maintain breath mindfulness as a primary object while using other methods to address non-breath stimuli.[note 10]

4. Practice multiple methods either in tandem or in a context-driven manner.[note 11]

QMRContents of the Chinese Sarvastivadin version[edit]

The Sarvāstivāda Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra differs in some ways from the Theravada version, including postures as the first contemplation instead of breathing for example. According to Bhikkhu Sujato, it seems to emphasize samatha or calm abiding, while the Theravadin version emphasizes Vipassana or insight.[12] The text also often refers to 'bhikkhus and bhikkhunīs' instead of just male bhikkhus.

1. Body (Kāyā)

Postures (Walking, Standing, Sitting, Lying Down)

Clear Comprehending

Cutting off thought

Suppressing thought (see Vitakkasanthana Sutta)

Breathing

The first dhyāna and simile

The second dhyāna and simile

The third dhyāna and simile

The fourth dhyāna and simile

Perception of light (nimitta)

Basis of reviewing

Reflections on Repulsiveness of the Body

Reflections on Material Elements

Cemetery Contemplations

2. Sensations/Feelings (Vedanā)

pleasant or unpleasant or neither-pleasant-nor-unpleasant (neutral) feelings

worldly or spiritual feelings

3. Mind/Consciousness (Cittā) lust or without lust hate or without hate confused or without confusion defiled or without defilement disctracted or not distracted with obstacles or without obstacles tense or not not tense bound or boundless concentrated or not concentrated liberated or not liberated 4. Elements of the Buddhist teachings (Dhammā) The Sense-Bases The Hindrances The Factors of Enlightenment

Contents of the Theravada version[edit]

In this sutta, the Buddha identifies four domains to be mindful of (satipatthana): body (kāyā), sensations/feelings(vedanā), mind/consciousness (cittā)) and elements of the Buddhist teachings (dhammas). These are then further broken down into the following sections and subsections:

1. Body (Kāyā)

Breathing (also see the Anapanasati Sutta)

Postures (Walking, Standing, Sitting, Lying Down)

Clear Comprehending

Reflections on Repulsiveness of the Body

Reflections on Material Elements

Cemetery Contemplations

2. Sensations/Feelings (Vedanā)

pleasant or unpleasant or neither-pleasant-nor-unpleasant (neutral) feelings

worldly or spiritual feelings

3. Mind/Consciousness (Cittā)[note 4]

lust (sarāgaṃ) or without lust (vītarāgaṃ)

hate (sadosaṃ) or without hate (vītadosaṃ)

delusion (samohaṃ) or without delusion (vītamohaṃ)

contracted (saṅkhittaṃ) or scattered (vikkhittaṃ)

lofty (mahaggataṃ) or not lofty (amahaggataṃ)[note 5]

surpassable (sa-uttaraṃ) or unsurpassed (anuttaraṃ)[note 6]

quieted (samāhitaṃ) or not quieted (asamāhitaṃ) released (vimuttaṃ) or not released (avimuttaṃ) 4 Elements of the Buddhist teachings (Dhammā)[note 8] The Hindrances The Aggregates of Clinging The Sense-Bases and their Fetters The Factors of Enlightenment The Four Noble Truths

According to Anālayo (2006, pp. 29–30), Thanissaro (2000) and Nyanaponika (1996, pp. 9–10), part of the reason for the variety in this title's translation has to do with how the compound Pāli word "satipaṭṭhāna" is analyzed. It can be interpreted as "sati-paṭṭhāna" ("foundation of mindfulness") or "sati-upaṭṭhāna" ("presence of mindfulness").[note 3] In regard to the prefix "Maha-" in the Pāli title of DN 22, this simply means "great," or "larger" and likely refers to DN 22's expanded section on mindfulness of the Fourth Noble Truths. Two suttas that focus on practice are the Anapanasati (Mindfulness of Breathing) and the Satipatthana (Four Foundations of Mindfulness). The Anapanasati Sutta translations and commentaries include one by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Buddhadasa’s Mindfulness with Breathing for Serious Beginners, Larry Rosenberg’s book Breath by Breath, and Thich Nhat Hanh’s book Breathe! You Are Alive. Satipatthana Sutta translations and commentaries include the Thanissaro’s, Soma Thera’s The Way of Mindfulness, Thich Nhat Hanh’s book Transformation and Healing, and Goenka’s Satipatthana Sutta Discourses.

QMRThe Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta[1][note 1] (MN 10: The Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness) and the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta[2] (DN 22: The Great Discourse on the Establishing of Mindfulness) are two of the most important and widely studied discourses in the Pāli Canon of Theravada Buddhism, acting as the foundation for mindfulness meditational practice. These suttas (discourses) stress the practice of sati (mindfulness) "for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, for the extinguishing of suffering and grief, for walking on the path of truth, for the realization of nibbāna."[note 2]

Protect close relationships[edit]

Finally, returning to the topic of the six directions, the Buddha described the Four Compass Direction as : parents (East), teachers (South), wife[10] (West), and friends and colleagues (North), and the two vertical directions as: ascetics and Brahmins (Up) and the Servants (Down). He elaborated on how to respect and support them, and how in turn the Six will return the kindness and support.

The householder's commitments and the reciprocal acts of those he honors, as identified by the Buddha, are represented below in accordance with the four directions on the horizontal plane (east, south, west and north):

North

FRIENDS

commitments reciprocal acts

generosity

kind words

helpfulness

impartiality

integrity supportiveness

protect your wealth

provide shelter

loyalty

honor your family

West

WIFE

commitments reciprocal acts

honor her

respect her

fidelity

share authority

provide gifts organize duties

hospitality

fidelity

wise budgeting

skillfulness

East

PARENTS

commitments reciprocal acts

support them

fulfill their duties

honor traditions

deserve inheritance

honor their passing restrain from evil

nurture goodness

teach skills

arrange marriage

provide inheritance

South

TEACHERS

commitments reciprocal acts

rise to greet them

attend to them

eager receptivity

serve them

master their teaching thoroughly instruct

ensure comprehension

provide well-roundedness

provide referrals

ensure safety

Nadir

WORKERS

commitments reciprocal acts

apt work

just wages

health care

perks

leave time rise early

stay late

no stealing

work well

allegiance To the left are shown the householder's commitments to and the reciprocal acts of employees and servants (representing the nadir, below the practitioner's body). To the right are shown the householder's commitments to and the reciprocal acts of religious guides (representing the zenith, above the practitioner's body). Zenith ASCETICS commitments reciprocal acts loving acts loving speech loving thoughts hospitality material support restrain from evil nurture goodness lovingkindness enlighten clarify teach goodness

Sigala's honoring his father[edit]

The Sigalovada Sutta takes place when Lord Buddha encountered a youth called Sigala in his morning stroll. The young man, in drenched attire, prostrated and worshipped the four compass direction (East, South, West and North), plus the Earth (Down) and the Sky (Up). When asked by Lord Buddha why he did so, the youth Sigala replied that he had been told by his late father to do so and he thought that it was right to uphold his father's wishes. Lord Buddha then, based on Sigala's point of view, taught him on how a noble one (Pali: ariya) should worship the Six directions.

Avoid evil ways[edit]

The Buddha first describes fourteen evil ways that should be avoided by a householder. The Buddha enumerates these evil ways to be avoided as:

the four defilements of action:[8]

taking life (panatipato)

stealing (adinnadanam)

sexual misconduct (kamesu micchacaro)[9]

lying (musavado)

the four causes of evil action:

desire (chanda)

hate (dosa)

ignorance (moha)

fear (bhaya)

the six ways of squandering wealth:

indulging in intoxicants wandering the streets at inappropriate times frequenting public spectacle compulsive gambling malevolent companionship habitual idleness Choose true friends[edit] The Buddha then elaborated on the importance of having and being a true friend, as he described what true friends are; and what true friends are not; and, how true friends will aid in attaining a blissful life.

QMRThe four compass directions are the four squares of the quadrant. The ultra transcendent fifth direction up is the transcendent fifth, down is the ultra transcendent sixth Sigalovada Sutta is the 31st Sutta described in the Digha Nikaya ("Long Discourses of Buddha").[1] It is also known as the Sīgāla Sutta,[2] the Sīgālaka Sutta,[3] the Siṅgālovāda Sutta,[4] and the Sigālovāda Suttanta ("The Sigāla Homily").[5] Buddhaghosa has referred to this sutta as "the Vinaya [Buddhist code of discipline] of the householder."[6] In modern times, Bhikkhu Bodhi has identified this sutta as the "most comprehensive Nikāya text" which pertains "to the happiness directly visible in this present life."[7

Judaism Chapter

Other religions chapter