Science
Physics Chapter
QMRFour-dimensionalism[edit]
Main article: Perdurantism
Ted Sider and others have proposed that considering objects to extend across time as four-dimensional causal series of three-dimensional "time-slices" could solve the ship of Theseus problem because, in taking such an approach, each time-slice and all four dimensional objects remain numerically identical to themselves while allowing individual time-slices to differ from each other. The aforementioned river, therefore, comprises different three-dimensional time-slices of itself while remaining numerically identical to itself across time; one can never step into the same river-time-slice twice, but one can step into the same (four-dimensional) river twice.[10]
Ryan Merkle QMRQuidditch /ˈkwɪdɪtʃ/ is a competitive sport in the Wizarding World of the Harry Potter universe, featured in the series of novels and movies. Matches are played between two teams of seven players riding flying broomsticks, using four balls: a Quaffle, two Bludgers, and a Golden Snitch
QMRThe four most common Maxwell relations[edit]
The four most common Maxwell relations are the equalities of the second derivatives of each of the four thermodynamic potentials, with respect to their thermal natural variable (temperature T; or entropy S) and their mechanical natural variable (pressure P; or volume V):
Maxwell's relations (common)
\begin{align}
+\left(\frac{\partial T}{\partial V}\right)_S &=& -\left(\frac{\partial P}{\partial S}\right)_V &=& \frac{\partial^2 U }{\partial S \partial V}\\
+\left(\frac{\partial T}{\partial P}\right)_S &=& +\left(\frac{\partial V}{\partial S}\right)_P &=& \frac{\partial^2 H }{\partial S \partial P}\\
+\left(\frac{\partial S}{\partial V}\right)_T &=& +\left(\frac{\partial P}{\partial T}\right)_V &=& -\frac{\partial^2 F }{\partial T \partial V}\\
-\left(\frac{\partial S}{\partial P}\right)_T &=& +\left(\frac{\partial V}{\partial T}\right)_P &=& \frac{\partial^2 G }{\partial T \partial P}
\end{align}\,\!
where the potentials as functions of their natural thermal and mechanical variables are the internal energy U(S, V), enthalpy H(S, P), Helmholtz free energy F(T, V) and Gibbs free energy G(T, P). The thermodynamic square can be used as a mnemonic to recall and derive these relations. The usefulness of these relations lies in their quantifying entropy changes, which are not directly measurable, in terms of measurable quantities like temperature, volume, and pressure.
General Maxwell relationships[edit]
The above are not the only Maxwell relationships. When other work terms involving other natural variables besides the volume work are considered or when the number of particles is included as a natural variable, other Maxwell relations become apparent. For example, if we have a single-component gas, then the number of particles N is also a natural variable of the above four thermodynamic potentials. The Maxwell relationship for the enthalpy with respect to pressure and particle number would then be:
\left(\frac{\partial \mu}{\partial P}\right)_{S, N} =
\left(\frac{\partial V}{\partial N}\right)_{S, P}\qquad=
\frac{\partial^2 H }{\partial P \partial N}
where μ is the chemical potential. In addition, there are other thermodynamic potentials besides the four that are commonly used, and each of these potentials will yield a set of Maxwell relations.
Each equation can be re-expressed using the relationship
\left(\frac{\partial y}{\partial x}\right)_z
=
1\left/\left(\frac{\partial x}{\partial y}\right)_z\right.
which are sometimes also known as Maxwell relations.
Ryan Merkle QMRA process variable, process value or process parameter is the current status of a process under control. An example of this would be the temperature of a furnace. The current temperature is called the process variable, while the desired temperature is known as the set-point.
Measurement of process variables are important in controlling a process. The process variable is a dynamic feature of the process which may change rapidly. Accurate measurement of process variables is important for the maintenance of accuracy in a process. There are four commonly measured variables which affect chemical and physical process: pressure, temperature, level and flow.[citation needed]
Ryan Merkle QMRLevel of measurement or scale of measure is a classification that describes the nature of information within the numbers assigned to variables.[1] The best known classification is that developed by the psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens, who proposed four levels, or scales, of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.[1][2] Other classifications include those by Chrisman[3] and by Mosteller and Tukey.[4] This framework of distinguishing levels of measurement originated in psychology and is widely criticized by scholars in other disciplines.[5]
Ryan Merkle QMRA Mars rover is an automated motor vehicle that propels itself across the surface of the planet Mars upon arrival. Rovers have several advantages over stationary landers: they examine more territory, and they can be directed to interesting features, they can place themselves in sunny positions to weather winter months, and they can advance the knowledge of how to perform very remote robotic vehicle control.
There have been four successful robotically operated Mars rovers. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory managed the Mars Pathfinder mission and its now inactive Sojourner rover. It currently manages the Mars Exploration Rover mission's active Opportunity rover and inactive Spirit, and, as part of the Mars Science Laboratory mission, the Curiosity rover.
On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic, and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.[1][2][3][4] The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.[1]
Ryan Merkle The four science goals of NASA's long-term Mars Exploration Program are:
Determine whether life ever arose on Mars
Characterize the climate of Mars
Characterize the geology of Mars
Prepare for human exploration of Mars[30]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Rig Veda refers to the Orion Constellation as Mriga (The Deer).[15] It is said that two bright stars in the front and two bright stars in the rear are The hunting dogs, the one comparatively less bright star in the middle and ahead of two front dogs is The hunter and three aligned bright stars are in the middle of all four hunting dogs is The Deer (The Mriga) and three little aligned but less brighter stars is The Baby Deer. The Mriga means Deer, locally known as Harnu in folk parlance. There are many folk songs narrating the Harnu. The Malay called Orion' Belt Bintang Tiga Beradik (the "Three Brother Star").[citation needed]
Ryan Merkle Orion's seven brightest stars form a distinctive hourglass-shaped asterism, or pattern, in the night sky. Four stars—Rigel, Betelgeuse, Bellatrix and Saiph—form a large roughly rectangular shape, in the centre of which lie the three stars of Orion's Belt—Alnitak, Alnilam and Mintaka.
Chemistry Chapter
Ryan Merkle QMRTypes[edit]
Cleaning agents normally water solutions that might be acidic, alkaline, or neutral, depending on the use. Cleaning agents may also be solvent-based or solvent-containing and are then called degreasers.[1]
Acidic[edit]
Acidic cleaning agents are mainly used for removal of inorganic deposits like scaling. The active ingredients are normally strong mineral acids and chelants. Often, surfactants and corrosion inhibitors are added to the acid.
Hydrochloric acid (also called muriatic acid) is a common mineral acid typically used for concrete. Vinegar can also be used to clean hard surfaces and remove calcium deposits. Sulfuric acid is used in acidic drain cleaners to unblock clogged pipes by dissolving greases, proteins, and even carbohydrate-containing substances such as toilet tissue.
Alkaline[edit]
Alkaline cleaning agents contain strong bases like sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. Bleach (pH 12) and ammonia (pH 11) are common alkaline cleaning agents. Often, dispersants, to prevent redeposition of dissolved dirt, and chelants, to attack rust, are added to the alkaline agent.
Alkaline cleaners can dissolve fats (including grease), oils, and protein-based substance
Neutral[edit]
Neutral washing agents are pH-neutral and based on non-ionic surfactants that disperse different types of dirt.
Degreaser[edit]
Cleaning agents specially made for removal of grease are called degreasers. These may be solvent-based or solvent-containing and may also have surfactants as active ingredients. The solvents have a dissolving action on grease and similar dirt. The solvent-containing degreaser may have an alkaline washing agent added to a solvent to promote further degreasing. Degreasing agents may also be made solvent-free based on alkaline chemicals and/or surfactants.
QMRThe four agents (VE, VG, VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" of nerve agents.
Ryan Merkle QMRIn statistics, a full factorial experiment is an experiment whose design consists of two or more factors, each with discrete possible values or "levels", and whose experimental units take on all possible combinations of these levels across all such factors. A full factorial design may also be called a fully crossed design. Such an experiment allows the investigator to study the effect of each factor on the response variable, as well as the effects of interactions between factors on the response variable.
For the vast majority of factorial experiments, each factor has only two levels. For example, with two factors each taking two levels, a factorial experiment would have four treatment combinations in total, and is usually called a 2×2 factorial design.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Wason selection task (or four-card problem) is a logic puzzle devised by Peter Cathcart Wason in 1966.[1][2][3] It is one of the most famous tasks in the study of deductive reasoning.[4] An example of the puzzle is:
You are shown a set of four cards placed on a table, each of which has a number on one side and a colored patch on the other side. The visible faces of the cards show 3, 8, red and brown. Which card(s) must you turn over in order to test the truth of the proposition that if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is red?
A response that identifies a card that need not be inverted, or that fails to identify a card that needs to be inverted, is incorrect. The original task dealt with numbers (even, odd) and letters (vowels, consonants).
The test is of special interest because people have a hard time solving it in most scenarios but can usually solve it correctly in certain contexts. In particular, researchers have found that the puzzle is readily solved when the imagined context is policing a social rule.
Ryan Merkle QMRPsychedelic agents in creative problem-solving experiment was a study designed to evaluate whether the use of a psychedelic substance with supportive setting can lead to improvement of performance in solving professional problems. The altered performance was measured by subjective reports, questionnaires, the obtained solutions for the professional problems and psychometric data using the Purdue Creativity, the Miller Object Visualization, and the Witkins Embedded Figures tests.[1] This experiment was a pilot that was to be followed by control studies as part of exploratory studies on uses for psychedelic drugs, that were interrupted early in 1966 when the Food and Drug Administration declared a moratorium on research with human subjects, as a strategy in combating illicit use.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 Procedure
2 Results
3 Related research
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Procedure[edit]
Some weeks before the actual experiment, a preliminary experiment was conducted. It consisted of two sessions with four participants in each. The groups worked on two problems chosen by the research personnel. The first group consisted of four people with professional experience in electrical engineering, engineering design, engineering management and psychology. They were given 50 micrograms of LSD. The second group consisted of four research engineers, three with a background in electronics and one in mechanics. They were given 100 milligrams of mescaline. Both groups were productive in ideation but, according to Fadiman, the fact that the participants didn't have actual personal stake in the outcome of the session negatively affected the actualization of the ideas. This is why the actual study focused on personal professional problems that the participants were highly motivated to tackle.[3]
The experiment was carried out in 1966 in a facility of International Foundation for Advanced Study, Menlo Park, California, by a team including Willis Harman, Robert H. McKim, Robert E. Mogar, James Fadiman and Myron Stolaroff. The participants of the study consisted of 27 male subjects engaged in a variety of professions: sixteen engineers, one engineer-physicist, two mathematicians, two architects, one psychologist, one furniture designer, one commercial artist, one sales manager, and one personnel manager. Nineteen of the subjects had had no previous experience with psychedelics. Each participant was required to bring a professional problem they had been working on for at least 3 months, and to have a desire to solve it.
Commonly observed characteristics of the psychedelic experience seemed to operate both for and against the hypothesis that the drug session could be used for performance enhancement. The research was therefore planned so as to attempt to provide a setting that would maximize improved functioning, while minimizing effects that might hinder effective functioning.[4] Each group of four subjects met for an evening session several days before the experiment. They received instructions and introduced themselves and their unsolved problems to the group. Approximately one hour of pencil-and-paper tests were also administered. At the beginning of the day of the experiment session, subjects were given 200 milligrams of mescaline sulphate (a moderately light dose compared to the doses used in experiments to induce mystical experiences). After some hours of relaxation, subjects were given tests similar to the ones on the introduction day. After the tests, subjects had four hours to work on their chosen problems. After the working phase, the group would discuss their experiences and review the solutions they had come up with. After this, the participants were driven home. Within a week after the session, each participant wrote a subjective account of his experience. Six weeks further, subjects again filled in questionnaires, this time concentrating on the effects on post-session creative ability and the validity and reception of the solutions conceived during the session. This data was in addition to the psychometric data comparing results of the two testing periods.
Ryan Merkle QMRMale Homosexuality in Four Societies: Brazil, Guatemala, the Philippines and the United States is a 1985 work about homosexuality by sociologists Frederick L. Whitam and Robin Mathy.
Summary[edit]
The authors discuss male homosexuality in four societies: Brazil, Guatemala, the Philippines, and the United States. Of Sexual Preference (1981), by psychologist Alan P. Bell and sociologists Martin S. Weinberg and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith,Whitam and Mathy write that while Bell et al. did not completely reject the idea that "familial factors are unrelated to the development of homosexuality" they nevertheless concluded that "the role of parents in the development of their sons' homosexuality" had been "grossly exaggerated." Whitam and Mathy found it strange that Bell et al. mostly reported on white subjects, generally ignoring their black respondents.[1]
Scholarly reception[edit]
Research scientist Neil Whitehead and journalist Briar Whitehead write that Whitam and Mathy interpreted Sexual Preference as showing that homosexuality has no "social or familial basis".[2]
Ryan Merkle QMR1857
Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz proposes that carbon is tetravalent, or forms exactly four chemical bonds.[
Ryan Merkle QMR1925
Wolfgang Pauli develops the exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons around a single nucleus may have the same quantum state, as described by four quantum numbers.[
Ryan Merkle QMRMethane (/ˈmɛθeɪn/ or /ˈmiːθeɪn/) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CH4 (one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen). It is the simplest alkane and the main component of natural gas. The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel, though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state found at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe first documents written in ancient Greek date from around 800 BC[6] more than 1,000 years after literary Egyptian; so Greek alchemists may have adopted Egyptian terminology.[7] Other possible sources include the Old Persian word "Kimiya" meaning gold. The alchemical theories associated with Hermes Trismegistus, is the syncretism of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian Thoth.[8] Moreover, it is known that "[t]he four chemical gods of the Egyptians, the female-male original principle of Osiris (male Sun) and the corresponding Isis (Wife-sister, female Moon), as well as Mercury and Vulcan, became eight gods and finally twelve gods, who were later taken over by the Greeks."[9] This origin theory, in chemistry, was generally known as the "pyramid of composition" and was used in the writing of Michael Maier, who in turn influenced Isaac Newton in his alchemical writings in the 1680s. Hence, the ancient "Egypt" word kēme (3000 B. C.), which stands for earth, is a possible root word of chemistry; this later became "khēmia", or transmutation, by 300 AD, and then “al-khemia” in the Arabic world, then alchemia in the Dark Ages, then “chymistry” in 1661 with Boyle’s publication, and now “chemistry”.
Ryan Merkle J. R. Partington in his four-volume work History of Chemistry (1969) [11] says that “the earliest applications of chemical processes were concerned with the extraction and working of metals and the manufacture of pottery, which were forms of crafts practiced many centuries before the Bronze Age cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia.” Thus, according to Partington, alchemy preceded Egypt and Mesopotamia.[12]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Four Horsemen is a cocktail containing four hard liquors and named after the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse. The name of the drink is derived from the fact that the most common brand names of each ingredient are also male given names and the drinks have a high alcohol content (and therefore tend to have a very strong effect on human physiology). Additionally, the four brand names usually all begin with the letter "J" (see sidebar), giving further unity to the concept of the "Four Horsemen".
Ryan Merkle Variants[edit]
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse - Adds one part of Bacardi 151
Four Horsemen and Hell Follows - Adds one part of Everclear
Four Horsemen Go Hunting - Adds one part of Wild Turkey
Four Men in a Boat - Adds one part of Grand Marnier
Four Horsemen Go to Sea - Adds one part of Captain Morgan
Four Horsemen Go To Hell - Do one of each liquor in short form (5 total). One shot Jack Daniels, one shot Jim Beam, one shot Johnnie Walker, one shot Jamesons and the last shot is Bacardi 151 that you may or may not light up.
Alternate version - common variant that contains Goldschlager, Jägermeister, Rumple Minze, and Bacardi 151.[1]
Four Horsemen Rite of Passage - The way they are made here in a glass- two shots Jack Daniels, two shots Jim Beam, two shots Johnnie Walker, two shots Jamesons. These are generally bought for you on your twenty-first birthday.
Three ingredient variants - If only three of the whiskey ingredients are used, it may be referred to as Three Wise Men.[2] Similarly themed variants as above exist for the three ingredient version as well (e.g. Three Wise Men go Hunting)
Flaming Four Horsemen - For this variant, each part is poured into its own shot glass in a row and then topped with an easily flammable liquor (such as Bacardi 151 or Everclear) poured across all four glasses in a line. Lighting one side should send the flames across all four glasses, which are then blown out and drunk. Usually performed by four people as a group shot.
Four Dudes in a Tub - This variant replaces whiskey with the following malt liquors: Mickey's, Olde English 800, Saint Ides, and King Cobra.
Three Horsemen & a Drummer - Jack, Jim, Johnnie, and Drambuie
Ryan Merkle QMRRum punches[edit]
There are several rum-based punches: Planter's Punch, Bajan Rum Punch, Caribbean Rum Punch, and others. The two most historical rum punches are the Planter's Punch and Bajan Rum Punch.
Bajan (Barbadian) Rum Punch is one of the oldest rum punches and has a simple recipe enshrined in a national rhyme: "One of Sour, Two of Sweet, Three of Strong, Four of Weak." That is: one part lime juice, two parts sweetener, three parts rum (preferably Barbados), and four parts water. It is served with a dash or two of Angostura bitters and nutmeg.
QMRThe first known print reference to Planter's Punch was in the August 8, 1908 edition of The New York Times:
Gentlemen enjoying punch in about 1765, by William Hogarth
PLANTER'S PUNCH
This recipe I give to thee,
Dear brother in the heat.
Take two of sour (lime let it be)
To one and a half of sweet,
Of Old Jamaica pour three strong,
And add four parts of weak.
Then mix and drink. I do no wrong —
I know whereof I speak.
Ryan Merkle QMRBlack Pony Scotch Laura[5] 1944 A bottle of this brand is found in the apartment of the title character (who is understood to have been murdered), leading the detective investigating the crime to develop suspicions based on his belief that she would not drink so cheap a brand. In the stage play of the film, the product is called "Four Horses Scotch".
QMRIn molecular cloning, a vector is a DNA molecule used as a vehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into another cell, where it can be replicated and/or expressed. A vector containing foreign DNA is termed recombinant DNA. The four major types of vectors are plasmids, viral vectors, cosmids, and artificial chromosomes. Of these, the most commonly used vectors are plasmids. Common to all engineered vectors are an origin of replication, a multicloning site, and a selectable marker.
Ryan Merkle QMRSome of the earliest theories of life were materialist, holding that all that exists is matter, and that life is merely a complex form or arrangement of matter. Empedocles (430 BC) argued that every thing in the universe is made up of a combination of four eternal "elements" or "roots of all": earth, water, air, and fire. All change is explained by the arrangement and rearrangement of these four elements. The various forms of life are caused by an appropriate mixture of elements.[31]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Silurian spans from 440 million years to 415 million years ago.[176] The Silurian saw the healing of the earth that recovered from the snowball earth. This period saw the mass evolution of fish, as jaw-less fish became more numerous, jawed fish evolved, and the first freshwater fish evolved, though arthropods, such as sea scorpions, were still apex predators. Fully terrestrial life evolved, which included early arachnids, fungi, and centipedes. Also, the evolution of vascular plants (Cooksonia) allowed plants to gain a foothold on land. These early plants are the forerunners of all plant life on land. During this time, there are four continents: Gondwana (Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, Siberia), Laurentia (North America), Baltica (Northern Europe), and Avalonia (Western Europe). The recent rise in sea levels provided many new species to thrive in water.[177]
As I pointed out there is according to scientists our continents now
Ryan Merkle QMRCarbon forms the key component for all known life on Earth. Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements, especially oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and carbon is able to bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons. Carbon is abundant on earth. It is also lightweight and relatively small in size, making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon molecules.[citation needed] It is often[how often?] assumed in astrobiology that if life exists somewhere else in the universe, it will also be carbon based.[1][2] Critics refer to this assumption as carbon chauvinism.[citation needed]
Ryan Merkle The Lewis structure of a carbon atom, showing its four valence electrons.
It is a quadrant
Biology Chapter
Ryan Merkle QMRFour diseases were responsible for 98% of vaccine-preventable deaths: measles, Haemophilus influenzae serotype b, pertussis, and neonatal tetanus.[
Ryan Merkle QMRThe 1993 Four Corners hantavirus outbreak refers to the first ever known human cases of hantavirus in the United States. It occurred within the Four Corners region of the southwestern part of the country. This region is the geographic intersection where the corners of Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona meet. The region is home to the Hopi, Ute, Zuni, and Navajo Nation Indian Reservations.
The cause of the outbreak was found to be a previously unknown hantavirus, which causes a new form of illness known as Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome or HPS. The virus is carried by deer mice. The virus was originally referred to as Four Corners virus, Muerto Canyon virus, and Convict Creek virus.[1] It was later named Sin Nombre virus. Transmission to humans was found to be via aerosolized contact with deer mice droppings in enclosed spaces in and around the homes of the victims.
Ryan Merkle QMRHantavirus pulmonary syndrome[edit]
Main article: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) is found in North, Central and South America.[8] It is an often fatal pulmonary disease. In the United States, the causative agent is the Sin Nombre virus carried by deer mice. Prodromal symptoms include flu-like symptoms such as fever, cough, myalgia, headache, and lethargy. It is characterized by a sudden onset of shortness of breath with rapidly evolving pulmonary edema that is often fatal despite mechanical ventilation and intervention with potent diuretics. It has a fatality rate of 36 percent.[9]
Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome was first recognized during the 1993 outbreak in the Four Corners region of the southwestern United States. It was identified by Dr. Bruce Tempest. It was originally called "Four Corners disease," but the name was changed to "Sin Nombre virus" after complaints by Native Americans that the name "Four Corners" stigmatized the region.[10] It has since been identified throughout the United States. Rodent control in and around the home remains the primary prevention strategy.
Ryan Merkle QMRFour Big Pollution Diseases of Japan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The four big pollution diseases of Japan (四大公害病 yondai kōgai-byō?) were a group of man-made diseases all caused by environmental pollution due to improper handling of industrial wastes by Japanese corporations.[1] The first occurred in 1912, and the other three occurred in the 1950s and 1960s.
Name of disease Japanese prefecture affected Cause Source Year
Itai-itai disease Toyama Prefecture Cadmium poisoning Mitsui Mining & Smelting Company 1912
Minamata disease Kumamoto Prefecture Methylmercury Chisso Corporation 1956
Niigata Minamata Disease Niigata Prefecture Methylmercury Showa Denko 1965
Yokkaichi Asthma Mie Prefecture Sulfur dioxide Air pollution within Yokkaichi 1961
Due to lawsuits, publicity, and other actions against the corporations responsible for the pollution, as well as the creation of the Environmental Agency in 1971, increased public awareness, and changes in industrial practices, the incidence of these kinds of diseases declined after the 1970s.
Ryan Merkle QMRTick-borne diseases, which afflict humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents transmitted by tick bites. Tick-borne illnesses are caused by infection with a variety of pathogens, including rickettsia and other types of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Because individual ticks can harbor more than one disease-causing agent, patients can be infected with more than one pathogen at the same time, compounding the difficulty in diagnosis and treatment. Currently (2015), there are 16 known tick-borne diseases of humans (four discovered since 2013).
QMRNon-malignant asbestos-related pleural diseases[edit]
Benign asbestos-related pleural abnormalities encompass four types of pleural changes:
Pleural plaques
Diffuse pleural thickening
Benign asbestos pleural effusions
Rounded atelectasis (folded lung)
The pleura appears to be more sensitive than the lung parenchyma to the effects of asbestos fibres.[4] Thus asbestos-related pleural diseases can result from much lower doses than the fibrotic changes in the lung.
QMRTetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is a congenital heart defect which is classically understood to involve four anatomical abnormalities of the heart (although only three of them are always present). It is the most common cyanotic heart defect and the most common cause of blue baby syndrome.[1] TOF is usually a right-to-left shunt, in which higher resistance to right ventricular outflow results in more severe cyanosis symptoms.[2]
TOF is treated with corrective surgery, usually within the first year of life, but presents with long-term problems including arrhythmia, pulmonary regurgitation, and re-operation.[3]
In the United States, the prevalence of TOF is 3.9 per 10,000 live births and accounts for 7-10% of congenital heart diseases.[4] It was described in 1672 by Niels Stensen, in 1773 by Edward Sandifort, and in 1888 by the French physician Étienne-Louis Arthur Fallot, after whom it is named.[5]
Primary four malformations[edit]
"Tetralogy" denotes a four-part phenomenon in various fields, including literature, and the four parts the syndrome's name implies are its four signs. This is not to be confused with the similarly named teratology, a field of medicine concerned with abnormal development and congenital malformations, which thereby includes tetralogy of Fallot as part of its subject matter.
As such, by definition, tetralogy of Fallot involves four heart malformations which present together:
Tetralogy of Fallot
Normal heart
Condition Description
A: Pulmonary Infundibular Stenosis A narrowing of the right ventricular outflow tract. It can occur at the pulmonary valve (valvular stenosis) or just below the pulmonary valve (infundibular stenosis). Infundibular pulmonic stenosis is mostly caused by overgrowth of the heart muscle wall (hypertrophy of the septoparietal trabeculae),[11] however the events leading to the formation of the overriding aorta are also believed to be a cause. The pulmonic stenosis is the major cause of the malformations, with the other associated malformations acting as compensatory mechanisms to the pulmonic stenosis.[12] The degree of stenosis varies between individuals with TOF, and is the primary determinant of symptoms and severity. This malformation is infrequently described as sub-pulmonary stenosis or subpulmonary obstruction.[13]
B: Overriding aorta An aortic valve with biventricular connection, that is, it is situated above the ventricular septal defect and connected to both the right and the left ventricle. The degree to which the aorta is attached to the right ventricle is referred to as its degree of "override." The aortic root can be displaced toward the front (anteriorly) or directly above the septal defect, but it is always abnormally located to the right of the root of the pulmonary artery. The degree of override is extremely variable, with 5-95% of the valve being connected to the right ventricle.[11]
C: ventricular septal defect (VSD) A hole between the two bottom chambers (ventricles) of the heart. The defect is centered around the most superior aspect of the ventricular septum (the outlet septum), and in the majority of cases is single and large. In some cases thickening of the septum (septal hypertrophy) can narrow the margins of the defect.[11]
D: Right ventricular hypertrophy The right ventricle is more muscular than normal, causing a characteristic boot-shaped (coeur-en-sabot) appearance as seen by chest X-ray. Due to the misarrangement of the external ventricular septum, the right ventricular wall increases in size to deal with the increased obstruction to the right outflow tract. This feature is now generally agreed to be a secondary anomaly, as the level of hypertrophy tends to increase with age.[14]
There is anatomic variation between the hearts of individuals with tetralogy of Fallot. Primarily, the degree of right ventricular outflow tract obstruction varies between patients and generally determines clinical symptoms and disease progression.
Presumably, this arises from an unequal growth of the aorticopulmonary septum. The aorta is too large, thus "overriding," and this "steals" from the pulmonary artery, which is therefore stenosed. This then prevents ventricular wall closure, therefore VSD, and this increases the pressures on the right side, and so the R ventricle becomes bigger to handle the work.
QMRSigns and symptoms
Stages of Alzheimer's disease[18]
Effects of ageing on memory but not AD
Forgetting things occasionally
Misplacing items sometimes
Minor short-term memory loss
Not remembering exact details
Early stage Alzheimer's
Not remembering episodes of forgetfulness
Forgets names of family or friends
Changes may only be noticed by close friends or relatives
Some confusion in situations outside the familiar
Middle stage Alzheimer's
Greater difficulty remembering recently learned information
Deepening confusion in many circumstances
Problems with sleep
Trouble knowing where they are
Late stage Alzheimer's
Poor ability to think
Problems speaking
Repeats same conversations
More abusive, anxious, or paranoid
The disease course is divided into four stages, with a progressive pattern of cognitive and functional impairment.
Pre-dementia
The first symptoms are often mistakenly attributed to ageing or stress.[19] Detailed neuropsychological testing can reveal mild cognitive difficulties up to eight years before a person fulfills the clinical criteria for diagnosis of AD.[20] These early symptoms can affect the most complex daily living activities.[21] The most noticeable deficit is short term memory loss, which shows up as difficulty in remembering recently learned facts and inability to acquire new information.[20][22]
Subtle problems with the executive functions of attentiveness, planning, flexibility, and abstract thinking, or impairments in semantic memory (memory of meanings, and concept relationships) can also be symptomatic of the early stages of AD.[20] Apathy can be observed at this stage, and remains the most persistent neuropsychiatric symptom throughout the course of the disease.[23] Depressive symptoms, irritability and reduced awareness of subtle memory difficulties are also common.[24] The preclinical stage of the disease has also been termed mild cognitive impairment (MCI).[22] This is often found to be a transitional stage between normal ageing and dementia. MCI can present with a variety of symptoms, and when memory loss is the predominant symptom, it is termed "amnestic MCI" and is frequently seen as a prodromal stage of Alzheimer's disease.[25]
Early
In people with AD, the increasing impairment of learning and memory eventually leads to a definitive diagnosis. In a small percentage, difficulties with language, executive functions, perception (agnosia), or execution of movements (apraxia) are more prominent than memory problems.[26] AD does not affect all memory capacities equally. Older memories of the person's life (episodic memory), facts learned (semantic memory), and implicit memory (the memory of the body on how to do things, such as using a fork to eat) are affected to a lesser degree than new facts or memories.[27][28]
Language problems are mainly characterised by a shrinking vocabulary and decreased word fluency, leading to a general impoverishment of oral and written language.[26][29] In this stage, the person with Alzheimer's is usually capable of communicating basic ideas adequately.[26][29][30] While performing fine motor tasks such as writing, drawing or dressing, certain movement coordination and planning difficulties (apraxia) may be present, but they are commonly unnoticed.[26] As the disease progresses, people with AD can often continue to perform many tasks independently, but may need assistance or supervision with the most cognitively demanding activities.[26]
Moderate
Progressive deterioration eventually hinders independence, with subjects being unable to perform most common activities of daily living.[26] Speech difficulties become evident due to an inability to recall vocabulary, which leads to frequent incorrect word substitutions (paraphasias). Reading and writing skills are also progressively lost.[26][30] Complex motor sequences become less coordinated as time passes and AD progresses, so the risk of falling increases.[26] During this phase, memory problems worsen, and the person may fail to recognise close relatives.[26] Long-term memory, which was previously intact, becomes impaired.[26]
Behavioural and neuropsychiatric changes become more prevalent. Common manifestations are wandering, irritability and labile affect, leading to crying, outbursts of unpremeditated aggression, or resistance to caregiving.[26] Sundowning can also appear.[31] Approximately 30% of people with AD develop illusionary misidentifications and other delusional symptoms.[26] Subjects also lose insight of their disease process and limitations (anosognosia).[26] Urinary incontinence can develop.[26] These symptoms create stress for relatives and carers, which can be reduced by moving the person from home care to other long-term care facilities.[26][32]
Advanced
During the final stages, the patient is completely dependent upon caregivers.[26] Language is reduced to simple phrases or even single words, eventually leading to complete loss of speech.[26][30] Despite the loss of verbal language abilities, people can often understand and return emotional signals. Although aggressiveness can still be present, extreme apathy and exhaustion are much more common symptoms. People with Alzheimer's disease will ultimately not be able to perform even the simplest tasks independently; muscle mass and mobility deteriorate to the point where they are bedridden and unable to feed themselves. The cause of death is usually an external factor, such as infection of pressure ulcers or pneumonia, not the disease itself.[26]
QMRThe term parkinsonism is used for a motor syndrome whose main symptoms are tremor at rest, stiffness, slowing of movement and postural instability. Parkinsonian syndromes can be divided into four subtypes according to their origin:
primary or idiopathic
secondary or acquired
hereditary parkinsonism, and
Parkinson plus syndromes or multiple system degeneration.[4]
Motor
Further information: Parkinsonian gait
Four motor symptoms are considered cardinal in PD: tremor, rigidity, slowness of movement, and postural instability.[4]
Tremor is the most apparent and well-known symptom.[4] It is the most common; though around 30% of individuals with PD do not have tremor at disease onset, most develop it as the disease progresses.[4] It is usually a rest tremor: maximal when the limb is at rest and disappearing with voluntary movement and sleep.[4] It affects to a greater extent the most distal part of the limb and at onset typically appears in only a single arm or leg, becoming bilateral later.[4] Frequency of PD tremor is between 4 and 6 hertz (cycles per second). A feature of tremor is pill-rolling, the tendency of the index finger of the hand to get into contact with the thumb and perform together a circular movement.[4][14] The term derives from the similarity between the movement in people with PD and the earlier pharmaceutical technique of manually making pills.[14]
Hypokinesia (slowness of movement) is another characteristic feature of PD, and is associated with difficulties along the whole course of the movement process, from planning to initiation and finally execution of a movement.[4] Performance of sequential and simultaneous movement is hindered.[4] Bradykinesia is commonly a very disabling symptom in the early stages of the disease.[5] Initial manifestations are problems when performing daily tasks which require fine motor control such as writing, sewing or getting dressed.[4] Clinical evaluation is based in similar tasks such as alternating movements between both hands or both feet.[5] Bradykinesia is not equal for all movements or times. It is modified by the activity or emotional state of the subject, to the point that some people are barely able to walk yet can still ride a bicycle.[4] Generally people with PD have less difficulty when some sort of external cue is provided.[4][15]
Rigidity is stiffness and resistance to limb movement caused by increased muscle tone, an excessive and continuous contraction of muscles.[4] In parkinsonism the rigidity can be uniform (lead-pipe rigidity) or ratchety (cogwheel rigidity).[4][5][16][17] The combination of tremor and increased tone is considered to be at the origin of cogwheel rigidity.[18] Rigidity may be associated with joint pain; such pain being a frequent initial manifestation of the disease.[4] In early stages of Parkinson's disease, rigidity is often asymmetrical and it tends to affect the neck and shoulder muscles prior to the muscles of the face and extremities.[19] With the progression of the disease, rigidity typically affects the whole body and reduces the ability to move.
Postural instability is typical in the late stages of the disease, leading to impaired balance and frequent falls,[20] and secondarily to bone fractures.[4] Instability is often absent in the initial stages, especially in younger people.[5] Up to 40% may experience falls and around 10% may have falls weekly, with number of falls being related to the severity of PD.[4]
Other recognized motor signs and symptoms include gait and posture disturbances such as festination (rapid shuffling steps and a forward-flexed posture when walking),[4] speech and swallowing disturbances including voice disorders,[21] mask-like face expression or small handwriting, although the range of possible motor problems that can appear is large.[4
QMR Fatal Familial InsomniaThe age of onset is variable, ranging from 18 to 60, with an average of 50. The disease can be detected prior to onset by genetic testing.[3] Death usually occurs between 7 and 36 months from onset. The presentation of the disease varies considerably from person to person, even among patients from within the same family.
The disease has four stages:
The person has increasing insomnia, resulting in panic attacks, paranoia, and phobias. This stage lasts for about four months.
Hallucinations and panic attacks become noticeable, continuing for about five months.
Complete inability to sleep is followed by rapid loss of weight. This lasts for about three months.
Dementia, during which the patient becomes unresponsive or mute over the course of six months. This is the final progression of the disease, after which death follows.
QMRthere are four main morphological virus types:
Helical
These viruses are composed of a single type of capsomer stacked around a central axis to form a helical structure, which may have a central cavity, or tube. This arrangement results in rod-shaped or filamentous virions: These can be short and highly rigid, or long and very flexible. The genetic material, in general, single-stranded RNA, but ssDNA in some cases, is bound into the protein helix by interactions between the negatively charged nucleic acid and positive charges on the protein. Overall, the length of a helical capsid is related to the length of the nucleic acid contained within it and the diameter is dependent on the size and arrangement of capsomers. The well-studied tobacco mosaic virus is an example of a helical virus.[76]
Icosahedral
Most animal viruses are icosahedral or near-spherical with chiral icosahedral symmetry. A regular icosahedron is the optimum way of forming a closed shell from identical sub-units. The minimum number of identical capsomers required is twelve, each composed of five identical sub-units. Many viruses, such as rotavirus, have more than twelve capsomers and appear spherical but they retain this symmetry. Capsomers at the apices are surrounded by five other capsomers and are called pentons. Capsomers on the triangular faces are surrounded by six others and are called hexons.[77] Hexons are in essence flat and pentons, which form the 12 vertices, are curved. The same protein may act as the subunit of both the pentamers and hexamers or they may be composed of different proteins.
Prolate
This is an icosahedron elongated along the fivefold axis and is a common arrangement of the heads of bacteriophages. This structure is composed of a cylinder with a cap at either end.[78]
Envelope
Some species of virus envelop themselves in a modified form of one of the cell membranes, either the outer membrane surrounding an infected host cell or internal membranes such as nuclear membrane or endoplasmic reticulum, thus gaining an outer lipid bilayer known as a viral envelope. This membrane is studded with proteins coded for by the viral genome and host genome; the lipid membrane itself and any carbohydrates present originate entirely from the host. The influenza virus and HIV use this strategy. Most enveloped viruses are dependent on the envelope for their infectivity.[
QMRRNA viruses
Replication usually takes place in the cytoplasm. RNA viruses can be placed into four different groups depending on their modes of replication. The polarity (whether or not it can be used directly by ribosomes to make proteins) of single-stranded RNA viruses largely determines the replicative mechanism; the other major criterion is whether the genetic material is single-stranded or double-stranded. All RNA viruses use their own RNA replicase enzymes to create copies of their genomes.[
Ryan Merkle QMREbola virus (/ɛˈboʊlə/;[1] EBOV, formerly designated Zaire ebolavirus) is one of five known viruses within the genus Ebolavirus.[1] Four of the five known ebolaviruses, including EBOV, cause a severe and often fatal hemorrhagic fever in humans and other mammals, known as Ebola virus disease (EVD). Ebola virus has caused the majority of human deaths from EVD, and is the cause of the 2013–2015 Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa, which has resulted in at least 28,638 suspected cases and 11,315 confirmed deaths.[2]
Ryan Merkle QMRHuman rhinoviruses are composed of a capsid, that contains four viral proteins VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4.[7][8] VP1, VP2, and VP3 form the major part of the protein capsid. The much smaller VP4 protein has a more extended structure, and lies at the interface between the capsid and the RNA genome. There are 60 copies of each of these proteins assembled as an icosahedron. Antibodies are a major defense against infection with the epitopes lying on the exterior regions of VP1-VP3.
Ryan Merkle Rhinoviruses (from the Greek (gen.) "nose") are the most common viral infectious agents in humans and are the predominant cause of the common cold.
Ryan Merkle Human rhinoviruses are composed of a capsid, that contains four viral proteins VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4.[7][8] VP1, VP2, and VP3 form the major part of the protein capsid. The much smaller VP4 protein has a more extended structure, and lies at the interface between the capsid and the RNA genome. There are 60 copies of each of these proteins assembled as an icosahedron. Antibodies are a major defense against infection with the epitopes lying on the exterior regions of VP1-VP3.
Ryan Merkle the fourth is always different
Ryan Merkle QMRHuman parainfluenza viruses (hPIVs) are the viruses that cause 'human parainfluenza.' hPIVs are a group of four distinct serotypes of enveloped single-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the paramyxovirus family. These viruses are closely associated with both human and veterinary disease.[1] They are approximately 150–250 nm in size and composed of negative sense RNA with a genome encompassing ~15,000 nucleotides.[2]
The first hPIV was discovered in the late 1950s. The taxonomic division is broadly based on antigenic and genetic characteristics, forming four major serotypes.[5] These include:
Human parainfluenza virus type 1 (hPIV-1) (most common cause of croup)
Human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV-2) (causes croup and other upper and lower respiratory tract illnesses)
Human parainfluenza virus type 3 (hPIV-3) (associated with bronchiolitis and pneumonia)
Human parainfluenza virus type 4 (hPIV-4) (includes subtypes 4a and 4b)
hPIV is closely related to a recently formed virus grouping, the 'megamyxoviruses' (Hendra and Nipah) and closely linked to the metapneumovirus. hPIV is divided within two genera: Respirovirus (hPIV-1 & hPIV-3) and the Rubulavirus (hPIV-2 & hPIV-4).[2]
Ryan Merkle QMREach species of the genus Ebolavirus has one member virus, and four of these cause Ebola virus disease (EVD) in humans, a type of hemorrhagic fever having a very high case fatality rate; the fifth, Reston virus, has caused EVD in other primates.[3][4] Zaire ebolavirus is the type species (reference or example species) for Ebolavirus, and has the highest mortality rate of the ebolaviruses, and is also responsible for the largest number of outbreaks of the five known members of the genus, including the 1976 Zaire outbreak and the outbreak with the most deaths (2014).
Ryan Merkle QMRA virus infecting archaea was first described in 1974. Several others have been described since: most have head-tail morphologies and linear double-stranded DNA genomes. Other morphologies have also been described: spindle shaped, rod shaped, filamentous, icosahedral and spherical. Additional morphological types may exist.
Orders within this group are defined on the basis of morphology rather than DNA sequence similarity. It is thought that morphology is more conserved in this group than sequence similarity or gene order which is extremely variable. Three orders and 31 families are currently recognised. A fourth order – Megavirales – for the nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses has been proposed.[1] Four genera are recognised that have not yet been assigned a family. The species Sulfolobus turreted icosahedral virus is so unlike any previously described virus that it will almost certainly be placed in a new family on the next revision of viral families.
Ryan Merkle DNA virus is a virus that has DNA as its genetic material and replicates using a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase
Ryan Merkle QMRThe 2009 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and the 2012 outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome have been traced to have an origin in bats.[13][14] Coronaviruses are positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses with four genera, Alphacoronaviruses, betacoronaviruses, gammacoronaviruses, and deltacoronaviruses. Of these four, alphacoroanviruses and betacoronaviruses are bat-borne.[15][16][17]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Sin Nombre virus (SNV) (from the Spanish meaning "the nameless virus") is the prototypical etiologic agent of hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS).[1]
Its original name was "Four Corners virus." The name was changed after local residents raised objections.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Epidemiology
3 Virus sequencing
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
It was first isolated in 1993 from rodents collected near the home of one of the initial patients with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) in the Four Corners region of the western United States. Isolation was achieved through blind passage in Peromyscus maniculatus (deer mouse) and subsequent adaptation to growth in Vero E6 cells. Additional viral strains have also been isolated from P. maniculatus associated with a fatal case in California and P. leucopus from the vicinity of probable infection of a New York case. Black Creek Canal virus was isolated from S. hispidus collected near the residence of a human case in Dade County, Florida. Another etiologic agent of HCPS, Bayou virus, was first isolated from the vicinity of Monroe, Louisiana.
Ryan Merkle QMR Hepatitus B virus is divided into four major serotypes (adr, adw, ayr, ayw) based on antigenic epitopes present on its envelope proteins, and into eight genotypes (A–H) according to overall nucleotide sequence variation of the genome. The genotypes have a distinct geographical distribution and are used in tracing the evolution and transmission of the virus. Differences between genotypes affect the disease severity, course and likelihood of complications, and response to treatment and possibly vaccination.[6][7]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe human T-lymphotropic virus or human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV) family of viruses are a group of human retroviruses that are known to cause a type of cancer called adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and a demyelinating disease called HTLV-I associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). The HTLVs belong to a larger group of primate T-lymphotropic viruses (PTLVs). Members of this family that infect humans are called HTLVs, and the ones that infect old world monkeys are called Simian T-lymphotropic viruses (STLVs). To date, four types of HTLVs (human T-lymphotropic virus 1 [HTLV-I], human T-lymphotropic virus 2 [HTLV-II], HTLV-III, and HTLV-IV) and four types of STLVs (STLV-I, STLV-II, STLV-III, and STLV-V) have been identified. The HTLVs are believed to originate from intraspecies transmission of STLVs. The original name for HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, was HTLV-III; this term is no longer in use [1]. The HTLV-1 genome is diploid, composed of two copies of a single-stranded RNA virus whose genome is copied into a double-stranded DNA form that integrates into the host cell genome, at which point the virus is referred to as a provirus. A closely related virus is bovine leukemia virus BLV.
Ryan Merkle QMRA mobile virus is malicious software that targets mobile phones or wireless-enabled Personal digital assistants (PDA), by causing the collapse of the system and loss or leakage of confidential information. As wireless phones and PDA networks have become more and more common and have grown in complexity, it has become increasingly difficult to ensure their safety and security against electronic attacks in the form of viruses or other malware.
Contents [hide]
1 Taxonomy
2 History
3 Notable mobile malicious programs
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
Four types of the most common malicious programs are known to affect mobile devices:
Expander:
Expanders target mobile meters for additional phone billing and profit
Worm: The main objective of this stand-alone type of malware is to endlessly reproduce itself and spread to other devices. Worms may also contain harmful and misleading instructions. Mobile worms may be transmitted via text messages SMS or MMS and typically do not require user interaction for execution.
Trojan: Unlike worms, a Trojan horse always requires user interaction to be activated. This kind of virus is usually inserted into seemingly attractive and non-malicious executable files or applications that are downloaded to the device and executed by the user. Once activated, the malware can cause serious damage by infecting and deactivating other applications or the phone itself, rendering it paralyzed after a certain period of time or a certain number of operations. Usurpation data (spyware) synchronizes with calendars, email accounts, notes, and any other source of information before it is sent to a remote server.
Spyware: This malware poses a threat to mobile devices by collecting, using, and spreading a user's personal or sensitive information without the user's consent or knowledge. It is mostly classified into four categories: system monitors, trojans, adware, and tracking cookies.
Ryan Merkle QMRLassa viruses[5] are enveloped, single-stranded, bisegmented, ambisense RNA viruses. Their genome[6] is contained in two RNA segments that code for two proteins each, one in each sense, for a total of four viral proteins.[7] The large segment encodes a small zinc-binding protein (Z) that regulates transcription and replication,[8][9] and the RNA polymerase (L). The small segment encodes the nucleoprotein (NP) and the surface glycoprotein precursor (GP, also known as the viral spike), which is proteolytically cleaved into the envelope glycoproteins GP1 and GP2 that bind to the alpha-dystroglycan receptor and mediate host cell entry.[10]
Lassa fever causes hemorrhagic fever frequently shown by immunosuppression. Replication for Lassa virus is very rapid, while also demonstrating temporal control in replication.[11] The first replication step is transcription of mRNA copies of the negative- or minus-sense genome. This ensures an adequate supply of viral proteins for subsequent steps of replication, as the NP and L proteins are translated from the mRNA. The positive- or plus-sense genome, then makes viral complementary RNA (vcRNA) copies of itself. The RNA copies are a template for producing negative-sense progeny, but mRNA is also synthesized from it. The mRNA synthesized from vcRNA are translated to make the GP and Z proteins. This temporal control allows the spike proteins to be produced last, and therefore, delay recognition by the host immune system.
Nucleotide studies of the genome have shown that Lassa has four lineages: three found in Nigeria and the fourth in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. The Nigerian strains seem likely to have been ancestral to the others but additional work is required to confirm this.[12] One book that explains about this disease is The Lassa Ward by Ross I. Donaldson. He describes what it is like being a doctor and taking care of the Sierra Leone people who have contracted the virus.
Ryan Merkle QMRIn the past, arboviruses were organized into one of four groups: A, B, C, and D. Group A denoted members of the genus Alphavirus,[37][38] Group B were members of the genus Flavivirus,[39] and Group C remains as the Group C serogroup of the genus Orthobunyavirus.[40] Group D was renamed in the mid-1950s to the Guama group and is currently the Guama serogroup in the genus Orthobunyavirus.[41] This renaming of the group was because the number of groups would eventually exceed the length of the alphabet. Since then, the organization of arboviruses into these groups has fallen out of usage as the standard biological classification system has become more preferred for classifying viruses.[41] With the exception of the African swine fever virus, which belongs to the Asfarviridae family of viruses, all major clinically important arboviruses belong to one of the following four families:
Family Bunyaviridae
Genus Nairovirus
Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHF)
Genus Orthobunyavirus
Bunyamwera virus
California encephalitis virus
Jamestown Canyon virus (JCV)
La Crosse encephalitis virus (LACV)
Genus Phlebovirus
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV)
Toscana virus (TOSV)
Heartland virus
Family Flaviviridae
Genus Flavivirus
Tick-borne viruses
Mammalian tick-borne virus group
Kyasanur forest disease virus (KFDV)
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV)
Mosquito-borne viruses
Dengue virus group
Dengue virus (DENV)
Japanese encephalitis virus group
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV)
Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV)
St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV)
West Nile virus (WNV)
Spondweni group
Spondweni virus
Zika virus (ZIKV)
Yellow fever virus group
Yellow fever virus (YFV)
Family Reoviridae
Subfamily Sedoreovirinae
Genus Orbivirus
African horse sickness virus (AHSV)
Bluetongue disease virus (BTV)
Equine encephalosis virus (EEV)
Genus Seadornavirus
Banna virus (BAV)
Subfamily Spinareovirinae
Genus Coltivirus
Colorado tick fever virus (CTFV)
Family Togaviridae
Genus Alphavirus
Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEE)
Ross River virus (RRV)
Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEE)
Western equine encephalitis virus (WEE)
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV)
QMRThe four viral exanthema have much in common, and are often studied together as a class. They include:
Name Number Virus
(rubeola) measles "first disease" measles virus
rubella, ("German Measles") identified in 1881.[4] "third disease" rubella virus
erythema infectiosum, identified as a distinct condition in 1896.[5] "fifth disease" parvovirus B19
roseola infantum "sixth disease" HHV-6 and HHV-7
Ryan Merkle QMRHIV-1[edit]
HIV-1 is the most common and pathogenic strain of the virus. Scientists divide HIV-1 into a major group (Group M) and two or more minor groups, namely Group N, O and possibly a group P. Each group is believed to represent an independent transmission of SIV into humans (but subtypes within a group are not).[2] A total of 39 ORFs are found in all six possible reading frames (RFs) of HIV-1 complete genome sequence,[3] but only a few of them are functional.
Group M[edit]
With 'M' for "major", this is by far the most common type of HIV, with more than 90% of HIV/AIDS cases deriving from infection with HIV-1 group M. The M group is subdivided further into clades, called subtypes, that are also given a letter. There are also "circulating recombinant forms" or CRFs derived from recombination between viruses of different subtypes which are each given a number. CRF12_BF, for example, is a recombination between subtypes B and F.
Subtype A is common in West Africa.[4]
Subtype B is the dominant form in Europe, the Americas, Japan, Thailand, and Australia.[5]
Subtype C is the dominant form in Southern Africa, Eastern Africa, India, Nepal, and parts of China.[5]
Subtype D is generally only seen in Eastern and central Africa.[5]
(Subtype E) has never been identified as a nonrecombinant, only recombined with subtype A as CRF01_AE.[5]
Subtype F has been found in central Africa, South America and Eastern Europe.[6]
Subtype G (and the CRF02_AG) have been found in Africa and central Europe.[6]
Subtype H is limited to central Africa.[6]
(Subtype I) was originally used to describe a strain that is now accounted for as CRF04_cpx, with the cpx for a "complex" recombination of several subtypes.[citation needed]
Subtype J is primarily found in North, Central and West Africa, and the Caribbean[7]
Subtype K is limited to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon.[6]
These subtypes are sometimes further split into sub-subtypes such as A1 and A2 or F1 and F2.[citation needed] In 2015, the strain CRF19, a recombinant of subtype A, subtype D and subtype G, with a subtype D protease, was found to be strongly associated with rapid progression to AIDS in Cuba.[8] This is not thought to be a complete or final list, and further types are likely to be found.[9]
HIV-1 subtype prevalence in 2002
Group N[edit]
The 'N' stands for "non-M, non-O". This group was discovered in 1998 and has only been seen in Cameroon. As of 2006, only 10 Group N infections had been identified.[10]
Group O[edit]
The O ("Outlier") group is not usually seen outside of West-central Africa. It is reportedly most common in Cameroon, where a 1997 survey found that about 2% of HIV-positive samples were from Group O.[11] The group caused some concern because it could not be detected by early versions of the HIV-1 test kits. More advanced HIV tests have now been developed to detect both Group O and Group N.[12]
Group P[edit]
In 2009, a newly analyzed HIV sequence was reported to have greater similarity to a simian immunodeficiency virus recently discovered in wild gorillas (SIVgor) than to SIVs from chimpanzees (SIVcpz). The virus had been isolated from a Cameroonian woman residing in France who was diagnosed with HIV-1 infection in 2004. The scientists reporting this sequence placed it in a proposed Group P "pending the identification of further human cases".[13][14][15]
The fourth is always different
Ryan Merkle QMRThe key four gangliosides against which antibodies have been described are GM1, GD1a, GT1a, and GQ1b, with different anti-ganglioside antibodies being associated with particular features; for instance, GQ1b antibodies have been linked with Miller Fisher variant GBS and related forms including Bickerstaff encephalitis.[1] The production of these antibodies after an infection is probably the result of molecular mimicry, where the immune system is reacting to microbial substances but the resultant antibodies also react with substances occurring naturally in the body.[1][12] After a Campylobacter infection, the body produces antibodies of the IgA class; only a small proportion of people also produce IgG antibodies against bacterial substance cell wall substances (e.g. lipooligosaccharides) that crossreact with human nerve cell gangliosides. It is not currently know how this process escapes central tolerance to gangliosides, which is meant to suppress the production of antibodies against the body's own substances.[13] Not all antiganglioside antibodies cause disease, and it has recently been suggested that some antibodies bind to more than one type of epitope simultaneously (heterodimeric binding) and that this determines the response. Furthermore, the development of pathogenic antibodies may depend on the presence of ofter strains of bacteria in the bowel.[13]
Ryan Merkle QMRIn 2006, Shinya Yamanaka of Kyoto University in Japan was the first to disprove the previous notion that reversible cell differentiation of mammals was impossible. He reprogrammed a fully differentiated mouse cell into a pluripotent stem cell by introducing four genes, Oct-4, SOX2, KLF4, and Myc, into the mouse fibroblast through gene-carrying viruses. With this method, he and his coworkers created induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells), the key component in this experiment.[1] Scientists have been able to conduct experiments that show the ability of iPS cells to treat and even cure diseases. In this experiment, tests were run on mice with inherited sickle-cell anemia. Skin cells were turned into cells containing genes that transformed the cells into iPS cells. These replaced the diseased sickled cells, curing the test mice. The reprogramming of the pluripotent stem cells in mice was successfully duplicated with human pluripotent stem cells within about a year of the experiment on the mice.[citation needed]
Ryan Merkle QMRPopulation genetics is the branch of evolutionary biology responsible for investigating processes that cause changes in allele and genotype frequencies in populations based upon Mendelian inheritance.[3] Four different forces can influence the frequencies: natural selection, mutation, gene flow (migration), and genetic drift. A population can be defined as a group of interbreeding individuals and their offspring. For human genetics the populations will consist only of the human species. The Hardy-Weinberg principle is a widely used principle to determine allelic and genotype frequencies.
QMRThe Four Grades of Acne
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Grade I
Consists predominantly of whiteheads (closed comedones) and blackheads (open comedones). There is an occasional inflammatory lesion, however there are at least 25 lesions on one side of the face at any given time.
Grade II
Maturation Arrest Acne is the most difficult to treat and evaluate. The face becomes STUDDED with many whiteheads (closed comedones) and from a distance looks clear. Up close the skin feels and looks rough. The lesion count reveals 50-100 whiteheads on only one side of the face with an occasional inflammatory lesion.
Grade III
In addition to mixture of whiteheads (closed comedones) and blackheads (open comedones) there are a constant number of inflammatory lesions (7-10,) pustules, and papules at any one time on one side of the face. Grade Three Acne is painful because of the swelling, size, and duration of the lesions.
Grade IV
Cystic acne contains all of the above lesions plus nodules and cysts. It is very painful both physically and emotionally with severe inflammation that is very red or purplish in color and is commonly called "Pizza Face" Acne. Grade Four responds very quickly to treatment because all of the lesions are on the surface.
Ryan Merkle QMRAlpha-thalassemia (α-thalassemia, α-thalassaemia) is a form of thalassemia involving the genes HBA1[1] and HBA2.[2] Alpha-thalassemia is due to impaired production of alpha chains from 1,2,3, or all 4 of the alpha globin genes, leading to a relative excess of beta globin chains. The degree of impairment is based on which clinical phenotype is present (how many genes are affected).
Types[edit]
There are two genetic loci for α globin, and thus four genes in diploid cells. Two genes are maternal in origin and two genes are paternal in origin. The severity of the α thalassemias is correlated with the number of affected α globin genes: the greater, the more severe will be the manifestations of the disease.
When noting the genotype, a "-" indicates an absence of function, and a "α" indicates a functional alpha chain. (In contrast to the "βo" and "β+" notation used in beta-thalassemia, in alpha-thalassemia a distinction between absent and reduced function is not usually noted.)
Alleles affected Description Genotype
One This is known as alpha thalassemia minima and with this type there is minimal effect on hemoglobin synthesis. Three α-globin genes are enough to permit normal hemoglobin production, and there are no clinical symptoms. They have been called silent carriers. They may have a slightly reduced mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin. -/α α/α
Two The condition is called alpha thalassemia minor. Two α genes permit nearly normal production of red blood cells, but there is a mild microcytic hypochromic anemia. The disease in this form can be mistaken for iron deficiency anemia and treated inappropriately with iron.
Alpha thalassemia minor can exist in two forms:
alpha-thal-1 (αα/--), associated with Asians, involves cis deletion of both alpha genes on the same chromosome;
alpha-thal-2 (α-/α-), associated with Africans, involves trans deletion of alpha genes on different (homologous) chromosomes.[10]
-/- α/α or
-/α -/α
Three The condition is called Hemoglobin H disease. Two unstable hemoglobins are present in the blood: Hemoglobin Barts (tetrameric γ chains) and Hemoglobin H (tetrameric β chains). Both of these unstable hemoglobins have a higher affinity for oxygen than normal hemoglobin, resulting in poor oxygen delivery to tissues. There is a microcytic hypochromic anemia with target cells and Heinz bodies (precipitated HbH) on the peripheral blood smear, as well as hepatosplenomegaly. The disease may first be noticed in childhood or in early adult life, when the anemia and hepatosplenomegaly are noted. -/- -/α
Four The fetus cannot live once outside the uterus and may not survive gestation: most such infants are stillborn with hydrops fetalis, and those who are born alive die shortly after birth. They are edematous and have little circulating hemoglobin, and the hemoglobin that is present is all tetrameric γ chains (hemoglobin Barts).
Ryan Merkle QMRUbiquitin is a small (8.5 kDa) regulatory protein that has been found in almost all tissues (ubiquitously) of eukaryotic organisms. It was discovered in 1975[1] by Gideon Goldstein and further characterized throughout the 1970s and 1980s.[2] There are four genes in the human genome that produce ubiquitin: UBB, UBC, UBA52 and RPS27A.[3]
Ryan Merkle Lysine 48-linked polyubiquitin chains target proteins for destruction, by a process known as proteolysis. At least four ubiquitin molecules must be attached to a lysine residue on the condemned protein in order for it to be recognised by the 26S proteasome.[68] This is a barrel-shape structure comprising a central proteolytic core made of four ring structures, flanked by two cylinders that selectively allow entry of ubiquitinated proteins. Once inside, the proteins are rapidly degraded into small peptides (usually 3–25 amino acid residues in length). Ubiquitin molecules are cleaved off the protein immediately prior to destruction and are recycled for further use.[69] Although the majority of protein substrates are ubiquitinated, there are examples of non-ubiquitinated proteins targeted to the proteasome.[70] The polyubiquitin chains are recognised by a subunit of the proteasome: S5a/Rpn10. This is achieved by a ubiquitin interacting motif (UIM) found in a hydrophobic patch in the C-terminal region of the S5a/Rpn10 unit.[4]
QMRThe following is a list of genetic disorders and if known, type of mutation and the chromosome involved. The list of human genes includes genes not listed here, which also affect predisposition toward certain diseases.
Contents [hide]
1 Most common disorders
2 Full list
3 See also
4 References
Most common disorders[edit]
P – Point mutation, or any insertion/deletion entirely inside one gene
D – Deletion of a gene or genes
C – Whole chromosome extra, missing, or both (see Chromosome abnormality)
T – Trinucleotide repeat disorders: gene is extended in length
Ryan Merkle QMRthe human eye uses four genes to make structures that sense light: three for cone cell or color vision and one for rod cell or night vision; all four arose from a single ancestral gene biologists say
QMRSurvival motor neuron protein also known as component of gems 1 or gemin-1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SMN1 gene.[2] Two transcript variants are produced by this gene.[3]
Contents [hide]
1 Gene
2 Clinical significance
3 Function
4 Interactions
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Gene[edit]
This gene is part of a 500 kb inverted duplication on chromosome 5q13. This duplicated region contains at least four genes and repetitive elements which make it prone to rearrangements and deletions. The repetitiveness and complexity of the sequence have also caused difficulty in determining the organization of this genomic region. The telomeric and centromeric copies of this gene are nearly identical and encode the same protein.[3
Ryan Merkle QMRAugust Weismann (1834–1914), who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained.
Ryan Merkle QMRMendel's experimental results have later been the object of some debate. Fisher analyzed the results of the F2 (second filial) ratio and found them to be implausibly close to the exact ratio of 3 to 1.[21] It is sometimes suggested that Mendel may have censored his results, and that his seven traits each occur on a separate chromosome pair, an extremely unlikely occurrence if they were chosen at random. In fact, the genes Mendel studied occurred in only four linkage groups, and only one gene pair (out of 21 possible) is close enough to show deviation from independent assortment; this is not a pair that Mendel studied.[22]
Ryan Merkle qMRMeiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876, by Oscar Hertwig. It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by Van Beneden in Ascaris eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was first described in 1890 by Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. Thus the work of the earlier cytologists laid the ground for Weismann, who turned his mind to the consequences for evolution, which was an aspect the cytologists had not addressed.[9] All this took place before the work of Mendel had been rediscovered
Ryan Merkle QMRFile:Tropomyosin isoform diversity is generated by the use of four genes (α,β,γ,δ) and alternative splicing within at least three genes.jpg
Ryan Merkle QMRThe COSMIC database was designed to collect and display information on somatic mutations in cancer. It was launched in 2004, with data from just four genes, HRAS, KRAS2, NRAS and BRAF.[5] These four genes are known to be somatically mutated in cancer. Since its creation, the database has expanded rapidly. By 2005 COSMIC contained 529 genes screened from 115,327 tumours, describing 20,981 mutations.[6] By August 2009 it contained information from 1.5 million experiments performed, encompassing 13,423 genes in almost 370,000 tumours and describing over 90,000 mutations.[7] COSMIC version 48, released in July 2010, incorporates mutation data from p53 in collaboration with the International Agency for Research on Cancer.[8] In addition, it provided updated gene co-ordinates for the most recent human reference genome builds. This release includes data from over 2.76 million experiments on over half a million tumours.[8] The number of mutations documented in this release totals 141,212.[8]
The website is focused on presenting complex phenotype-specific mutation data in a graphical manner. Data is taken from selected genes, initially in the Cancer Gene Census, as well as literature search from PubMed.
QMRPathophysiology[edit]
Effects of inadequate perfusion on cell function.
There are four stages of shock. As it is a complex and continuous condition there is no sudden transition from one stage to the next.[12] At a cellular level shock is the process of oxygen demand becoming greater than oxygen supply.[2]
Initial[edit]
During this stage, the state of hypoperfusion causes hypoxia. Due to the lack of oxygen, the cells perform lactic acid fermentation. Since oxygen, the terminal electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, is not abundant, this slows down entry of pyruvate into the Krebs cycle, resulting in its accumulation. Accumulating pyruvate is converted to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase and hence lactate accumulates (causing lactic acidosis).
Compensatory[edit]
This stage is characterised by the body employing physiological mechanisms, including neural, hormonal and bio-chemical mechanisms in an attempt to reverse the condition. As a result of the acidosis, the person will begin to hyperventilate in order to rid the body of carbon dioxide (CO2). CO2 indirectly acts to acidify the blood and by removing it the body is attempting to raise the pH of the blood. The baroreceptors in the arteries detect the resulting hypotension, and cause the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Norepinephrine causes predominately vasoconstriction with a mild increase in heart rate, whereas epinephrine predominately causes an increase in heart rate with a small effect on the vascular tone; the combined effect results in an increase in blood pressure. The renin–angiotensin axis is activated, and arginine vasopressin (Anti-diuretic hormone; ADH) is released to conserve fluid via the kidneys. These hormones cause the vasoconstriction of the kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, and other organs to divert blood to the heart, lungs and brain. The lack of blood to the renal system causes the characteristic low urine production. However the effects of the renin–angiotensin axis take time and are of little importance to the immediate homeostatic mediation of shock.[citation needed]
Progressive[edit]
Should the cause of the crisis not be successfully treated, the shock will proceed to the progressive stage and the compensatory mechanisms begin to fail. Due to the decreased perfusion of the cells, sodium ions build up within while potassium ions leak out. As anaerobic metabolism continues, increasing the body's metabolic acidosis, the arteriolar smooth muscle and precapillary sphincters relax such that blood remains in the capillaries.[10] Due to this, the hydrostatic pressure will increase and, combined with histamine release, this will lead to leakage of fluid and protein into the surrounding tissues. As this fluid is lost, the blood concentration and viscosity increase, causing sludging of the micro-circulation. The prolonged vasoconstriction will also cause the vital organs to be compromised due to reduced perfusion.[10] If the bowel becomes sufficiently ischemic, bacteria may enter the blood stream, resulting in the increased complication of endotoxic shock.[4][10]
Refractory[edit]
At this stage, the vital organs have failed and the shock can no longer be reversed. Brain damage and cell death are occurring, and death will occur imminently. One of the primary reasons that shock is irreversible at this point is that much cellular ATP has been degraded into adenosine in the absence of oxygen as an electron receptor in the mitochondrial matrix. Adenosine easily perfuses out of cellular membranes into extracellular fluid, furthering capillary vasodilation, and then is transformed into uric acid. Because cells can only produce adenosine at a rate of about 2% of the cell's total need per hour, even restoring oxygen is futile at this point because there is no adenosine to phosphorylate into ATP.[4]
QMRDifferential diagnosis[edit]
Shock is a common end point of many medical conditions.[1] It has been divided into four main types based on the underlying cause: hypovolemic, distributive, cardiogenic and obstructive.[13] A few additional classifications are occasionally used including: endocrinologic shock.[1]
Hypovolemic[edit]
Hypovolemic shock is the most common type of shock and is caused by insufficient circulating volume.[2] Its primary cause is haemorrhage (internal and/or external), or loss of fluid from the circulation. Vomiting and diarrhea are the most common cause in children.[1] With other causes including burns, environmental exposure and excess urine loss due to diabetic ketoacidosis and diabetes insipidus.[1]
Cardiogenic[edit]
Cardiogenic shock is caused by the failure of the heart to pump effectively.[2] This can be due to damage to the heart muscle, most often from a large myocardial infarction. Other causes of cardiogenic shock include dysrhythmias, cardiomyopathy/myocarditis, congestive heart failure (CHF), contusio cordis, or cardiac valve problems.[1]
Obstructive[edit]
Obstructive shock is due to obstruction of blood flow outside of the heart.[2] Several conditions can result in this form of shock.
Cardiac tamponade[1] in which fluid in the pericardium prevents inflow of blood into the heart (venous return). Constrictive pericarditis, in which the pericardium shrinks and hardens, is similar in presentation.
Tension pneumothorax[1] Through increased intrathoracic pressure, bloodflow to the heart is prevented (venous return).
Pulmonary embolism is the result of a thromboembolic incident in the blood vessels of the lungs and hinders the return of blood to the heart.
Aortic stenosis hinders circulation by obstructing the ventricular outflow tract
Distributive[edit]
Distributive shock is due to impaired utilization of oxygen and thus production of energy by the cell.[2] Examples of this form of shock are:
Septic shock is the most common cause of distributive shock.[1] Caused by an overwhelming systemic infection resulting in vasodilation leading to hypotension. Septic shock can be caused by Gram negative bacteria such as (among others) Escherichia coli, Proteus species, Klebsiella pneumoniae which release an endotoxin which produces adverse biochemical, immunological and occasionally neurological effects which are harmful to the body, and other Gram-positive cocci, such as pneumococci and streptococci, and certain fungi as well as Gram-positive bacterial toxins. Septic shock also includes some elements of cardiogenic shock. In 1992, the ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee defined septic shock: ". . .sepsis-induced hypotension (systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg or a reduction of 40 mmHg from baseline) despite adequate fluid resuscitation along with the presence of perfusion abnormalities that may include, but are not limited to, lactic acidosis, oliguria, or an acute alteration in mental status. Patients who are receiving inotropic or vasopressor agents may have a normalized blood pressure at the time that perfusion abnormalities are identified."
Anaphylactic shock Caused by a severe anaphylactic reaction to an allergen, antigen, drug or foreign protein causing the release of histamine which causes widespread vasodilation, leading to hypotension and increased capillary permeability.
High spinal injuries may cause neurogenic shock.[14] The classic symptoms include a slow heartrate due to loss of cardiac sympathetic tone and warm skin due to dilation of the peripheral blood vessels.[14] (This term can be confused with spinal shock which is a recoverable loss of function of the spinal cord after injury and does not refer to the haemodynamic instability per se.)
Ryan Merkle QMRThere are four chambers in the fuel regulator portion of the carburetor. They are referred to by letters A, B, C, and D, with the A chamber closest to the throttle body. The fuel metering servo valve responds to pressure differentials across the diaphragms separating the chambers. The resulting diaphragm movement controls fuel flow into the engine under all flight conditions.[14]
QMRBendix-Stromberg produced a number of pressure carburetor styles and sizes, each of which could be calibrated to a specific engine and airframe.
There are four styles:[16]
PS single barrel carburetor
PD double barrel carburetor
PT triple barrel carburetor
PR rectangular bore carburetor
PS style
Single round throat, can be mounted updraft, downdraft and horizontal with slight changes
PS-5, PS-7, PS-9[16]
PD style
Double round throat, can be mounted updraft and downdraft with slight changes
PD-7, PD-9, PD-12, PD-14, PD-16, PD-17, PD-18[16]
PT style
Triple round throat, can be mounted updraft and downdraft with slight changes
PT-13[16]
PR style
Two or four rectangular throats, can be mounted updraft and downdraft with slight changes
PR-38, PR-48, PR-52, PR-53, PR-58, PR-62, PR-64, PR-74, PR-78, PR-88, PR-100[16]
Bendix used a special method to identify round carburetor bores. The first inch of bore diameter is used as the base number one, then each quarter of an inch increase in diameter adds one to the base number.[16]
QMRMany modern cars now come with built-in tire pressure sensors that allow all four tire pressures to be read simultaneously from inside the car. In 2005, most on-board Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems (TPMS) used indirect pressure monitoring. The anti-lock brake sensors detect one tire rotating faster than the rest and indicate a low tire pressure to the driver. The problem with this method was that if tires all lost the same pressure then none would show up against the others to indicate a problem.
Regulations on tire pressure[edit]
Since September 2007 all new automobiles below 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) in weight sold in the United States are required to incorporate a Tire Pressure Monitoring System, which is capable of monitoring all four tires and simultaneously reporting under-inflation of 25 percent of cold placard pressures in any combination of all four tires. TPMS known as Direct TPMS are capable of TREAD Act legislation requiring simultaneous pressure measurement for each tire pressure.[1]
Early TPMS sensors required batteries but the latest TPMS technology eliminates all sensor batteries.[2]
QMRPhysiological response[edit]
Blood pressure (systolic) and pulse rate during a normal response to Valsalva’s maneuver. Forty millimeter mercury pressure is applied at 5 seconds and relieved at 20 seconds.
The normal physiological response consists of four phases.[2]
Initial pressure rise
On application of expiratory force, pressure rises inside the chest forcing blood out of the pulmonary circulation into the left atrium. This causes a mild rise in stroke volume during the first few seconds of the maneuver.
Reduced venous return and compensation
Return of systemic blood to the heart is impeded by the pressure inside the chest. The output of the heart is reduced and stroke volume falls. This occurs from 5 to about 14 seconds in the illustration. The fall in stroke volume reflexively causes blood vessels to constrict with some rise in pressure (15 to 20 seconds). This compensation can be quite marked with pressure returning to near or even above normal, but the cardiac output and blood flow to the body remains low. During this time the pulse rate increases (compensatory tachycardia).
Pressure release
The pressure on the chest is released, allowing the pulmonary vessels and the aorta to re-expand causing a further initial slight fall in stroke volume (20 to 23 seconds) due to decreased left atrial return and increased aortic volume, respectively. Venous blood can once more enter the chest and the heart, cardiac output begins to increase.
Return of cardiac output
Blood return to the heart is enhanced by the effect of entry of blood which had been dammed back, causing a rapid increase in cardiac output (24 seconds on). The stroke volume usually rises above normal before returning to a normal level. With return of blood pressure, the pulse rate returns towards normal.
Deviation from this response pattern signifies either abnormal heart function or abnormal autonomic nervous control of the heart. Valsalva is also used by dentists following extraction of a maxillary molar tooth. The maneuver is performed to determine if a perforation or antral communication exists.
Ryan Merkle QMRPhysicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything. Einstein tried and failed at this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is string theory.[6]:212–219
QMRThe Guedel's classification by Arthur Ernest Guedel described four stages of anaesthesia in 1937.[12] Despite newer anaesthetic agents and delivery techniques, which have led to more rapid onset and recovery from anaesthesia, with greater safety margins, the principles remain.
Stage 1
Stage 1 anaesthesia, also known as the "induction", is the period between the initial administration of the induction agents and loss of consciousness. During this stage, the patient progresses from analgesia without amnesia to analgesia with amnesia. Patients can carry on a conversation at this time.
Stage 2
Stage 2 anaesthesia, also known as the "excitement stage", is the period following loss of consciousness and marked by excited and delirious activity. During this stage, respirations and heart rate may become irregular. In addition, there may be uncontrolled movements, vomiting, breath holding, and pupillary dilation. Since the combination of spastic movements, vomiting, and irregular respirations may lead to airway compromise, rapidly acting drugs are used to minimize time in this stage and reach stage 3 as fast as possible.
Stage 3
Stage 3, "surgical anaesthesia". During this stage, the skeletal muscles relax, vomiting stops, and respiratory depression occurs . Eye movements slow, then stop, the patient is unconscious and ready for surgery. It has been divided into 4 planes:
eyes initially rolling, then becoming fixed
loss of corneal and laryngeal reflexes
pupils dilate and loss of light reflex
intercostal paralysis, shallow abdominal respiration
Stage 4
Stage 4 anaesthesia, also known as "overdose", is the stage where too much medication has been given relative to the amount of surgical stimulation and the patient has severe brain stem or medullary depression. This results in a cessation of respiration and potential cardiovascular collapse. This stage is lethal without cardiovascular and respiratory support.
QMRStages of Anesthesia[edit]
Stage I (stage of analgesia or disorientation): from beginning of induction of general anesthesia to loss of consciousness.
Stage II (stage of excitement or delirium): from loss of consciousness to onset of automatic breathing. Eyelash reflex disappear but other reflexes remain intact and coughing, vomiting and struggling may occur; respiration can be irregular with breath-holding.
Stage III (stage of surgical anesthesia): from onset of automatic respiration to respiratory paralysis. It is divided into four planes:
Plane I - from onset of automatic respiration to cessation of eyeball movements. Eyelid reflex is lost, swallowing reflex disappears, marked eyeball movement may occur but conjunctival reflex is lost at the bottom of the plane
Plane II - from cessation of eyeball movements to beginning of paralysis of intercostal muscles. Laryngeal reflex is lost although inflammation of the upper respiratory tract increases reflex irritability, corneal reflex disappears, secretion of tears increases (a useful sign of light anesthesia), respiration is automatic and regular, movement and deep breathing as a response to skin stimulation disappears.
Plane III - from beginning to completion of intercostal muscle paralysis. Diaphragmatic respiration persists but there is progressive intercostal paralysis, pupils dilated and light reflex is abolished. The laryngeal reflex lost in plane II can still be initiated by painful stimuli arising from the dilatation of anus or cervix. This was the desired plane for surgery when muscle relaxants were not used.
Plane IV - from complete intercostal paralysis to diaphragmatic paralysis (apnea).
Stage IV: from stoppage of respiration till death. Anesthetic overdose cause medullary paralysis with respiratory arrest and vasomotor collapse. Pupils are widely dilated and muscles are relaxed.
In 1954, Joseph F. Artusio further divided the first stage in Guedel's classification into three planes.[9]
1st plane The patient does not experience amnesia or analgesia
2nd plane The patient is completely amnesic but experiences only partial analgesia
3rd plane The patient has complete analgesia and amnesia
QMRHistory[edit]
Winds according to Aristotle.
As a natural force, the wind was often personified as one or more wind gods or as an expression of the supernatural in many cultures. Vayu is the Hindu God of Wind.[71][72] The Greek wind gods include Boreas, Notus, Eurus, and Zephyrus.[72] Aeolus, in varying interpretations the ruler or keeper of the four winds, has also been described as Astraeus, the god of dusk who fathered the four winds with Eos, goddess of dawn. The Ancient Greeks also observed the seasonal change of the winds, as evidenced by the Tower of the Winds in Athens.[72] Venti are the Roman gods of the winds.[73] Fūjin is the Japanese wind god and is one of the eldest Shinto gods. According to legend, he was present at the creation of the world and first let the winds out of his bag to clear the world of mist.[74] In Norse mythology, Njörðr is the god of the wind.[72] There are also four dvärgar (Norse dwarves), named Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri, and probably the four stags of Yggdrasil, personify the four winds, and parallel the four Greek wind gods.[75] Stribog is the name of the Slavic god of winds, sky and air. He is said to be the ancestor (grandfather) of the winds of the eight directions.[72
QMRThe definitions of the four pressure ulcer stages are revised periodically by the National Pressure Ulcer Advisor Panel (NPUAP)[2] in the United States and the European Pressure Ulcer Advisor Panel (EPUAP) in Europe.[3] Briefly, they are as follows:
Stage I: Intact skin with non-blanchable redness of a localized area usually over a bony prominence. Darkly pigmented skin may not have visible blanching; its color may differ from the surrounding area. The area differs in characteristics such as thickness and temperature as compared to adjacent tissue. Stage I may be difficult to detect in individuals with dark skin tones. May indicate "at risk" persons (a heralding sign of risk).
Stage II: Partial thickness loss of dermis presenting as a shallow open ulcer with a red pink wound bed, without slough. May also present as an intact or open/ruptured serum-filled blister. Presents as a shiny or dry shallow ulcer without slough or bruising. This stage should not be used to describe skin tears, tape burns, perineal dermatitis, maceration or excoriation.
Stage III: Full thickness tissue loss. Subcutaneous fat may be visible but bone, tendon or muscle are not exposed. Slough may be present but does not obscure the depth of tissue loss. May include undermining and tunneling. The depth of a stage III pressure ulcer varies by anatomical location. The bridge of the nose, ear, occiput and malleolus do not have (adipose) subcutaneous tissue and stage III ulcers can be shallow. In contrast, areas of significant adiposity can develop extremely deep stage III pressure ulcers. Bone/tendon is not visible or directly palpable.
Stage IV: Full thickness tissue loss with exposed bone, tendon or muscle. Slough or eschar may be present on some parts of the wound bed. Often include undermining and tunneling. The depth of a stage IV pressure ulcer varies by anatomical location. The bridge of the nose, ear, occiput and malleolus do not have (adipose) subcutaneous tissue and these ulcers can be shallow. Stage IV ulcers can extend into muscle and/or supporting structures (e.g., fascia, tendon or joint capsule) making osteomyelitis likely to occur. Exposed bone/tendon is visible or directly palpable. In 2012, the NPUAP stated that pressure ulcers with exposed cartilage are also classified as a stage IV.
Unstageable: Full thickness tissue loss in which actual depth of the ulcer is completely obscured by slough (yellow, tan, gray, green or brown) and/or eschar (tan, brown or black) in the wound bed. Until enough slough and/or eschar is removed to expose the base of the wound, the true depth, and therefore stage, cannot be determined. Stable (dry, adherent, intact without erythema or fluctuance) eschar on the heels is normally protective and should not be removed.
Suspected Deep Tissue Injury: A purple or maroon localized area of discolored intact skin or blood-filled blister due to damage of underlying soft tissue from pressure and/or shear. The area may be preceded by tissue that is painful, firm, mushy, boggy, warmer or cooler as compared to adjacent tissue. A deep tissue injury may be difficult to detect in individuals with dark skin tones. Evolution may include a thin blister over a dark wound bed. The wound may further evolve and become covered by thin eschar. Evolution may be rapid exposing additional layers of tissue even with optimal treatment.
QMRSigns and symptoms[edit]
Frostbite
At or below 0 °C (32 °F), blood vessels close to the skin start to constrict, and blood is shunted away from the extremities via the action of glomus bodies. The same response may also be a result of exposure to high winds. This constriction helps to preserve core body temperature. In extreme cold, or when the body is exposed to cold for long periods, this protective strategy can reduce blood flow in some areas of the body to dangerously low levels. This lack of blood leads to the eventual freezing and death of skin tissue in the affected areas. Of the four degrees of frostbite, each has varying degrees of pain.[2]
First degree[edit]
This is called frostnip and only affects the surface of the skin, which is frozen. On the onset, itching and pain occur, and then the skin develops white, red, and yellow patches and becomes numb. The area affected by frostnip usually does not become permanently damaged, as only the skin's top layers are affected. Long-term insensitivity to both heat and cold can sometimes happen after suffering from frostnip.
Second degree[edit]
If freezing continues, the skin may freeze and harden, but the deep tissues are not affected and remain soft and normal. Second-degree injury usually blisters 1–2 days after becoming frozen. The blisters may become hard and blackened, but usually appear worse than they are. Most of the injuries heal in one month, but the area may become permanently insensitive to both heat and cold.
Third and fourth degrees[edit]
Frostbite 12 days later
If the area freezes further, deep frostbite occurs. The muscles, tendons, blood vessels, and nerves all freeze. The skin is hard, feels waxy, and use of the area is lost temporarily, and in severe cases, permanently. The deep frostbite results in areas of purplish blisters which turn black and which are generally blood-filled. Nerve damage in the area can result in a loss of feeling. This extreme frostbite may result in fingers and toes being amputated if the area becomes infected with gangrene. If the frostbite has gone on untreated, they may fall off. The extent of the damage done to the area by the freezing process of the frostbite may take several months to assess, and this often delays surgery to remove the dead tissue.[3]
QMRThere are four types of mechanoreceptors embedded in ligaments. As all these types of mechanoreceptors are myelinated, they can rapidly transmit sensory information regarding joint positions to the central nervous system.[12]
Type I: (small) Low threshold, slow adapting in both static and dynamic settings
Type II: (medium) Low threshold, rapidly adapting in dynamic settings
Type III: (large) High threshold, slowly adapting in dynamic settings
Type IV: (very small) High threshold pain receptors that communicate injury
Type II and Type III mechanoreceptors in particular are believed to be linked to one's sense of proprioception
QMRA mechanoreceptor is a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion. Normally there are four main types in glabrous skin: Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner's corpuscles, Merkel's discs, and Ruffini endings
Ryan Merkle QMRAlong with body temperature, respiratory rate, and pulse rate, blood pressure is one of the four main vital signs routinely monitored by medical professionals and healthcare providers.
QMRStages of hypovolemic shock[edit]
Usually referred to as "Class" of shock. Most sources state that there are 4 stages of hypovolemic shock,[10] however a number of other systems exist with as many as 6 stages.[11]
The 4 stages are sometimes known as the "Tennis" staging of hypovolemic shock as the stages of blood loss (under 15% of volume, 15-30% of volume, 30-40% of volume and above 40% of volume) mimic the scores in a game of tennis: 15, 15-30, 30-40 and 40.[12] It is basically the same as used in classifying bleeding by blood loss.
Stage 1[edit]
Up to 15% blood volume loss (750 mL)
Compensated by constriction of vascular bed
Blood pressure maintained
Normal respiratory rate (12-20 breaths per minute)
Pallor of the skin (paleness)
Normal mental status[13] to slight anxiety
Normal capillary refill[13] (less than 2 seconds)
Normal urine output[13]
Stage 2[edit]
15–30% blood volume loss (750–1500 mL)
Blood pressure cannot be maintained by arterial constriction
Tachycardia >100bpm
Increased respiratory rate (more than 20 respirations per minute)
Systolic blood pressure maintained
Increased diastolic blood pressure
Narrow pulse pressure (gap between the systolic and diastolic pressure)
Pale, cold, and clammy skin as blood flow is directed away to major organs such as the heart, lungs, and brain
Mildly anxious/Restless
Delayed capillary refill[13]
Urine output of 20-30 milliliters/hour[13]
Stage 3[edit]
30–40% blood volume loss (1500–2000 mL)
Systolic BP falls to 100mmHg or less
Marked tachycardia (increased heart rate) >120 bpm
Marked tachypnea (increased rate of respiration) >30 respirations per minute
Alteration in mental status (confusion,[13] anxiety, agitation)
Sweating with cool, pale skin
Delayed capillary refill[13]
Urine output of approximately 20 milliliters/hour[13]
Stage 4[edit]
Loss greater than 40% (>2000 mL)
Extreme tachycardia (>140[13]) with weak pulse
Pronounced tachypnea
Significantly decreased systolic blood pressure of 70 mmHg or less
Decreased level of consciousness, lethargy,[13] coma[13]
Skin is sweaty, cool, and extremely pale (moribund)
Absent capillary refill[13]
Negligible urine output[13]
Survival is extremely unlikely
Ryan Merkle QMRPressure 1 was a short-lived game show targeted at teenagers and preteens. Hosted by Road Rules alumnus Mark Long, the series aired in weekly syndication for one season, from Fall 1999 to Spring 2000, with reruns continuing until September. Produced by Wheeler-Sussman Productions and distributed by Hearst-Argyle Television, the program was taped at the studios of WCVB-TV in Boston.
Ryan Merkle Round 1 (Four's a Crowd)[edit]
The four contestants competed in answering questions, with the round ending after three of the four players had each correctly answered two questions; the remaining player was eliminated (hence the round's name).
Ryan Merkle QMRCabin Pressure is a radio sitcom written and created by John Finnemore and directed and produced by David Tyler. It follows the exploits of the oddball crew of the single aeroplane owned by "MJN Air" as they are chartered to take all manner of items, people or animals across the world. The show stars Finnemore, Stephanie Cole, Roger Allam and Benedict Cumberbatch.[1] The series was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 2008.[2]
Critical reception to the series was positive and four series have been broadcast, along with a special 2010 Christmas Day episode.[2][3] The fourth series consisting of six episodes was broadcast in January and February 2013.[4] The show's finale, entitled "Zurich", was broadcast as a two-part special on 23 and 24 December 2014.[5][6] The series' opening music is Mikhail Glinka's Overture to Ruslan and Lyudmila.[7]
Plot[edit]
See also: List of Cabin Pressure characters
The story follows the day-to-day working life of MJN Air and its crew of four: Carolyn (Stephanie Cole), the owner and stewardess; First Officer Douglas Richardson (Roger Allam), an experienced pilot formerly at Air England until he was sacked for smuggling; Captain Martin Crieff (Benedict Cumberbatch), the chief pilot whose love of flying and planes is let down by his lack of natural ability; and Arthur Shappey (John Finnemore), Caroyln's overexcited and idiotic son who works as a steward.
Plot[edit]
See also: List of Cabin Pressure characters
The story follows the day-to-day working life of MJN Air and its crew of four: Carolyn (Stephanie Cole), the owner and stewardess; First Officer Douglas Richardson (Roger Allam), an experienced pilot formerly at Air England until he was sacked for smuggling; Captain Martin Crieff (Benedict Cumberbatch), the chief pilot whose love of flying and planes is let down by his lack of natural ability; and Arthur Shappey (John Finnemore), Caroyln's overexcited and idiotic son who works as a steward.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe wild boar (Sus scrofa), also known as the wild swine[3] or Eurasian wild pig[4] is a suid native to much of Eurasia, North Africa, and the Greater Sunda Islands. Human intervention has spread its range further, making the species one of the widest-ranging mammals in the world, as well as the most widely spread suiform.[4] Its wide range, high numbers, and adaptability mean that it is classed as least concern by the IUCN.[1] The animal probably originated in Southeast Asia during the Early Pleistocene,[5] and outcompeted other suid species as it spread throughout the Old World.[6]
As of 2005, up to 16 subspecies are recognised, which are divided into four regional groupings based on skull height and lacrimal bone length.
Diet[edit]
Male Indian boar (S. s. cristatus) feeding on a chital carcass
The wild boar is a highly versatile omnivore, whose diversity in choice of food rivals that of humans.[30] Its foods can be divided into four categories:
Rhizomes, roots, tubers and bulbs, all of which are dug up throughout the year in the animal's whole range.[3]
Nuts, berries, and seeds, which are consumed when ripened and are dug up from the snow when abundant.[3]
Leaves, bark, twigs, and shoots, along with garbage.[3]
Earthworms, insects, mollusks, fish, rodents, insectivores, bird eggs, lizards, snakes, frogs, and carrion. Most of these prey items are taken in warm periods.[3]
Subspecies[edit]
As of 2005,[2] 16 subspecies are recognised, which are divided into four regional groupings:
Western: Includes S. s. scrofa, S. s. meridionalis, S. s. algira, S. s. attila, S. s. lybicus, and S. s. nigripes. These subspecies are typically high-skulled (though lybicus and some scrofa are low-skulled), with thick underwool and (excepting scrofa and attila) poorly developed manes.[13]
Indian: Includes S. s. davidi and S. s. cristatus. These subspecies have sparse or absent underwool, with long manes and prominent bands on the snout and mouth. While S. s. cristatus is high-skulled, S. s. davidi is low-skulled.[13]
Eastern: Includes S. s. sibiricus, S. s. ussuricus, S. s. leucomystax, S. s. riukiuanus, S. s. taivanus, and S. s. moupinensis. These subspecies are characterised by a whitish streak extending from the corners of the mouth to the lower jaw. With the exception of S. s. ussuricus, most are high-skulled. The underwool is thick, except in S. s. moupinensis, and the mane is largely absent.[13]
Indonesian: Represented solely by S. s. vittatus, it is characterised by its sparse body hair, lack of underwool, fairly long mane, a broad reddish band extending from the muzzle to the sides of the neck.[13] It is the most basal of the four groups, having the smallest relative brain size, more primitive dentition and unspecialised cranial structure.[14]
Ryan Merkle Pigs are one of four known mammalian species which possess mutations in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor that protect against snake venom. Mongooses, honey badgers, hedgehogs, and pigs all have modifications to the receptor pocket which prevents the snake venom α-neurotoxin from binding. These represent four separate, independent mutations.[35]
QMRPowerade is a sports drink manufactured and marketed by The Coca-Cola Company. Its primary competitor is PepsiCo's Gatorade brands. As of December 2010, Powerade has grown to take 21.7 percent of the United States market in the sports drink category, compared to Gatorade's 77.2 percent.[1] In 2009, Powerade was relaunched as Powerade ION4, a formulation that contains four key electrolytes in the same ratio that is typically lost in sweat.[2] PepsiCo sued The Coca-Cola Company, after ads were released claiming that Gatorade was an incomplete sports drink, since it only contained two of the four key electrolytes. The presiding judge ruled in favor of Coca-Cola, for a number of reasons: the ads were no longer running, Gatorade had made similar claims about their Endurance line, and Pepsi failed to show any harm or damage caused by the ads, which were only designed to run for sixty days.
QMRAgnes Marshall, regarded as the "queen of ices" in England did much to popularize ice cream recipes and make its consumption into a fashionable middle-class pursuit. She wrote four books: Ices Plain and Fancy: The Book of Ices (1885), Mrs. A.B. Marshall's Book of Cookery (1888), Mrs. A.B. Marshall's Larger Cookery Book of Extra Recipes (1891) and Fancy Ices (1894) and gave public lectures on cooking. She even suggested using liquid nitrogen to make ice cream.
QMRWhen brewing beer, there are four primary ingredients - water, grain, yeast and hops. The grain is encouraged to germinate by soaking and drying in heat, a process known as malting. It is then milled before soaking again to create the sugars needed for fermentation. This process is known as mashing. Hops are added for flavouring, then the yeast is added to the mixture (now called wort) to start the fermentation process.[21]
QMRKim McCosker is an Australian author, responsible for the popular 4 Ingredients series of cookbooks.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 4 Ingredients
2 Other titles
3 Personal
4 References
5 External links
4 Ingredients[edit]
McCosker and her co-author Rachael Bermingham have been called "cooking's J. K. Rowling":[2] after being turned down by major publishers, they self-published their first cookbook, 4 Ingredients, which went on to become the best selling self-published book in Australia in 2007, selling 400,000 copies in 2007 and placing second in overall sales only to Rowling's Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows released the same year.[2] 4 Ingredients has gone on to reach a total sales mark of over 2.5 million copies.[3] The initial 4 Ingredients book spawned the sequels 4 Ingredients 2, 4 Ingredients Gluten Free, 4 Ingredients Fast, Fresh & Healthy (with co-author Deepak Chopra) and 4 Ingredients Kids. The five books combined for more than 100,000 units sold in 2010,[2] and have been incorporated into a 4 Ingredients iPhone app.[1]
The popularity of the 4 Ingredients series has led to a 4 Ingredients television series, hosted by McCosker, and broadcast in 24 countries including Australia, Africa, the UK, and New Zealand.
In 2011, McCosker bought out Bermingham and has gone on to release four more 4 Ingredients books on her own: 4 Ingredients Christmas, 4 Ingredients One Pot One Bowl, 4 Ingredients Kids in Colour, and 4 Ingredients Gluten Free Lactose Free.
QMRRachael Bermingham is an Australian entrepreneur,[1] author, public speaker, mentor and former TV personality and hairdresser.[2]
Rachael has written 7 bestselling books (6 self-published and 1 published) since 2006. Her books are nearing sales of 4 million copies.
Rachael's first book Read My Lips was written with co-authors Cyndi O'Meara, Jodie McIver, Fleur Whelligan, Kim Morrison, and Allison Mooney, and released 14 February 2006. Rachael's second book 4 Ingredients was co-written with Kim McCosker (Turnbull), as were the following books within the series, 4 Ingredients 2, 4 Ingredients Gluten Free, "4 Ingredients Fast, Fresh & Healthy" and "4 Ingredients Kids". Rachael and Kim celebrated their first title being named bestselling title of 2008 (it was 2nd bestselling title to JK Rowling's Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in 2007 the year of its release).[3] Rachael's fifth book was a mini-book entitled How To Write Your Own Book & Make It A Bestseller, a bestselling book upon release, it has now been transformed into a home-study program for aspiring authors.
Bermingham has also previously appeared on the TV show 4 Ingredients, which now airs in 23 countries including Australia, Africa, UK and New Zealand.
In 2010, Rachael launched her own book distribution and education company (Bermingham Books) and mentors authors on how to write, publish and promote their own titles.
The following year, in 2011, Bermingham revealed she was leaving her association with the 4 Ingredients franchise after being bought out of her 50% stake by Kim McCosker. Bermingham also explained she was leaving her husband, denying suggestions of extra-marital affairs.[4]
Bermingham was also a central figure in a High Court case where the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission successfully pursued the Seven Network for broadcasting misleading and deceptive material relating to two property seminar promoters. The promoters had exaggerated their wealth in order to attract clients. The court heard that Bermingham had been hired in 2003 to promote the property seminar business and received a commission for each client.[5]
Rachael lives on Australia's Sunshine Coast and has three sons, Jaxson 6 years old and 12-month-old twin boys Bowie and Casey, who travel extensively with her around the globe speaking and promoting her books.
Ryan Merkle QMRPound cake refers to a type of cake traditionally made with a pound of each of four ingredients: flour, butter, eggs, and sugar. However, any cake made with a 1:1:1:1 ratio, by weight, of flour, butter, eggs, and sugar may also be called a pound cake, as it yields the same results[citation needed]. Pound cakes are generally baked in either a loaf pan or a Bundt mold, and served either dusted with powdered sugar, lightly glazed, or sometimes with a coat of icing.
Ryan Merkle In France, the pound cake is well-known. The name of the pound cake "quatre-quarts", means four quarters. There are equal weights in each of the four quarters. In tradition, the popular cake of the French region of Brittany, as its name implies, uses the same quantity of the four ingredients, but with no added fruit of any kind. However, the Caribbean parts of the world that do speak French traditionally add rum to the ingredients for Christmas Eve or even mashed bananas for extra moisture. In some cases the French might have beaten egg whites instead of whole eggs to lighten the batter. Other variants include adding chocolate or lemon juice for flavour.
QMRIn Federalist No. 70, Hamilton lists four ingredients that constitute this energy:
unity
duration
an adequate provision for its support (salary)
competent powers
QMRGuinness Storehouse is a Guinness-themed tourist attraction at St. James's Gate Brewery in Dublin, Ireland.[1][2] Since opening in 2000, it has received over four million visitors.[2]
The Storehouse covers seven floors surrounding a glass atrium shaped in the form of a pint of Guinness.[3] The ground floor introduces the beer's four ingredients (water, barley, hops and yeast), and the brewery's founder, Arthur Guinness. Other floors feature the history of Guinness advertising and include an interactive exhibit on responsible drinking. The seventh floor houses the Gravity Bar with views of Dublin and where visitors may drink a pint of Guinness included in the price of admission, which was €18 in March 2015, described as "overpriced" by Condé Nast Traveler.[2][4][5][6] In 2006, a new wing opened incorporating a live installation of the present day brewing process.
Ryan Merkle QMRAccording to McDonald's, the nuggets come in four shapes: the bell, the bowtie, the ball and the boot.[
QMRGattaca, a 1997 American science fiction film's title is based on the first letters of guanine, adenine, thymine, and cytosine, the four nucleobases of DNA.
QMRThe Masters and Johnson research team, composed of William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson, pioneered research into the nature of human sexual response and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual disorders and dysfunctions from 1957 until the 1990s.[1][2]
One of the most enduring and important aspects of their work has been the four stage model of sexual response, which they described as the human sexual response cycle[2][3] and defined as:
Excitement phase (initial arousal)
Plateau phase (at full arousal, but not yet at orgasm)
Orgasm
Resolution phase (after orgasm)
Their model shows no difference between Sigmund Freud's purported categories of "vaginal orgasm" and "clitoral orgasm": the physiological response was identical, even if the stimulation was in a different place.[2][3]
Masters and Johnson's findings also revealed that men undergo a refractory period following orgasm during which they are not able to ejaculate again, whereas there is no refractory period in women: this makes women capable of multiple orgasm.[2][3] They also were the first to describe the phenomenon of the rhythmic contractions of orgasm in both sexes occurring initially in 0.8 second intervals and then gradually slowing in both speed and intensity.
qMRThe Reinheitsgebot ("purity decree"), sometimes called the "German Beer Purity Law" or the "Bavarian Purity Law" in English, was a regulation concerning the production of beer in Germany. In the original text, the only ingredients that could be used in the production of beer were water, barley, and hops, which had to be added only while the wort was boiling. After its discovery, yeast became the fourth legal ingredient.
QMRThe first evidence of plants on land comes from spores of mid-Ordovician age (early Llanvirn, ~470 million years ago).[11][12][13] These spores, known as cryptospores, were produced either singly (monads), in pairs (dyads) or groups of four (tetrads), and their microstructure resembles that of modern liverwort spores, suggesting they share an equivalent grade of organisation.[14] Their walls contain sporopollenin – further evidence of an embryophytic affinity.[15] It could be that atmospheric 'poisoning' prevented eukaryotes from colonising the land prior to this,[16] or it could simply have taken a great time for the necessary complexity to evolve.[17]
Trilete spores similar to those of vascular plants appear soon afterwards, in Upper Ordovician rocks.[18] Depending exactly when the tetrad splits, each of the four spores may bear a "trilete mark", a Y-shape, reflecting the points at which each cell squashed up against its neighbours.[11] However, this requires that the spore walls be sturdy and resistant at an early stage. This resistance is closely associated with having a desiccation-resistant outer wall—a trait only of use when spores must survive out of water. Indeed, even those embryophytes that have returned to the water lack a resistant wall, thus don't bear trilete marks.[11] A close examination of algal spores shows that none have trilete spores, either because their walls are not resistant enough, or in those rare cases where it is, the spores disperse before they are squashed enough to develop the mark, or don't fit into a tetrahedral tetrad.[11]
QMRThe more familiar leaves, megaphylls, are thought to have separate origins – indeed, they appeared four times independently, in the ferns, horsetails, progymnosperms, and seed plants.[52] They appear to have originated from dichotomising branches, which first overlapped (or "overtopped") one another, and eventually developed "webbing" and evolved into gradually more leaf-like structures.[50] So megaphylls, by this "teleome theory", are composed of a group of webbed branches[50] – hence the "leaf gap" left where the leaf's vascular bundle leaves that of the main branch resembles two axes splitting.[50] In each of the four groups to evolve megaphylls, their leaves first evolved during the Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous, diversifying rapidly until the designs settled down in the mid Carboniferous.[52]
QMRA single taste bud is composed of four different types of cells, and each taste bud has at least 30 to 80 cells. Type I cells are thinly shaped, usually in the periphery of other cells. They also contain high amounts of chromatin. Type II cells have prominent nuclei and nucleoli with much less chromatin than Type I cells. Type III cells have multiple mitochondria and large vesicles. Type I, II, and III cells also contain synapses. Type IV cells are normally rooted at the posterior end of the taste bud. Every cell in the taste bud forms microvilli at the ends.[6]
Ryan Merkle QMRA digital lollipop is an electronic device that synthesizes virtual tastes by stimulating the human tongue with electric currents. The device is capable of producing four of the primary tastes: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. Digital lollipops were developed through research led by Nimesha Ranasinghe at the National University of Singapore.[1][2][3]
QMRCoca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to Southwest America.
The plant is grown as a cash crop in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, even in areas where its cultivation is unlawful.[2] It also plays a role in many traditional Andean cultures as well as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (see Traditional uses). Coca is known throughout the world for its psychoactive alkaloid, cocaine. The alkaloid content of coca leaves is low, between 0.25% and 0.77%.[3] This means that chewing the leaves or drinking coca tea does not produce the high (euphoria, megalomania, depression) people experience with cocaine. Coca leaf extract had been used in Coca-Cola products since 1885, with cocaine being completely eliminated from the products in or around 1929.[4][5] Extraction of cocaine from coca requires several solvents and a chemical process known as an acid/base extraction, which can fairly easily extract the alkaloids from the plant.
QMROf the approximately 100 species nearly all are shrubs <5 m (16 ft) tall, but a few qualify as trees, the largest reaching 30 m (98 ft). Both evergreen and deciduous species occur, in tropical and temperate regions resp. The leaves are lanceolate in most species, and arranged in opposite pairs on the stems (alternate in one species, B. alternifolia); they range from 1–30 cm (0.39–11.81 in) long. The flowers of the Asiatic species are mostly produced in terminal panicles 10–50 cm (3.9–19.7 in) long; the American species more commonly as cymes forming small, globose heads. Each individual flower is tubular and divided into four spreading lobes (petals) about 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) across, the corolla length ranging from around 10 mm in the Asiatics to 3–30 mm in the American species, the wider variation in the latter because some South American species have evolved long red flowers to attract hummingbirds, rather than insects, as exclusive pollinators.
QMREuonymus alatus, known variously as winged spindle, winged euonymus or burning bush, is a species of flowering plant in the family Celastraceae, native to central and northern China, Japan, and Korea.
This deciduous shrub grows to 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) tall, often wider than tall. The stems are notable for their four corky ridges or "wings". The word alatus (or alata, used formerly) is Latin for "winged", in reference to the winged branches. These unique structures develop from a cork cambium deposited in longitudinal grooves in the twigs' first year, unlike similar wings in other plants.[1] The leaves are 2–7 centimetres (0.79–2.76 in) long and 1–4 centimetres (0.39–1.57 in) broad, ovate-elliptic, with an acute apex. The flowers are greenish, borne over a long period in the spring. The fruit is a red aril enclosed by a four-lobed pink, yellow or orange capsule.
QMRMost cultivated Citrus seem to be natural or artificial hybrids of four core ancestral species[14] — the citron, pummelo, mandarine, and papeda (see image).[15] Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines.
Apart from these four core citrus species, there are Australian limes and the recently-discovered Mangshanyegan. Kumquats and Clymenia sp. are now generally considered to belong within the citrus genus.[16] Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus.
Ryan Merkle Caper-The shrubby plant is many-branched, with alternate leaves, thick and shiny, round to ovate. The flowers are complete, sweetly fragrant, and showy, with four sepals and four white to pinkish-white petals, and many long violet-colored stamens, and a single stigma usually rising well above the stamens.[12]
Psychology Chapter
QMRCore self-evaluations (CSE) represent a stable personality trait which encompasses an individual's subconscious, fundamental evaluations about themselves, their own abilities and their own control. People who have high core self-evaluations will think positively of themselves and be confident in their own abilities. Conversely, people with low core self-evaluations will have a negative appraisal of themselves and will lack confidence. The concept of core self-evaluations was first examined by Judge, Locke, and Durham (1997)[1] and involves four personality dimensions: locus of control, neuroticism, generalized self-efficacy, and self-esteem. The trait developed as a dispositional predictor of job satisfaction, but has expanded to predict a variety of other outcomes. Core self-evaluations are particularly important because they represent a personality trait which will remain consistent over time. Furthermore, the way in which people appraise themselves using core self-evaluations has the ability to predict positive work outcomes, specifically, job satisfaction and job performance. These relationships have inspired increasing amounts of research on core self-evaluations and suggest valuable implications about the importance this trait may have for organizations.
Definitions of the four dimensions[edit]
Locus of control[edit]
The locus of control construct indicates a tendency for individuals to attribute life's events to their own doing or to outside forces beyond their control. There are two basic classifications of locus of control: internals and externals. Internals believe they control their own environment whereas externals believe outside forces control their lives.[2] Those with an internal locus of control are more likely to be satisfied with their job and life because they believe in their own control over the situation.[3]
Neuroticism[edit]
Neuroticism, also a Big Five personality trait, is defined as an enduring tendency to experience unpleasant emotions (e.g., anger, anxiety, depression) easily. Those high in neuroticism react more negatively to stress, are prone to anxiety, and susceptible to feelings of helplessness.[4] Neuroticism, when examined as part of core self-evaluations, is conceptualized as its opposite, emotional stability (i.e., non-neuroticism).[3] In fact, because neuroticism and emotional stability are simply labels for two sides of the same trait, they are often used interchangeably in literature.[5]
Generalized self-efficacy[edit]
Generalized self-efficacy, adapted from Albert Bandura's original definition of self-efficacy,[6] is defined as an individual's estimate of his or her own ability to perform well and handle a variety of situations.[1] Although an individual can differ in levels of self-efficacy across different domains, generalized self-efficacy is the global estimate of ability across a wide range of situations, and can be considered a stable trait.[1] Individuals high in generalized self-efficacy are more likely to take on new tasks that allow for growth in their ability and are more persistent than those low in generalized self-efficacy.
Self-esteem[edit]
Self-esteem reflects a person's overall appraisal of his or her own worth.[7] Self-esteem may, in fact, be one of the most essential core self-evaluation domains because it is the overall value one places on oneself as a person.[3]
A concept of four unique hues of psychologist Charles Hubbard Judd (1917)
Sociology Chapter
qMRduring the 1969 trial of Clay Shaw, New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison challenged the single bullet theory with evidence from the Zapruder film that a fourth shot from the Grassy Knoll was responsible for Kennedy's fatal head wound.
In 1979, the United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) agreed with the Warren Commission that Oswald assassinated Kennedy, but concluded that the Commission's report and the original FBI investigation were seriously flawed. The HSCA concluded that at least four shots were fired with a "high probability" that two gunmen fired at the President, and that a conspiracy was probable.[3] The HSCA stated that "the Warren Commission failed to investigate adequately the possibility of a conspiracy to assassinate the President."[2]
The Ramsey Clark Panel and the Rockefeller Commission both supported the Warren Commission's conclusions.
Ryan Merkle Number of shots[edit]
Based on the "consensus among the witnesses at the scene" and "in particular the three spent cartridges", the Warren Commission determined that "the preponderance of the evidence indicated that three shots were fired".[108] In 1979, the House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded there were four shots, one coming from the direction of the grassy knoll.[3][110]
The Warren Commission, and later the House Select Committee on Assassinations, concluded that one of the shots hit President Kennedy in "the back of his neck", exited his throat, continued on to strike Governor Connally in the back, exited Connally's chest, shattered his right wrist, and embedded itself in his left thigh.[111] This conclusion came to be known as the "single bullet theory".[112]
Mary Moorman said in a TV interview immediately after the assassination that there were three or four shots close together, that shots were still being fired after the fatal head shot, and that she was in the line of fire.[113] In 1967, Josiah Thompson concluded that four shots were fired in Dealey Plaza, with one wounding Connally and three hitting Kennedy.[67]
On the day of the assassination, Nellie Connally was seated in the presidential car next to her husband, Governor John Connally. In her book From Love Field: Our Final Hours, Nellie Connally said that she believed that her husband was hit by a bullet that was separate from the two that hit Kennedy.[114]
Ryan Merkle QMRSociologist Gerhard Lenski differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication, and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial, and (5) special (e.g. fishing societies or maritime societies).[4] This is similar to the system earlier developed by anthropologists Morton H. Fried, a conflict theorist, and Elman Service, an integration theorist, who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:
Hunter-gatherer bands (categorization of duties and responsibilities).
Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige.
Stratified structures led by chieftains.
Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.
QMRTypes of Marketing Channels[edit]
There are four main types of marketing channels.
Producer --> Customer[edit]
The producer sells the goods or provides the service directly to the consumer with no involvement with a middle man such as an intermediary, a wholesaler, a retailer, an agent, or a reseller. The consumer goes directly to the producer to buy the product without going through any other channel. This type of marketing is most beneficial to farmers who can set the prices of their products without having to go through the Canadian Federation of Agriculture.
Producer --> Retailer --> Consumer[edit]
Retailers, like Walmart and Target, buy the product from the manufacturer and sell them directly to the consumer. This channel works best for manufacturers that produce shopping goods like, clothes, shoes, furniture, tableware, and toys.[5] Since consumers need more time with these items before they decide to purchase them, it is in the best interest of the manufacturer to sell them to another user before it gets into the hand of the consumers. It is also a good strategy to use another dealer to get the product to the end-user if the producer needs to get to the market more quickly[6] by using an established network that already has brand loyalty.
Producer --> Wholesaler/Distributor --> Customer[edit]
Wholesalers, like Costco, buy the products from the manufacturer and sell them to the consumer. In this channel, consumers can buy products directly from the wholesaler in bulk. By buying the items in bulk from the wholesaler the prices of the product are reduced. This is because the wholesaler takes away extra costs, such as service costs or sales force costs, that customers usually pay when buying from retail; making the price much cheaper for the consumer.[5] However, the wholesaler does not always sell directly to the consumer. Sometimes the wholesaler will go through a retailer before the product gets into the hands of the consumer. Each dealer (the manufacture, the wholesaler, and the retailer) will be looking to make a decent profit margin from the product. So each time the buyer purchases the merchandise from another source, the price of the product has to increase, in order to maximize the profit each person will receive. This raises the price of the product for the end-user.
Producer --> Agent/Broker --> Wholesaler or Retailer --> Customer[edit]
This distribution channel involves more than one intermediary before the product gets into the hands of the consumer. This middleman, known as the agent, assists with the negotiation between the manufacturer and the seller. Agents come into play when the producers need to get their product into the market as quickly as possible. This happens mostly when the item is perishable and has to get to the market fresh before it starts to rot.[5] At times the agent will directly go to the retailer with the goods, or take an alternate route through the wholesaler who will go to a retailer and then finally to the consumer.
QMRScore Four is a 3-D version of the abstract strategy game Connect Four. It was first sold under the name "Score Four" by Funtastic in 1968. Lakeside issued 4 different versions in the 1970s. Later Hasbro sold the game as "Connect Four Advanced" in the UK. .
The object of Score Four is to position four beads of the same color in a straight line on any level or any angle. As in Tic Tac Toe, Score Four strategy centers around forcing a win by making multiple threats simultaneously, while preventing the opponent from doing so.
QMRA CMYK image has four channels: cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. CMYK is the standard for print, where subtractive coloring is used.
A 32-bit CMYK image (the industry standard as of 2005) is made of four 8-bit channels, one for cyan, one for magenta, one for yellow, and one for key color (typically is black). 64-bit storage for CMYK images (16-bit per channel) is not common, given the fact that CMYK is usually device-dependent, whereas RGB is the generic standard for device-independent storage.
qMRSeveral centuries ago the Inns of Court were any of a sizable number of buildings or precincts where barristers traditionally lodged, trained and carried on their profession.
Over the centuries the number of active Inns of Court was reduced to the present four:
The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn
The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple
The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple
The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn
QMRA knowledge society promotes human rights and offers equal, inclusive, and universal access to all knowledge creation. The UNESCO World Report establishes four principles that are essential for development of an equitable knowledge society:[3]
Cultural diversity
Equal access to education
Universal access to information (in the public domain)
Freedom of expression
QMRBook structure[edit]
Collapse is divided into four parts.
Part One describes the environment of the US state of Montana, focusing on the lives of several individuals in order to put a human face on the interplay between society and the environment.
Part Two describes past societies that have collapsed. Diamond uses a "framework" when considering the collapse of a society, consisting of five "sets of factors" that may affect what happens to a society: environmental damage, climate change, hostile neighbors, loss of trading partners, and the society's own responses to its environmental problems. The societies Diamond describes are:
The Greenland Norse (climate change, environmental damage, loss of trading partners, irrational reluctance to eat fish, hostile neighbors and most unwillingness to adapt in the face of social collapse)
Easter Island (a society that collapsed entirely due to environmental damage)
The Polynesians of Pitcairn Island (environmental damage and loss of trading partners)
The Anasazi of southwestern North America (environmental damage and climate change)
The Maya of Central America (environmental damage, climate change, and hostile neighbours)
Finally, Diamond discusses three past success stories:
The tiny Pacific island of Tikopia
The agricultural success of central New Guinea
The Tokugawa-era forest management in Japan.
Part Three examines modern societies, including:
The collapse into genocide of Rwanda, caused in part by overpopulation
The failure of Haiti compared with the relative success of its neighbour on Hispaniola, the Dominican Republic
The problems facing a developing nation, China
The problems facing a First World nation, Australia
Part Four concludes the study by considering such subjects as business and globalization, and "extracts practical lessons for us today" (p. 22 – 23). Specific attention is given to the polder model as a way Dutch society has addressed its challenges and the "top-down" and most importantly "bottom-up" approaches that we must take now that "our world society is presently on a non-sustainable course" (p. 498) in order to avoid the "12 problems of non-sustainability" that he expounds throughout the book, and reviews in the final chapter. The results of this survey are perhaps why Diamond sees "signs of hope" nevertheless and arrives at a position of "cautious optimism" for all our futures.
QMRFour class order[edit]
The Tokugawa government intentionally created a social order called the Four divisions of society (Shinokosho), that would stabilize the country. This system was based on the ideas of Confucianism that spread to Japan from China. By this system, society was composed of samurai (士 shi), farming peasants (農 nō), artisans (工 kō) and merchants (商 shō). Samurai were placed at the top of society because they started an order and set a high moral example for others to follow. This system was meant to reinforce their position of power in society by justifying their ruling status. Peasants came second because they produced the most important commodity, food. According to Confucian philosophy, society could not survive without agriculture.[1] Third were artisans because they produced non-essential goods. Merchants were at the bottom of the social order because they generated wealth without producing any goods. As this indicates, the classes were not arranged by wealth or capital but by what philosophers described as their moral purity.
In actuality, shinokosho does not accurately describe Tokugawa society.[2] Buddhist and Shinto priests; or court nobles (kuge); and outcast classes including eta and hinin (those sold or sentenced into indentured servitude) were not included in this description of hierarchy. In some cases, a poor samurai could be little better off than a peasant and the lines between the classes could blur, especially between artisans and merchants in urban areas. Still, this theory provided grounds for restricting privileges and responsibilities to different classes and it gave a sense of order to society. In practice, solidified social relationships in general helped create the political stability that defined the Edo period. [3]
Samurai[edit]
Samurai functioned as the warrior class in Japan; they constituted about 7-8% of the population. The other classes were prohibited from possessing weapons. Carrying two swords became the symbol of the samurai class.
During the feudal period, samurai were warriors that fought for a lord in a feudal relationship. The Edo period, however, was largely free from both external threats and internal conflicts. Instead the samurai maintained their fighting skills more as an art than to fight. Samurai were paid a stipend from their lord, limiting their ties to the economic base. In addition, samurai were limited from owning land which would have given them income independent from their duty. Samurai generally lived around their daimyo's castle, creating a thriving town or city environment around the political center of a domain.
There were social stratifications within the samurai class. Upper-level samurai had direct access to their daimyo and could hold his most trusted positions. Some achieved a level of wealth that allowed them to retain their own samurai vassals. Mid-level samurai held military and bureaucratic positions and had some interactions with their daimyo if needed. Low level samurai could be paid as little as a subsistence wage and worked as guards, messengers and clerks. Positions within the class were largely hereditary and talented samurai were limited in rising only a few social steps beyond their birth, if anything.[4] Outside the traditional samurai-lord relationship were ronin, or masterless samurai. These samurai were generally afforded very low levels of respect, had no income, and often became gamblers, bandits, or other similar occupations.
Peasants[edit]
Life for rural peasants focused on their villages. Peasants rarely moved beyond their villages and journeys and pilgrimages required a permit, though young people occasionally sought seasonal employment outside of their village. As a result, people were highly suspicious of outsiders. Social bonding, critical to the survival of the whole village, was also reinforced through seasonal festivals. Villages were highly collective; there were strong pressures to conform and no room to deviate from custom.[5] Though there were conflicts, these were seen as disruptive to the village and order and were to be limited as much as possible.[6]
The peasant class owned land, though rights to tax this land were given to the daimyo. Peasants worked to produce enough food for themselves and still meet the tax burden. Most agriculture during this time was cultivated by families on their own land in contrast to the plantation or hacienda model that was implemented elsewhere.[7] Peasants could amass relatively large amounts of wealth but remained in the same class because of their association with the land. Wealthier families and those that held their own land and paid taxes were held in much higher regard and had more political influence in village matters. However, the survival of the village depended on every household cooperating to meet the tax burden and overcome natural disasters such as famines.
Merchants and artisans[edit]
By 1800 as much as 10% of the population of Japan may have lived in large towns and cities, one of the highest levels in the world at the time.[8] The daimyo and their samurai did not produce any goods themselves, but they used the tax surplus from the land to fuel their consumption. These needs were met by artisans, who moved to be around the castles, and merchants, who traded local and regional goods. Each class in the city was restricted to living in its own quarter.
Merchants grew increasingly powerful during this period. Wealthy merchant houses arose to organize distributors and hold legal monopolies. As their wealth grew, merchants wanted to consume and display their wealth in the same manner as the samurai, but laws prevented them from doing so in an overt fashion. Still, their consumption combined with that of the samurai served to reinforce the growth of the merchant and artisan classes.
QMRMichael Porter classifies the markets into four general cases[citation needed]:- which he can place into a quadrant
High barrier to entry and high exit barrier (for example, telecommunications, energy)
High barrier to entry and low exit barrier (for example, consulting, education)
Low barrier to entry and high exit barrier (for example, hotels, ironworks)
Low barrier to entry and low exit barrier (for example, retail, electronic commerce)
Markets with high entry barriers have few players and thus high profit margins.
Markets with low entry barriers have lots of players and thus low profit margins.
Markets with high exit barriers are unstable and not self-regulated, so the profit margins fluctuate very much over time.
Markets with a low exit barrier are stable and self-regulated, so the profit margins do not fluctuate much over time.
QMRBarriers to entry and market structure[edit]
Perfect competition: Zero barriers to entry.
Monopolistic competition: Medium barriers to entry.
Oligopoly: High barriers to entry.
Monopoly: Very High to Absolute barriers to entry.
QMRInherency is a stock issue in policy debate that refers to a barrier that keeps a harm from being solved in the status quo.[1]
There are four main types of inherency:[2]
Structural inherency: Laws or other barriers to the implementation of the plan. An example of this would be a plan under which the United States federal government imposes unilateral tariffs and quotas to prevent international trade. This plan is inherent because it goes against current World Trade Organization laws.
Gap inherency: Although the present system is aware that the problem exists, the steps in place fail to solve the existing harms. An example of this would be a plan removing all American forces from Afghanistan claiming that, although some troops are being removed from Afghanistan in the status quo, not all troops are being removed and the harms of military presence still exist.
Attitudinal inherency: Beliefs or attitudes which prevent the implementation of the plan. An example of this would be a plan under which the United States federal government eliminates all immigration laws concerning Mexico. This plan is inherent because the general attitude of Americans is that such increases in immigration would increase unemployment.
Existential inherency: Perhaps the strangest of the four, this claims that the plan won't be implemented simply because there is no reason it would be. An example of this would be a plan under which the United States federal government makes playing the board game Monopoly illegal. It may be possible to prove this plan to be a good idea; however, it is inherent and won't happen simply because it hasn't and probably won't.
QMRTypes[edit]
Barrier options are path-dependent exotics that are similar in some ways to ordinary options. You can call or put in American, Bermudan, or European exercise style. But they become activated (or extinguished) only if the underlying reaches a predetermined level (the barrier).
"In" options start their lives worthless and only become active in the event that a predetermined knock-in barrier price is breached. "Out" options start their lives active and become null and void in the event that a certain knock-out barrier price is breached.
If the option expires inactive, then it may be worthless, or there may be a cash rebate paid out as a fraction of the premium.
The four main types of barrier options are:
Up-and-out: spot price starts below the barrier level and has to move up for the option to be knocked out.
Down-and-out: spot price starts above the barrier level and has to move down for the option to become null and void.
Up-and-in: spot price starts below the barrier level and has to move up for the option to become activated.
Down-and-in: spot price starts above the barrier level and has to move down for the option to become activated.
For example, a European call option may be written on an underlying with spot price of $100 and a knockout barrier of $120. This option behaves in every way like a vanilla European call, except if the spot price ever moves above $120, the option "knocks out" and the contract is null and void. Note that the option does not reactivate if the spot price falls below $120 again. Once it is out, it's out for good. Also note that once it's in, it's in for good.
In-out parity is the barrier option's answer to put-call parity. If we combine one "in" option and one "out" barrier option with the same strikes and expirations, we get the price of a vanilla option: C=C_{in}+C_{out}. A simple arbitrage argument—simultaneously holding the "in" and the "out" option guarantees that exactly one of the two will pay off identically to a standard European option while the other will be worthless. The argument only works for European options without rebate.
Ryan Merkle QMR4-H is a global network of youth organizations whose mission is "engaging youth to reach their fullest potential while advancing the field of youth development".[1] In the United States, the organization is administered by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 4-H Canada is an independent non-profit organization overseeing the operation of branches throughout Canada.[2] Throughout the world, 4-H organizations exist in over 50 countries;[3] the organization and administration varies from country to country. Each of these programs operates independently, but cooperatively through international exchanges, global education programs, and communications.
The 4-H name represents four personal development areas of focus for the organization: head, heart, hands, and health. The organization has over 6.5 million members in the United States, from ages 5 to 21, in approximately 90,000 clubs.[4]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe U.S. Department of Justice defines "outlaw motorcycle gangs" (OMG) as "organizations whose members use their motorcycle clubs as conduits for criminal enterprises".[59] Both the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Criminal Intelligence Service Canada have designated four MCs as "outlaw motorcycle gangs"; the Hells Angels, the Pagans, the Outlaws, and the Bandidos,[60][61] known as the "Big Four".[62]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Club of Four was an alliance of four European truck manufacturers: Saviem, Volvo, DAF, and Magirus-Deutz.
QMRHox genes (also known as homeotic genes) are a group of related genes that control the body plan of an embryo along the cranio-caudal (head-tail) axis. After the embryonic segments have formed, the Hox proteins determine the type of segment structures (e.g. legs, antennae, and wings in fruit flies or the different types of vertebrae in humans) that will form on a given segment. Hox proteins thus confer segmental identity, but do not form the actual segments themselves.[1]
Hox genes are defined as having the following properties:
Their protein product is a transcription factor
They contain a DNA sequence known as the homeobox
In many animals, the organization of the Hox genes in the chromosome is the same as the order of their expression along the anterior-posterior axis of the developing animal, and are thus said to display colinearity
Human genes[edit]
Humans have Hox genes in four clusters:
Cluster Chromosome Genes
HOXA chromosome 7 HOXA1, HOXA2, HOXA3, HOXA4, HOXA5, HOXA6, HOXA7, HOXA9, HOXA10, HOXA11, HOXA13
HOXB chromosome 17 HOXB1, HOXB2, HOXB3, HOXB4, HOXB5, HOXB6, HOXB7, HOXB8, HOXB9, HOXB13
HOXC chromosome 12 HOXC4, HOXC5, HOXC6, HOXC8, HOXC9, HOXC10, HOXC11, HOXC12, HOXC13
HOXD chromosome 2 HOXD1, HOXD3, HOXD4, HOXD8, HOXD9, HOXD10, HOXD11, HOXD12, HOXD13
Ryan Merkle The third thoracic segment, or T3, bears a pair of legs and a pair of halteres (highly reduced wings that function in balancing during flight). Ubx patterns T3 largely by repressing genes involved in wing formation. The wing blade is composed of two layers of cells that adhere tightly to one another, and are supplied with nutrient by several wing veins. One of the many genes that Ubx represses is blistered, which activates proteins involved in cell-cell adhesion, and spalt, which patterns the placement of wing veins. In Ubx loss-of-function mutants, Ubx no longer represses wing genes, and the halteres develop as a second pair of wings, resulting in the famous four-winged flies. When Ubx is misexpressed in the second thoracic segment, such as occurs in flies with the "Cbx" enhancer mutation, it represses wing genes, and the wings develop as halteres, resulting in a four-haltered fly.
Ryan Merkle Marketing mix[edit]
Main article: Marketing mix
The marketing mix was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s.[38] It consists of four basic elements called the "four Ps". Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product.[39]
In the 1990s, the concept of four Cs was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of four P's.[40] There are two theories based on four Cs: Lauterborn's four Cs (consumer, cost, communication, convenience) [41] and Shimizu's four Cs (commodity, cost, communication, channel) in the 7Cs Compass Model (Co-marketing). Communications can include advertising, sales promotion, public relations, publicity, personal selling, corporate identity, internal communication, SNS, MIS.[42][43][44][45]
Ryan Merkle QMrOrganizational justice is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct. The four proposed components are distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice. Research also suggests the importance of affect and emotion in the appraisal of the fairness of a situation as well as one’s behavioral and attitudinal reactions to the situation (e.g., Barsky, Kaplan, & Beal, 2011). Much literature in the industrial/organizational psychology field has examined organizational justice as well as the associated outcomes. Perceptions of justice influence many key organizational outcomes such as motivation (Latham & Pinder, 2005) and job satisfaction (Al-Zu’bi, 2010).
Ryan Merkle Proposed models[edit]
Three different models have been proposed to explain the structure of organizational justice perceptions including a two factor model, a three factor model, and a four factor model. Many researchers have studied organizational justice in terms of the three factor model (e.g., DeConinck, 2010; Liljegren & Ekberg, 2010) while others have used a two factor model in which interpersonal justice is subsumed under procedural justice while yet some other studies suggest a four factor model best fits the data (Colquitt, 2001). Greenberg (1990) proposed a two-factor model and Sweeney and McFarlin (1993) found support for a two-factor model composed of distributive and procedural justice. Through the use of structural equation modeling, Sweeney and McFarlin found that distributive justice was related to outcomes that are person-level (e.g., pay satisfaction) while procedural justice was related to organization-level outcomes (e.g., organizational commitment).
The accuracy of the two-factor model was challenged by studies that suggested a third factor (interactional justice) may be involved. Bies and Moag (1986) argue that interactional justice is distinct from procedural justice because it represents the social exchange component of the interaction and the quality of treatment whereas procedural justice represents the processes that were used to arrive at the decision outcomes. Generally researchers are in agreement regarding the distinction between procedural and distributive justice but there is more controversy over the distinction between interactional and procedural justice (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001). Colquitt (2001) demonstrated that a four-factor model (including procedural, distributive, interpersonal, and informational justice) fit the data significantly better than a two or three factor model. Colquitt’s construct validation study also showed that each of the four components have predictive validity for different key organizational outcomes (e.g., commitment and rule compliance).
Another model of organizational justice proposed by Byrne (1999) and colleagues (Byrne & Cropanzano, 2000) suggested that organizational justice is a multi-foci construct, one where employees see justice as coming from a source - either the organization or their supervisor. Thus, rather than focus on justice as the three or four factor component model, Byrne suggested that employees personify the organization and they distinguish between whether they feel the organization or supervisor have treated them fairly (interactional), use fair procedures (procedural), or allocate rewards or assignments fairly (distributive justice). A number of researchers used this model exploring the possibility that justice is more than just 3 or 4 factors (e.g., Karriker & Williams, 2009).
QMRSexual orientation is an enduring pattern of romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. These attractions are generally subsumed under heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality,[1][2] while asexuality (the lack of sexual attraction to others) is sometimes identified as the fourth category.[3][4][5][6]The fourth is always different
QMRRoss, Michael W.; Essien, E. James; Williams, Mark L.; Fernandez-Esquer, Maria Eugenia. (2003). "Concordance Between Sexual Behavior and Sexual Identity in Street Outreach Samples of Four Racial/Ethnic Groups". Sexually Transmitted Diseases (American Sexually Transmitted Diseases Association)
QMRSexual dysfunction disorders may be classified into four categories: sexual desire disorders, arousal disorders, orgasm disorders and pain disorders.
QMRMale echidnas have a four-headed penis.[121] During mating, the heads on one side "shut down" and do not grow in size; the other two are used to release semen into the female's two-branched reproductive tract. The heads used are swapped each time the mammal copulates.[122] When not in use, the penis is retracted inside a preputial sac in the cloaca. The male echidna's penis is 7 centimetres (2.8 in) long when erect, and its shaft is covered with penile spines.[123] The male short-beaked echidna has a highly unusual penis with four knobs on the tip,[124] which is nearly a quarter of his body length when erect.[125] Each side of the bilaterally symmetrical, rosette-like, four-headed penis [similar to that of reptiles and 7 centimetres (2.8 in) in length] is used alternately, with the other half being shut down between ejaculations.[126][127]
QMRThe four-toed hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris), or African pygmy hedgehog, is a species of hedgehog found throughout much of central and eastern Africa.
QMRThere are four different techniques for phalloplasty. All of the techniques involve taking a graft of tissue from a donor site and extending the urethra.
QMRThe urethra is divided into four parts in men, named after the location:
Region Description Epithelium
pre-prostatic urethra This is the intramural part of the urethra and varies between 0.5 and 1.5 cm in length depending on the fullness of the bladder. Transitional
prostatic urethra Crosses through the prostate gland. There are several openings: (1) the ejaculatory duct receives sperm from the vas deferens and ejaculate fluid from the seminal vesicle, (2) several prostatic ducts where fluid from the prostate enters and contributes to the ejaculate, (3) the prostatic utricle, which is merely an indentation. These openings are collectively called the verumontanum. Transitional
membranous urethra A small (1 or 2 cm) portion passing through the external urethral sphincter. This is the narrowest part of the urethra. It is located in the deep perineal pouch. The bulbourethral glands (Cowper's gland) are found posterior to this region but open in the spongy urethra. Pseudostratified columnar
spongy urethra (or penile urethra) Runs along the length of the penis on its ventral (underneath) surface. It is about 15–16 cm in length, and travels through the corpus spongiosum. The ducts from the urethral gland (gland of Littre) enter here. The openings of the bulbourethral glands are also found here.[5] Some textbooks will subdivide the spongy urethra into two parts, the bulbous and pendulous urethra. The urethral lumen runs effectively parallel to the penis, except at the narrowest point, the external urethral meatus, where it is vertical. This produces a spiral stream of urine and has the effect of cleaning the external urethral meatus. The lack of an equivalent mechanism in the female urethra partly explains why urinary tract infections occur so much more frequently in females. Pseudostratified columnar – proximally, Stratified squamous – distally
QMRMysticetes consist of four families: rorquals (balaenopterids), cetotheriids, right whales (balaenids), and gray whales (eschrichtiids)
QMRHumpbacks inhabit all major oceans, in a wide band running from the Antarctic ice edge to 77° N latitude.The four global populations are North Pacific, Atlantic, Southern Ocean, and Indian Ocean populations. These populations are distinct.
QMRAuthorities classify the species into three or four subspecies: B. m. musculus, the northern blue whale consisting of the North Atlantic and North Pacific populations, B. m. intermedia, the southern blue whale of the Southern Ocean, B. m. brevicauda, the pygmy blue whale found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific,[30] and the more problematic B. m. indica, the great Indian rorqual, which is also found in the Indian Ocean and, although described earlier, may be the same subspecies as B. m. brevicauda.[1]
QMRBlue whales off the coast of Sri Lanka have been repeatedly recorded making "songs" of four notes, lasting about two minutes each, reminiscent of the well-known humpback whale songs
QMRGiant beaked whales are two species of beaked whales in the genus Berardius: Arnoux's beaked whale (Berardius arnuxii) in cold Southern Hemisphere waters, and Baird's beaked whale (Berardius bairdii) in the cold temperate waters of the North Pacific. They are the largest of the beaked whales, growing up to 10–12 m in length. They are sometimes referred to as "four-toothed whales" or "giant beaked whales", but are most commonly known by their genus name, Berardius.
QMRIsland of Four Mountains is an island grouping of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska, United States. The chain includes, from west to east, Amukta, Chagulak, Yunaska, Herbert, Carlisle, Chuginadak, Uliaga, and Kagamilislands. This island chain is located between Amukta Pass and the Andreanof Islands to the west, and Samalga Pass and the Fox Islands to the east. These islands have a total land area of 210.656 sq mi (545.596 km²) and have no permanent population.[1] The two largest islands are Yunaska and Chuginadak. Chuginadak is mainly made up of the active volcano Mount Cleveland.[2]
The name is translated from Russian Четырехсопочные Острова (Ostrova Chetyre Soposhnye) meaning "Islands of Four Volcanoes" (Sarichev, 1826, map 3) and was applied by the early Russian explorers because of four prominent volcanoes located on four of the islands. The Aleut name "Unigun" (Uniiĝun[3] in the modern Aleut orthography) was reported in 1940 by Father Veniaminov. There appears to be confusion regarding the names of these islands, possibly because only four of the five are on most early maps and charts. The present names were gathered in 1894 by a field party on the USS Concord and published in 1895 by the U.S. Navy Hydrography Office (Chart 8).[4] This is the first island in the aleutian time zone 1 hour behind Alaska with daylight saving time as of 2010.
qMRFour dwarf minke whales were attached with satellite tags off Lizard Island, on the Great Barrier Reef, in July 2013. All four followed the coastline south. Two stopped transmitting off southern Queensland, while the other two traveled west through the Bass Strait. The third soon stopped transmitting as well. The fourth ceased sending signals on 11 October, by which time it had reached 54°23'S, traveling some 6,000 km (3,700 mi) from its original tagging location.[74]
QMRIn some societies and among some anthropologists, color terminology was used to label races, sometimes in addition to a non-color term for the same race. Identifying races in terms of their human skin color has been common since at least the Physiognomica falsely attributed to Aristotle.
Other scientists were more cautious about such categorization, and Charles Darwin argued that the number of categories, or in this case the number of different colors, is completely arbitrary and subjective. For example, some claimed three distinct colors, some four
One of the earlier uses of the concept of “black” as a metaphor for race was first used at the end of the 17th century when a French doctor named François Bernier (1625–1688), an early proponent of scientific racism, divided up humanity based on facial appearance and body type. He proposed four categories: Europeans, Far Easterners, Lapps, and Blacks.[2] The first major scientific model was created in the 18th century when Carolus Linnaeus recognized four main races: Europeanus which he labeled the white race, Asiaticus, which he labeled the yellow race, Americanus, which he labeled the red race, and Africanus, which he labeled the black race.[3]
North America[edit]
Among the natives of North America, stylized medicine wheels are typically depicted[citation needed]
Ambox globe content.svg
This article may not provide balanced geographical coverage on the region in question. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page. (August 2013)
Unbalanced scales.svg
with four colors associated with not only cardinal direction, but also with color of race:
North: White
South: Black
East: Yellow
West: Red
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