Quadrant Model of Reality Book 25 Art

Art Chapter

QMRThe Monument of the Four Moors (Italian: Monumento dei Quattro mori) is located in Livorno, Italy. It was completed in 1626 to commemorate the victories of Ferdinand I of Tuscany over the Ottomans.[1] It is the most famous monument of Livorno and is located in Piazza Micheli.[2] Created by Pietro Tacca, the monument took its name from the four bronze statues of "Moorish" slaves that are found at the base of an earlier work consisting of the statue of Ferdinando I and its monumental pedestal.[2]

QMRFontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Fountain of the Four Rivers) is a fountain in the Piazza Navona in Rome, Italy. It was designed in 1651 by Gian Lorenzo Bernini for Pope Innocent X whose family palace, the Palazzo Pamphili, faced onto the piazza as did the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone of which Innocent was the sponsor. The base of the fountain is a basin from the centre of which travertine rocks rise to support four river gods and above them, an ancient Egyptian obelisk surmounted with the Pamphili family emblem of a dove with an olive twig. Collectively, they represent four major rivers of the four continents through which papal authority had spread: the Nile representing Africa, the Danube representing Europe, the Ganges representing Asia, and the Río de la Plata representing the Americas.

Painting Chapter

QMRThe Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs is a porphyry sculpture group of four Roman emperors dating from around 300 AD. Since the Middle Ages it has been fixed to a corner of the facade of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, Italy. It probably originally formed part of the decorations of the Philadelphion in Constantinople.

Subject[edit] The Roman Empire was for a time after 293 ruled by a tetrarchy (a group of four rulers), instituted by Emperor Diocletian. The tetrarchy consisted of two Augusti (senior emperors) and two Caesars (younger emperors). The empire was territorially divided into western and eastern halves, with a senior and a junior emperor in each half. After Diocletian and his colleague, Maximian, retired in 305, internal strife erupted among the tetrarchs. The system finally ceased to exist around 313. The Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs symbolizes the concept of the tetrarchy, rather than providing four personal portraits. Each tetrarch looks the same, without any individualized characteristics, except that two, probably representing the older Augusti, have beards, and two do not who might have symbolized the Caesars. The group is divided into pairs, each embracing, which unites Augusti and Caesars together. The overall effect suggests unity and stability. The very choice of material, the durable porphyry (which came from Egypt), symbolizes a permanence of the kind reminiscent of Egyptian statuary and the early Kouros figures. Porphyry was rare and reserved for imperial use.[1][2]

QMRThe Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs is a porphyry sculpture group of four Roman emperors dating from around 300 AD. Since the Middle Ages it has been fixed to a corner of the facade of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, Italy. It probably originally formed part of the decorations of the Philadelphion in Constantinople.

QMRRanuccio also describes the oldest painting to be found in Rome, in a tomb on the Esquiline Hill: It describes a historical scene, on a clear background, painted in four superimposed sections. Several people are identified, such Marcus Fannius and Marcus Fabius. These are larger than the other figures ... In the second zone, to the left, is a city encircled with crenellated walls, in front of which is a large warrior equipped with an oval buckler and a feathered helmet; near him is a man in a short tunic, armed with a spear...Around these two are smaller soldiers in short tunics, armed with spears...In the lower zone a battle is taking place, where a warrior with oval buckler and a feathered helmet is shown larger than the others, whose weapons allow to assume that these are probably Samnites.

QMRThe Pompeian Styles are four periods which are distinguished in ancient Roman mural painting. They were originally delineated and described by the German archaeologist August Mau, 1840 – 1909, from the excavation of wall paintings at Pompeii, which is one of the largest group of surviving examples of Roman frescoes. The wall painting styles have allowed art historians to delineate the various phases of interior decoration in the centuries leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD, which both destroyed the city and preserved the paintings, and between stylistic shifts in Roman art. In the succession of styles, there is a reiteration of stylistic themes. The paintings also tell a great deal about the prosperity of the area and specific tastes during the times. The main purpose of these frescoes was to reduce the claustrophobic interiors of Roman rooms, which were windowless and dark. The paintings, full of color and life, brightened up the interior and made the room feel more spacious.

First Style[edit] Fresco in the First style, from Ercolano The First style, also referred to as structural, incrustation or masonry style, was most popular from 200 BC until 80 BC. It is characterized by the simulation of marble (marble veneering), with other simulated elements (e.g. suspended alabaster discs in vertical lines, 'wooden' beams in yellow and 'pillars' and 'cornices' in white), and the use of vivid color, both being a sign of wealth. This style was a replica of that found in the Ptolemaic palaces of the near east, where the walls were inset with real stones and marbles, and also reflects the spread of Hellenistic culture as Rome interacted and conquered other Greek and Hellenistic states in this period. Mural reproductions of Greek paintings are also found. This style divided the wall into various, multi-colored patterns that took the place of extremely expensive cut stone. The First Style was also used with other styles for decorating the lower sections of walls that were not seen as much as the higher levels. An example would be the wall painting in the Samnite House in Herculaneum (late 2nd century BC).

Second Style[edit] Still life in the Second style. Fresco from the home of Julia Felix, Pompeii The Second style, architectural style, or 'illusionism' dominated the 1st century BC, where walls were decorated with architectural features and trompe l'oeil (trick of the eye) compositions. Early on, elements of this style are reminiscent of the First Style, but this slowly starts to be substituted element by element. This technique consists of highlighting elements to pass them off as three-dimensional realities - columns for example, dividing the wall-space into zones - and was a method widely used by the Romans. It is characterized by use of relative perspective (not precise linear perspective because this style involves mathematical concepts and scientific proportions like that of the Renaissance) to create trompe l'oeil in wall paintings. The picture plane was pushed farther back into the wall by painted architectonic features such as Ionic columns or stage platforms. These wall paintings counteracted the claustrophobic nature of the small, windowless rooms of Roman houses. Images and landscapes began to be introduced to the first style around 90 BC, and gained ground from 70 BC onwards, along with illusionistic and architectonic motives. Decoration had to give the greatest possible impression of depth. Imitations of images appeared, at first in the higher section, then (after 50 BC) in the background of landscapes which provided a stage for mythological stories, theatrical masks, or decorations. During the reign of Augustus, the style evolved. False architectural elements opened up wide expanses with which to paint artistic compositions. A structure inspired by stage sets developed, whereby one large central tableau is flanked by two smaller ones. In this style, the illusionistic tendency continued, with a 'breaking up' of walls with painted architectural elements or scenes. The landscape elements eventually took over to cover the entire wall, with no framing device, so it looked to the viewer as if he or she was merely looking out of a room onto a real scene. Basically, the more developed Second Style was the antithesis of the First Style. Instead on confining and strengthening the walls, the goal was to break down the wall to show scenes of nature and the outside world. Much of the depth of the mature Second Style comes from the use of aerial (atmospheric) perspective that blurred the appearance of objects further away. Thus, the foreground is rather precise while the background is somewhat indistinctly purple, blue, and gray. One of the most recognized and unique pieces representing the Second Style is the Dionysiac mystery frieze in the Villa of the Mysteries. This work depicts the Dionysian Cult that was made mostly women. In the scene, however,one boy is depicted. Fashionable particularly from the 40s BC onwards, it began to wane in the final decades BC. An example is the architectural painting at the Villa Boscoreale at Boscoreale (c. 40 BC).

Third Style[edit] Fresco in the Third style, from Casa della Farnesina in Trastevere The Third style, or ornate style, was popular around 20–10 BC as a reaction to the austerity of the previous period. It leaves room for more figurative and colorful decoration, with an overall more ornamental feeling, and often presents great finesse in execution. This style is typically noted as simplistically elegant. Its main characteristic was departure from illusionistic devices, although these (along with figural representation) later crept back into this style. It obeyed strict rules of symmetry dictated by the central element, dividing the wall into 3 horizontal and 3 to 5 vertical zones. The vertical zones would be divided up by geometric motifs or bases, or slender columns of foliage hung around candelabra. Delicate motifs of birds or semi-fantastical animals appeared in the background. Plants and characteristically Egyptian animals were often introduced, part of the Egyptomania in Roman art after Augustus' defeat of Cleopatra and annexation of Egypt in 30 BC. These paintings were decorated with delicate linear fantasies, predominantly monochromatic, that replaced the three-dimensional worlds of the Second Style. An example is the Villa of Livia in Prima Porta outside of Rome (c. 30–20 BC). Also included in this style are paintings similar to the one found in Cubiculum 15 of the Villa of Agrippa Postumus in Boscotrecase (c. 10 BC). These involve a delicate architectural frame over a blank, monochromatic background with only a small scene located in the middle, like a tiny floating landscape. It was found in Rome until 40 AD and in the Pompeii area until 60 AD.

Fourth Style[edit] Fresco in the Fourth style, from House of the Vettii Characterized as a baroque reaction to the Third Style's mannerism, the Fourth Style in Roman wall painting (c. 60–79 AD) is generally less ornamented than its predecessor. The style was, however, much more complex. It revives large-scale narrative painting and panoramic vistas while retaining the architectural details of the Second and First Styles. In the Julio-Claudian phase (c. 20–54 AD), a textile like quality dominates and tendrils seem to connect all the elements on the wall. The colors warm up once again, and they are used to advantage in the depiction of scenes drawn from mythology. The overall feeling of the walls typically formed a mosaic of framed pictures that took up entire walls. The lower zones of these walls tended to be composed of the First Style. Panels were also used with floral designs on the walls. A prime example of the Fourth Style is the Ixion Room in the House of the Vettii in Pompeii. One of the largest contributions seen in the Fourth Style is the advancement of still life with intense space and light. Shading was very important in the Roman still life. This style was never truly seen again until 17th and 18th centuries with the Dutch. It was also used in the 17th and 18th centuries with the English

QMRThe Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anti-classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice

QMRRoman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting and sculpture, but was also strongly influenced by the more local Etruscan art of Italy. Roman sculpture, is primarily portraiture derived from the upper classes of society as well as depictions of the gods. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. Among surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy, especially at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Such painting can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods[14] and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'oeil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape.[15]

QMRThe Minoan culture is regarded as the oldest civilization in Europe.[12] The Minoan culture existed in Crete and consisted of four periods: Prepalatial, Protopalatial, Neopalatial, and the Postpalatial period between 3650 BC and 1100 BC.

QMREuropean prehistoric art is an important part of the European cultural heritage.[4] Prehistoric art history is usually divided into four main periods: Stone age, Neolithic, Bronze age, and Iron age. Most of the remaining artifacts of this period are small sculptures and cave paintings.

QMRDescribing his painting, The Night Café, to his brother Theo in 1888, Van Gogh wrote: "I sought to express with red and green the terrible human passions. The hall is blood red and pale yellow, with a green billiard table in the center, and four lamps of lemon yellow, with rays of orange and green. Everywhere it is a battle and antithesis of the most different reds and greens.

Van Gogh wrote many letters to his brother Theo van Gogh, and often included details of his latest work. The artist wrote his brother more than once about The Night Café. According to Meyer Schapiro,[6] "there are few works on which [Van Gogh] has written with more conviction." In one of the letters[5][7] he describes this painting: “ I have tried to express the terrible passions of humanity by means of red and green. The room is blood red and dark yellow with a green billiard table in the middle; there are four lemon-yellow lamps with a glow of orange and green. Everywhere there is a clash and contrast of the most alien reds and greens, in the figures of little sleeping hooligans, in the empty dreary room, in violet and blue. The blood-red and the yellow-green of the billiard table, for instance, contrast with the soft tender Louis XV green of the counter, on which there is a rose nosegay. The white clothes of the landlord, watchful in a corner of that furnace, turn lemon-yellow, or pale luminous green.

QMRAryabhatiya Main article: Aryabhatiya Direct details of Aryabhata's work are known only from the Aryabhatiya. The name "Aryabhatiya" is due to later commentators. Aryabhata himself may not have given it a name. His disciple Bhaskara I calls it Ashmakatantra (or the treatise from the Ashmaka). It is also occasionally referred to as Arya-shatas-aShTa (literally, Aryabhata's 108), because there are 108 verses in the text. It is written in the very terse style typical of sutra literature, in which each line is an aid to memory for a complex system. Thus, the explication of meaning is due to commentators. The text consists of the 108 verses and 13 introductory verses, and is divided into four pādas or chapters: Gitikapada: (13 verses): large units of time—kalpa, manvantra, and yuga—which present a cosmology different from earlier texts such as Lagadha's Vedanga Jyotisha (c. 1st century BCE). There is also a table of sines (jya), given in a single verse. The duration of the planetary revolutions during a mahayuga is given as 4.32 million years. Ganitapada (33 verses): covering mensuration (kṣetra vyāvahāra), arithmetic and geometric progressions, gnomon / shadows (shanku-chhAyA), simple, quadratic, simultaneous, and indeterminate equations (kuṭṭaka). Kalakriyapada (25 verses): different units of time and a method for determining the positions of planets for a given day, calculations concerning the intercalary month (adhikamAsa), kShaya-tithis, and a seven-day week with names for the days of week. Golapada (50 verses): Geometric/trigonometric aspects of the celestial sphere, features of the ecliptic, celestial equator, node, shape of the earth, cause of day and night, rising of zodiacal signs on horizon, etc. In addition, some versions cite a few colophons added at the end, extolling the virtues of the work, etc. The Aryabhatiya presented a number of innovations in mathematics and astronomy in verse form, which were influential for many centuries. The extreme brevity of the text was elaborated in commentaries by his disciple Bhaskara I (Bhashya, c. 600 CE) and by Nilakantha Somayaji in his Aryabhatiya Bhasya, (1465 CE).

QMRIce on lakes Ice forms on calm water from the shores, a thin layer spreading across the surface, and then downward. Ice on lakes is generally four types: Primary, secondary, superimposed and agglomerate.[15][16] Primary ice forms first. Secondary ice forms below the primary ice in a direction parallel to the direction of the heat flow. Superimposed ice forms on top of the ice surface from rain or water which seeps up through cracks in the ice which often settles when loaded with snow. Shelf ice' occurs when floating pieces of ice are driven by the wind piling up on the windward shore. Candle ice is a form of rotten ice that develops in columns perpendicular to the surface of a lake.

QMRDecline of the Ottoman Empire period[edit] See also: Departure from the walls Jews in Jerusalem 1895 In the mid-19th century, with the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the city was a backwater, with a population that did not exceed 8,000. Nevertheless, it was, even then, an extremely heterogeneous city because of its significance to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The population was divided into four major communities – Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Armenian – and the first three of these could be further divided into countless subgroups, based on precise religious affiliation or country of origin. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, was meticulously partitioned between the Greek Orthodox, Catholic, Armenian, Coptic, and Ethiopian churches. Tensions between the groups ran so deep that the keys to the shrine and its doors were safeguarded by a pair of 'neutral' Muslim families. At that time, the communities were located mainly around their primary shrines. The Muslim community surrounded the Haram ash-Sharif or Temple Mount (northeast), the Christians lived mainly in the vicinity of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (northwest), the Jews lived mostly on the slope above the Western Wall (southeast), and the Armenians lived near the Zion Gate (southwest). In no way was this division exclusive, however, it did form the basis of the four quarters during the British Mandate period (1917–1948).

QMRGildas described how the Saxons were later slaughtered at the battle of Mons Badonicus 44 years before he wrote his history, and Britain reverted to Romano-British rule. The 8th century English historian Bede disagreed with Gildas, stating that the Saxon invasions continued after the battle of Mons Badonicus, including also Jutish and Anglic expeditions. He said these resulted in a swift overrunning of the entirety of South-Eastern Britain, and the foundation of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Four separate Saxon realms emerged: East Saxons: created the Kingdom of Essex. Middle Saxons: created the province of Middlesex South Saxons: led by Aelle, created the Kingdom of Sussex West Saxons: created the Kingdom of Wessex During the period of the reigns from Egbert to Alfred the Great, the kings of Wessex emerged as Bretwalda, unifying the country. They eventually organised it as the kingdom of England in the face of Viking invasions.

QMRTheoretical works[edit] In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language rather than in Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language. For example, 'Schneckenlinie' ('snail-line') was his term for a spiral form. Thus, Dürer contributed to the expansion in German prose which Martin Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible.[18] Four Books on Measurement[edit] Dürer's work on geometry is called the Four Books on Measurement (Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt or Instructions for Measuring with Compass and Ruler).[27] The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's 'Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis' of 1522. The second book moves onto two dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular polygons. Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. In architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of polyhedra. Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular solids, as well as several of his own invention. In all these, Dürer shows the objects as nets. Finally, Dürer discusses the Delian Problem and moves on to the 'construzione legittima', a method of depicting a cube in two dimensions through linear perspective. It was in Bologna that Dürer was taught (possibly by Luca Pacioli or Bramante) the principles of linear perspective, and evidently became familiar with the 'costruzione legittima' in a written description of these principles found only, at this time, in the unpublished treatise of Piero della Francesca. He was also familiar with the 'abbreviated construction' as described by Alberti and the geometrical construction of shadows, a technique of Leonardo da Vinci. Although Dürer made no innovations in these areas, he is notable as the first Northern European to treat matters of visual representation in a scientific way, and with understanding of Euclidean principles. In addition to these geometrical constructions, Dürer discusses in this last book of Underweysung der Messung an assortment of mechanisms for drawing in perspective from models and provides woodcut illustrations of these methods that are often reproduced in discussions of perspective. Four Books on Human Proportion[edit] Dürer's work on human proportions is called the Four Books on Human Proportion (Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion) of 1528. The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of, "two to three hundred living persons,"[18] in his own words. The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an Albertian system, which Dürer probably learned from Francesco di Giorgio's 'De harmonica mundi totius' of 1525. In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of convex and concave mirrors; here Dürer also deals with human physiognomy. The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement. Appended to the last book, however, is a self-contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ('Nutz'), naïve approval ('Wohlgefallen') and the happy medium ('Mittelmass'). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but also as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'.[18] In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that "one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole

Description[edit] External video Albrecht Dürer - The Four Holy Men (detail) - WGA07027.jpg Smarthistory - Dürer's Four Apostles When Dürer moved back to Nuremberg he produced many famous paintings there, including several self-portraits. He gave The Four Apostles to the town council. Saints John and Peter appear in the left panel; the figures in the right panel are Saints Mark and Paul. Mark and Paul both hold Bibles, and John and Peter are shown reading from the opening page of John's own Gospel. At the bottom of each panel, quotations from the Bible are inscribed.[1] The apostles are recognizable by their symbols: St. John the Evangelist: open book St. Peter: keys St. Mark: scroll St. Paul: sword and closed book They are also associated with the four temperaments. St. John: sanguine St. Peter: phlegmatic St. Mark: choleric St. Paul: melancholy Historical context[edit] The Four Apostles was created during the Reformation, begun in 1517 and having the largest initial impact on Germany. As it was a Protestant belief that icons were contradictory to the Word of God, which was held in the utmost supremacy over Protestant ideas, the Protestant church was not a patron of any sacred art. Therefore, any Protestant artist, like Dürer became, had to commission their own works. Many aspects of the image depicted prove significant in light of the Reformation itself.[1]

QMRThe Four Apostles is a panel painting by the German Renaissance master Albrecht Dürer. It was finished in 1526, and is the last of his large works. It depicts the four apostles larger-than-life-size. The Bavarian Elector Maximilian I obtained The Four Apostles in the year 1627 due to pressure on the Nuremberg city fathers. Since then, the painting has been in Munich and, despite all the efforts of Nuremberg since 1806, it has not been returned.

QMRThe Four Witches (German: Die Vier Hexen, or Four Naked Women[1] or Four Sorceresses[2]) is a 1497 engraving by the German Renaissance master Albrecht Dürer. The work shows four sensual, exuberant nude women gathered conspiratorially in a circle underneath a hanging ball and before an open stone window. The window, as indicated by bones scattered across from it, is likely a gateway to death. The portal to the right shows a demon's face engulfed in flames, and is likely intended as a gateway to hell.[3] The woman from the second right most likely represents Discordia, the goddess of discord, who threw an apple amongst Juno, Minerva and Venus and thus ignited the Trojan war.

As with many of Dürer's engravings, the intended meaning or source is unclear; possible interpretations range from the four seasons and the four elements, to Aphrodite (represented here by the woman to the right wearing a myrtle wreath)[1] and the Graces, the Three Fates, or more simply four witches or four girls in a brothel. The most accepted meaning is that the work was created as an allegorical warning against discord - that disagreement leads invariable to hell and death. The positioning of the women matches a marble group of the three graces known to the quattrocento, and likely Dürer would have seen it from copies.[3] The ball hanging above the figures bears the letters "OGH" - meaning "Odium generis humani/odium of the human race", or possibly "Oh Gott hüte" (Oh God Forbid). The art historian Marcel Briton suggests that the work may not have any specific meaning, and is merely a portrait of four nudes, "the whim of a young artist annoyed by the puritanical conventionality of his fellow-citizens".[2] The drawing has been copied and adapted a number of times; the Austrian artist Adolf Frohner (b. 1934) produced a version where the women are shown wearing bras and garter belts.[4]

QMRMoritz Thausing suggested that Dürer created Knight, Death and the Devil as part of a four-work cycle, designed to illustrate the four temperaments. According to Thausing, Knight, Death and the Devil was intended to represent sanguinity, hence the "S" engraved in the work.[14] It is generally believed that the portrayal is a literal, though pointed, celebration of the knight's Christian faith, and also of the ideals of Humanism. An alternative interpretation was presented in 1970 by writer Sten Karling, when he suggested that the work did not seek to glorify the knight, but instead depict a "robber Baron". Karling points to the lack of Christian or religious symbolism in the work and to the fox's tail wrapped on top the knight's lance – in Greek legend[15] the fox's tail was a symbol of greed, cunning and treachery, as well as lust and whoring.[10] Actually, knights were commonly depicted in contemporary art with a fox tail tied to the tip of their lance. Moreover the fox tail was a common form of protective amulet.[16]

QMRFour Horsemen of the Apocalypse - Conquest, War, Famine & Death, an 1887 painting by Victor Vasnetsov. The Lamb is visible at the top.

The first horseman, Conquest on the White Horse as depicted in the Bamberg Apocalypse (1000-1020). The first "living creature" (with halo) is seen in the upper right.

Albrecht Dürer, Knight, Death and the Devil, 1513

The second horseman, War on the Red Horse as depicted in a thirteenth-century Apocalypse manuscript

The third horseman, Famine on the Black Horse as depicted in the Angers Apocalypse Tapestry (1372-82)

Gustave Doré -The fourth horseman, Death on the Pale Horse (1865)

The Horsemen of the Apocalypse, depicted in a woodcut by Albrecht Dürer (ca. 1497–98), ride forth as a group, with an angel heralding them, to bring Death, Famine, War, and Conquest unto man.[35]

Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, Saint-Sever Beatus, 11th century.

QMRThe Four Horsemen of The Apocalypse (Spanish: Los cuatro jinetes del Apocalipsis) is a novel by the Spanish author Vicente Blasco Ibáñez, first published in 1916, which tells a tangled tale of the French and German sons-in-law of an Argentinian land-owner who find themselves fighting on opposite sides in the First World War. Its 1918 English translation by Charlotte Brewster Jordan became the best-selling novel in the U.S in 1919 according to Publishers Weekly, who hailed it as "a superbly human story told by a genius". The novel was included in the list of 100 best novels of the twentieth century by the Spanish newspaper El Mundo.[1]

The "Four Horsemen"[edit] The allegorical reference to the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse is stated by "Tchernoff," a man occupying one of the rooms of the apartment building where Julio resides. Tchernoff is "a Russian or Pole who almost always returned with a package of books, and passed many hours writing near the patio window" (in spite of the initial ambiguity as to his nationality, he is thereafter described as a Russian, and a Socialist).[2] At the end of Part I, as Tchernoff, Julio Desnoyers, and their friend Argensola watch the French soldiers leave for battle, the inebriated Tchernoff begins a wild monologue: Suddenly he leaped from thought to word without any forewarning, continuing aloud the course of his reasoning. "And when the sun arises in a few hours, the world will see coursing through its fields the four horsemen, enemies of mankind. . . . Already their wild steeds are pawing the ground with impatience; already the ill-omened riders have come together and are exchanging the last words before leaping into the saddle." Tchernoff goes on to describe the beast of the Apocalypse, and then the four horsemen who precede it: Plague (or Conquest), War, Famine, and Death. Part I ends with the statement, "The agony of humanity, under the brutal sweep of the four horsemen, was already begun!" At the end of the novel, when Marcelo Desnoyers is at the grave of his son Julio, Desnoyers has come to believe that "there was no justice; the world was ruled by blind chance," and he has a vision of the four horsemen, threatening to trample the earth once more: "All the rest was a dream. The four horsemen were the reality. . . ."

QMRThe Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse are described in the last book of the New Testament of the Bible, called the Book of Revelation of Jesus Christ to John the Apostle. Saint John the Apostle at 6:1-8. The chapter tells of a book or scroll in God's right hand that is sealed with seven seals. The Lamb of God, or Lion of Judah (Jesus Christ), opens the first four of the seven seals, which summons four beings that ride out on white, red, black, and pale horses. Although some interpretations differ, in most accounts, the four riders are seen as symbolizing Conquest,[1] War,[2] Famine,[3] and Death, respectively. The Christian apocalyptic vision is that the four horsemen are to set a divine apocalypse upon the world as harbingers of the Last Judgment.[1][4] One reading ties the four horsemen to the history of the Roman Empire subsequent to the era in which the Book of Revelation was written. That is, they are a symbolic prophecy of the subsequent history of the empire.

QMRFour horsemen of the Apocalypse by Albrecht Dürer

Music Chapter

QMRHigh school[edit] The Drum Major of the Cary High School Marching Band prepares to lead his band onto the field at the 2009 USSBA Grand Nationals. Based on how large the band is, high school marching bands have anywhere from one to four drum majors who are responsible for conducting and leading the band.

QMRWagner's bass trumpet[edit] Richard Wagner's first intention for Der Ring des Nibelungen was a bass trumpet in 13' E♭, based on the instruments he would have come across during his dealings with military bands. However, while the opening section of Das Rheingold might indicate the use of such an instrument, the part quickly rises to G♭5, which would be the nineteenth partial on this long instrument; Wagner understood brass instruments very well and saw that this was impractical. While it was argued during the late nineteenth century (Oskar Franz: Zeitschrift für Instrumentenbau, 1884) that the instrument in question was actually pitched an octave higher, the instrument actually built by Moritz of Berlin on Wagner's personal instruction for the Munich theatre (according to Zeitschrift für Instrumentenbau, 1908) was pitched in 8' C with crooks for B♭ and A and sounded one octave lower than written. The records of Moritz were not preserved, though a wide-bell bass trumpet with military-band proportions in 8' C with B♭ and A crooks does make an appearance in their post-1900 catalogue, while Gebrüder Alexander of Mainz offered a narrow-bore model in either E♭ or C. The model normally used today is in 8' C with four rotary valves, and is played by a trombonist owing to the size of the mouthpiece. Bass trumpets in E♭ are usually played by trumpeters as the mouthpiece is closer in size to that of the standard B♭ trumpet.

QMRA clarinet choir is an instrumental ensemble consisting entirely of instruments from the clarinet family. Typically it will include E♭, B♭, alto, bass, and contra-alto or contrabass clarinets, although some pieces are scored for a smaller set of instruments. Natalia Forrest writes on her web site:[1] The sound has been described by some music fans as resembling a concert organ. Popular across the globe, choirs of clarinets play both arrangements of well known pieces and increasingly music written specifically for this type of clarinet ensemble. There is no set number of members to a choir of clarinets. Some professional choirs, have as little as 10 members, others have up to 40. Therefore in practice, in total size it may range from a chamber group of five to eight or so players to a band of forty or more. Such an ensemble of instruments with varied ranges but uniform timbre may be thought of as a woodwind equivalent to the string orchestra. In addition to these full-fledged choirs, there are clarinet trios, clarinet quartets, and clarinet quintets, usually consisting of two to four B♭ clarinets and one bass clarinet.

QMR"Four Brothers" (1947) is a jazz standard composed by Jimmy Giuffre and performed by the Woody Herman Orchestra.[1]:336[2] The song features four saxes (three tenors and one baritone) in an arrangement that gives each "brother" a solo and culminates in a hard-swinging sax section chorus. The song so typifies the sound of Woody Herman's second "Herd" that the band is also known as the Four Brothers Band.[1]:336[2] The title also refers to the four musicians that played in the original version: Stan Getz, Zoot Sims, Herbie Steward, and Serge Chaloff.[1]:336[2] All four played in a light-vibrato style that was originated by Lester Young of the Count Basie Orchestra and popularized by Stan Getz. An a cappella rendition with full lyrics was recorded by Realtime as the title track of a 2004 CD. A vocal version was also released by The Manhattan Transfer on their 1978 album Pastiche. This version was based on the arrangement that Lambert, Hendricks and Ross used in the 1950s. Marian McPartland also recorded a live version on piano in 1959. Anita O'Day recorded scat versions of "Four Brothers" in the 1950s and 1960s, in which she took the place of one of the four saxophone players and scatted with the other three. The King Sisters, also in the 50s and 60s, had a nice version of "Four Brothers."

QMRThe jazz saxophone quartet is usually made up of one B♭ soprano, one E♭ alto, one B♭ tenor and one E♭ baritone (SATB). On occasion, the soprano is replaced with a second alto sax (AATB); a few professional saxophone quartets have featured non-standard instrumentation, such as James Fei's Alto Quartet[10] (four altos) and Hamiet Bluiett's Bluiett Baritone Nation (four baritones). Recently, the World Saxophone Quartet has become known as the preeminent jazz saxophone quartet.

QMRThe saxophone first gained popularity in one of the uses it was designed for: the military band. Although the instrument was studiously ignored in Germany at first, French and Belgian military bands took full advantage of the instrument that Sax had designed. Most French and Belgian military bands incorporate at least a quartet of saxophones comprising at least the E♭ baritone, B♭ tenor, E♭ alto and B♭ soprano. These four instruments have proved the most popular of all of Sax's creations, with the E♭ contrabass and B♭ bass usually considered impractically large and the E♭ sopranino insufficiently powerful. British military bands tend to include at minimum two saxophonists on the alto and tenor. Today, the saxophone is used in military bands all around the world

QMRIn Bruckner's Eighth and Ninth Symphonies, the four Wagner tubas are played by four players who alternate between playing horn and Wagner tuba, which is the same procedure Wagner used in the Ring. This change is simplified by the fact that the horn and Wagner tuba use the same mouthpiece and same fingering. Where on the orchestral score the Wagner tubas are placed depend on who plays them. The euphonium is often used as a substitute in modern orchestras, but the psychoacoustical difference between the two instruments is so substantial as to be noticeable

QMRThe Four-Valve Compensating System by David Werden NEW: An interactive version of this page is available as an Animated Movie. Click here to see the Animated version... Interactive version of the Compensating Article All brass instruments share some common characteristics. They are all essentially tubes, at one end of which is found a musician vibrating his lips in order to produce a tone. Played in this way, any tube (even a length of garden hose) will produce a series of widely spaced notes, known as the "partial series." With no other means of pitch adjustment, the musician could play only melodies as simple as bugle calls (a standard bugle is, in fact, just that simple an instrument). In order to fill in between these notes, brass instruments employ either a series of valves or a fully movable slide (as on the trombone). This discussion deals with valve systems. The valve is a device which, when depressed, detours the sound waves through an extra length of tubing. This action (which has the same effect as extending a trombone's slide) causes the working length of the instrument to become longer, thereby lowering the pitch. The valves of virtually all instruments in use today are set up in the same way: the 2nd valve lowers the pitch 1/2 step, the 1st valve lowers the pitch 1 step (2 half steps), and the 3rd valve lowers the pitch 1-1/2 steps (3 half steps). If there is a 4th valve it will lower the pitch by 2-1/2 steps (5 half steps). Usually unnoticed by the musician, a great deal of mathematics is going on under his fingertips. Based on acoustical theory, each time the player wishes to lower the pitch by 1/2 step, he must increase the working length of the instrument by approximately 6%. For the sake of mathematical convenience, imagine an instrument with a basic length of 100" when no valves are depressed (this is only slightly longer than a Bb euphonium). If the 2nd valve is to lower the pitch by 1/2 step, its tubing would then have to be 6" long (6% x 100"). The total working length is now 106". To lower the pitch another 1/2 step below this level, the instrument needs an additional 6.36" of tubing (6% x 106" = 6.36"). Therefore, in order for the 1st valve to be capable of lowering the pitch of the basic instrument by 1 step, its tubing should be 12.36" long (6" + 6.36"). With just the 1st valve depressed, the total working length is now 112.36". For another 1/2 step below this level, an additional 6.74" of tubing (6% x 112.36") is necessary. Therefore, the 3rd valve's tubing should be 19.1 " long (12.36 + 6.74) in order to produce the desired 1-1/2 step change. As seen in the preceding paragraph, changes of 1/2 step, 1 whole step, and 1-1/2 steps, require adding 6%, 12.36%, and 19.1% respectively to the working length of the instrument. While each of the 3 valves can be designed to provide exactly the length needed when it is used alone, a conflict arises when 2 or 3 valves are used at the same time. Using the example of a 100" instrument, the working length with the 3rd valve depressed would be 119.1". To lower the pitch by 1 step from this point, 12.36% must be added to its length, which in this case would be 14.7" (12.36% x 119.1 " = 14.7"). Since the 1st valve's tubing is only 12.36" long, the 1 & 3 combination will be quite sharp. Because of similar discrepancies, 2 & 3 will be slightly sharp and 1, 2 & 3 will be a full 1/4 step sharp. The problem becomes more severe with 4-valve instruments. The 4th valve alone is used in place of 1 & 3, and can be designed to provide the 33.8" (in the case of a 100" instrument) necessary to lower the pitch a perfect fourth (5 half steps). Also, the 2nd and 4th valves can be used together as a satisfactory substitute for the troublesome 1, 2 & 3 combination. However, below this pitch level the problems become severe. For example, with the 4th valve depressed the instrument's working length is 133.8". To lower the pitch another whole step, an additional 16.5" (12.36% x 133.8") would have to be added, but the 1st valve can provide only 12.36", leaving the pitch quite sharp. However, 1 & 2 together would add 18.36", making the pitch somewhat flat. With just the 4th valve depressed, lowering the pitch by a diminished fifth (6 half steps) would require the addition of 55.9" (41.8% x 133.8"). Unfortunately, the 1st, 2nd & 3rd valves together only add up to 37.46", and can produce slightly less than 5 half steps of pitch change below the 4th valve alone. On a Bb instrument such as the euphonium, all 4 valves together produce a slightly sharp C, leaving a low B unavailable. Consequently, a full chromatic scale between the 1st and 2nd partials is not possible. While mechanical devices (such as lever-operated tuning slides) may be used on smaller instruments as a means of adjusting intonation, such cures are not practical for instruments the size of euphoniums or tubas.

The Four-Valve Compensating System If a euphonium or tuba player wishes to be able to play a full chromatic scale in the lower register, a 4valve compensating system is the best answer. The 4th valve tubing routes back through the first 3 valves so that when the 4th valve is used in combination with any other(s), air can automatically be detoured through extra compensating loops. Progressing downward from the open horn, the first five fingerings (2, 1, 3, 23, and 4) don't involve the compensating system as their intonation is satisfactory. However, the compensating loops are used for the next six fingerings (24, 14, 34, 234, 134, and 1234), since their pitch would otherwise vary from uncomfortable to unusable. Diagrams 1 through 4 (linked below) show some of these situations, in which the detours have provided for bringing down the pitch of these sharp fingerings. The compensating system makes it possible to play a full chromatic scale between the 1st and 2nd partials. All four valves together will produce a usable B, l/2 step above the first partial. On a non-compensating instrument, this same fingering would only produce a sharp C, leaving the B unavailable. The compensated instrument has the further advantage of being able to play in the lower octaves using conventional fingerings. For example, a euphonium player would use 23 for a middle-range Db. To play an octave lower he would simply add the 4th valve. On a non-compensating euphonium, he would have to use 134 to approximate the lower Db. While the compensating system may seem complicated, remember that the player needn't be aware of all the mathematical theory behind it. He need only play the instrument and let tubing design resolve the inherent conflicts. In fact, simplicity is one of the benefits of the compensating system. As an illustration of this, consider the professional-grade non-compensating tubas on the market. Many of these employ 5 or 6 valves whose purpose is to allow for enough alternate fingerings to be able to play a full chromatic scale. One of the most respected of modern texts dealing with the euphonium and tuba is The Tuba Family by Clifford Bevan. He begins his discussion of the compensating system by saying, " By the 1870's it was obvious that the most satisfactory method of compensation would be completely automatic (probably the player's lack of enthusiasm for extra valves, levers and keys was striking home). In fact the first completely automatic system turned out to be the best.'' (Clifford Bevan, The Tuba Family (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1978); p. 82)

4th-Valve Placement: a "Side Issue" While many manufacturers place the 4th valve immediately next to the 3rd, Hirsbrunner and Sterling-Perantucci place the 4th valve halfway down the right side of the instrument, intended to be played with the left hand. While this can be justified by simply noting the relative weakness of the 4th finger of the right hand, there is also a consideration relating to the compensating system. Euphoniums are essentially conical-bore instruments. That is, their tubing is almost constantly expanding from the mouthpiece to the bell. The most notable exception to this is found within the 1st, 2nd & 3rd valves, where the bore size is constant. However, the separation between the 3rd and 4th valves allows the connecting tubing to expand gradually as it approaches and passes through the 4th valve's tubing, maintaining a more constant taper. For example, in the case of the Sterling-Perantucci euphonium the main bore (measured at the 2nd valve) is.592". At the compensating loops it has expanded to .630", and it expands to .670" within the remainder of the 4th valve tubing. By preserving a more conical bore through this area, freedom of response and consistency of tone are enhanced.

The fourth square is always different

QMRA classical orchestra usually contained two horns. Typically, the 1st horn played a high part and the 2nd horn played a low part. Composers from Beethoven onwards commonly used four horns. Here, the 1st and 2nd horns played as a pair (1st horn being high, 2nd horn being low), and the 3rd and 4th horns played as another pair (3rd horn being high, 4th horn being low). Music written for the modern horn follows a similar pattern with 1st and 3rd horns being high and 2nd and 4th horns being low.

QMRBecause of the heroic quality of the horn's sound, it is often used in film music.[citation needed] Bernard Herrmann's score for On Dangerous Ground, however, uses four horns (and anvils) during a chase sequence to suggest a wild state of mind.

QMRHorn music in Britain had a renaissance in the mid-20th century when Dennis Brain inspired works such as Britten's Serenade for Tenor, Horn and Strings and other works from contemporary composers such as Michael Tippett, who stretches horn ensemble playing to its technical limits in his Sonata for Four Horns. Peter Maxwell Davies was commissioned by 50 amateur and professional UK horn players to write a horn piece to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Brain's death

QMRThree valves control the flow of air in the single horn, which is tuned to F or less commonly B♭. The more common double horn has a fourth valve, usually operated by the thumb, which routes the air to one set of tubing tuned to F or another tuned to B♭. Triple horns with five valves are also made, tuned in F, B♭, and a descant E♭ or F. Also common are descant doubles, which typically provide B♭ and Alto F branches. This configuration provides a high-range horn while avoiding the additional complexity and weight of a triple.

QMRTonaries, which are lists of chant titles grouped by mode, appear in western sources around the turn of the 9th century. The influence of developments in Byzantium, from Jerusalem and Damascus, for instance the works of Saints John of Damascus (d. 749) and Cosmas of Maiouma (Nikodēmos ’Agioreitēs 1836, 1:32–33; Barton 2009), are still not fully understood. The eight-fold division of the Latin modal system, in a four-by-two matrix, was certainly of Eastern provenance, originating probably in Syria or even in Jerusalem, and was transmitted from Byzantine sources to Carolingian practice and theory during the 8th century. However, the earlier Greek model for the Carolingian system was probably ordered like the later Byzantine oktōēchos, that is, with the four principal (authentic) modes first, then the four plagals, whereas the Latin modes were always grouped the other way, with the authentics and plagals paired (Powers 2001, §II.1(ii)).- mode wiki

The eight church modes, or Gregorian modes, can be divided into four pairs, where each pair shares the "final" note and the four notes above the final, but have different ambituses, or ranges. If the "scale" is completed by adding three higher notes, the mode is termed authentic, if the scale is completed by adding three lower notes, it is called plagal (from Greek πλάγιος, "oblique, sideways"). Otherwise explained: if the melody moves mostly above the final, with an occasional cadence to the sub-final, the mode is authentic. Plagal modes shift range and also explore the fourth below the final as well as the fifth above. In both cases, the strict ambitus of the mode is one octave. A melody that remains confined to the mode's ambitus is called "perfect"; if it falls short of it, "imperfect"; if it exceeds it, "superfluous"; and a melody that combines the ambituses of both the plagal and authentic is said to be in a "mixed mode" (Rockstro 1880, 343). Although the earlier (Greek) model for the Carolingian system was probably ordered like the Byzantine oktōēchos, with the four authentic modes first, followed by the four plagals, the earliest extant sources for the Latin system are organized in four pairs of authentic and plagal modes sharing the same final: protus authentic/plagal, deuterus authentic/plagal, tritus authentic/plagal, and tetrardus authentic/plagal (Powers 2001, §II, 1 (ii)).

QMRThe Romans may have borrowed the Greek method[7][page needed] of 'enchiriadic notation' to record their music, if they used any notation at all. Four letters (in English notation 'A', 'G', 'F' and 'C') indicated a series of four succeeding tones. Rhythm signs, written above the letters, indicated the duration of each note. The Romans may have tuned their instruments to Greek modes.[8]

QMREcho cornet[edit] The echo cornet is an obsolete variant which has a mute chamber (or echo chamber) mounted to the side acting as a second bell when the fourth valve is pressed. The second bell has a sound similar to that of a Harmon mute and is typically used to play echo phrases, whereupon the player imitates the sound from the primary bell using the echo chamber.[9 Usually cornets have three valves. The fourth is different

QMRThe contrabassoon was developed in the mid-18th century; the oldest surviving instrument, which came in four parts and had only three keys, was built in 1714.

QMRAlthough both baritone horn and euphonium produce partials of the B♭ harmonic series in the same range, and both have a nine-foot-long main tube, the baritone horn tends to have a smaller and more cylindrical bore than the euphonium. The baritone horn usually has a tighter wrap and a smaller bell, and is thus smaller and lighter overall, and produces a "lighter" sound versus the more solid, brassy timbre of the euphonium.[2][3] There is some confusion of nomenclature in the United States due to the old practice of American euphonium manufacturers calling their professional models by their proper names, and branding entry-level student models as baritones.[4] This practice has not yet stopped. There is a common misconception that three-valve instrument is a baritone and that the four-valve instrument is a euphonium. Euphoniums often have a fourth valve as an alternate fingering for 1&3 split fingering with improved intonation. The fourth valve can also be viewed in the same way as an F trigger on trombone, repitching the instrument to expand the lower range. A fourth valve is rarely seen on baritones, but absence of a fourth valve is not a defining characteristic.[4] An "American baritone", featuring three valves on the front of the instrument and a curved forward-pointing bell, was common in American school bands throughout most of the twentieth century. While this instrument is in reality a conical-cylindrical bore hybrid, neither truly euphonium nor baritone, it was almost universally labeled a "baritone" by both band directors and composers.[4] The fourth is always different

Four-valve continental baritone horn

QMRCertain types of music have a regular structure, which an experienced dancer can frame his or her moves around. For example, the chorus in some swing music consists of 32 bars, which follows an AABA structure, where each letter consists of four 8-count sections and the B letter has a different melody. The fourth 8-count section of each letter is often an ideal time to execute a break. Other songs have six 8-count sections followed by a chorus of four 8-count sections. "In The Mood" from Glenn Miller is a good example of this type of structure.

The somewhat weird numbers are due to the cumbersome unit he used in his chord table according to one group of historians, who explain their reconstruction's inability to agree with these four numbers as partly due to some sloppy rounding and calculation errors by Hipparchus, for which Ptolemy criticised him (he himself made rounding errors too). A simpler alternate reconstruction[27] agrees with all four numbers. Anyway, Hipparchus found inconsistent results; he later used the ratio of the epicycle model (3122+1/2 : 247+1/2), which is too small (60 : 4;45 sexagesimal). Ptolemy established a ratio of 60 : 5+1/4.[28] (The maximum angular deviation producible by this geometry is the arcsin of 5 1/4 divided by 60, or about 5° 1', a figure that is sometimes therefore quoted as the equivalent of the Moon's equation of the center in the Hipparchan model.)

QMRHipparchus's draconitic lunar motion cannot be solved by the lunar-four arguments that are sometimes proposed to explain his anomalistic motion. A solution that has produced the exact 5458/5923 ratio is rejected by most historians though it uses the only anciently attested method of determining such ratios, and it automatically delivers the ratio's four-digit numerator and denominator. Hipparchus initially used (Almagest 6.9) his 141 B. C. E. eclipse with a Babylonian eclipse of 720 B. C. E. to find the less accurate ratio 7160 synodic months = 7770 draconitic months, simplified by him to 716 = 777 through division by 10. (He similarly found from the 345-year cycle the ratio 4267 synodic months = 4573 anomalistic months and divided by 17 to obtain the standard ratio 251 synodic months = 269 anomalistic months.) If he sought a longer time base for this draconitic investigation he could use his same 141 B. C. E. eclipse with a moonrise 1245 B. C. E. eclipse from Babylon, an interval of 13645 synodic months = 148807 1/2 draconitic months ≈ 14623 1/2 anomalistic months. Dividing by 5/2 produces 5458 synodic months = 5923 precisely.[16] The obvious main objection is that the early eclipse is unattested though that is not surprising in itself and there is no consensus on whether Babylonian observations were recorded this remotely. Though Hipparchus's tables formally went back only to 747 B. C. E., 600 years before his era, the tables were actually good back to before the eclipse in question because as only recently noted[17] their use in reverse is no more difficult than forwards.

QMRStrabo lists Seleucus as one of the four most influential Chaldean/Babylonian astronomers, alongside Kidenas (Kidinnu), Naburianos (Naburimannu), and Sudines. Their works were originally written in the Akkadian language and later translated into Greek.[23] Seleucus, however, was unique among them in that he was the only one known to have supported the heliocentric theory of planetary motion proposed by Aristarchus,[24][25][26] where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system through reasoning, though it is not known what arguments he used.[27]

QMRVisions of John the Evangelist, as depicted in the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. Four cherubim surround the throne and twenty-four elders sit to the left and right.

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