Quadrant Model of Reality: Quadrant Model of Reality Book 23 Science

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

QMRThe dwarf planet Pluto has five moons down to a detection limit of about 1 km in diameter. In order of distance from Pluto, they are Charon, Styx, Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra. Charon, the largest of the five moons, is mutually tidally locked with Pluto, and is massive enough that Pluto–Charon is sometimes considered a double dwarf planet. So technically it is described by astronomers that Pluto-Charon have four moons

Pluto's four small moons orbit Pluto at two to four times the distance of Charon, ranging from Styx at 42,700 kilometres to Hydra at 64,800 kilometres from the barycenter of the system. They have nearly circular prograde orbits in the same orbital plane as Charon.

All are much smaller than Charon. Nix and Hydra, the two larger, are roughly 42 and 55 kilometers on their longest axis respectively,[6] and Styx and Kerberos are 7 and 12 kilometers respectively.[7][8] All four are irregularly shaped.

Nix, Hydra, Styx, and Kerberos rotate chaotically. According to Mark R. Showalter, author of a recent study,[15] "Nix can flip its entire pole. It could actually be possible to spend a day on Nix in which the sun rises in the east and sets in the north. It is almost random-looking in the way it rotates."[19] This is because they are in a dynamically changing gravitational field caused by Pluto and Charon orbiting each other. The variable gravitational field creates torques that make Nix and Hydra tumble. The torques are increased because the moons are elongated and not spherical.[15][20][21][22] Only one other moon, Saturn's moon Hyperion, is known to tumble,[22] though it is likely that Haumea's moons do so as well.

QMRThe other four moons of Pluto, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos and Styx, orbit the same barycenter, but they are not large enough to be spherical, and they are simply considered to be satellites of Pluto (or of Pluto–Charon)

Nix is a natural satellite of Pluto. It was discovered along with Hydra (Pluto's outermost satellite) in June 2005. It was imaged along with Pluto and its other moons by the New Horizons spacecraft as it flew by the Pluto system in July 2015.[7] Of the four small Plutonian moons the best pictures are of Nix, with resolutions as high as 330 meters per pixel.[8]

The formal name "Nix", from the Greek goddess of darkness and night and mother of Charon (ferryman of Hades), was announced on 21 June 2006 on IAU Circular 8723,[9] where the designation Pluto II is also given. The initials N and H, for Nix and Hydra, come from "New Horizons". The original proposal was to use the classical spelling Nyx, but to avoid confusion with the asteroid 3908 Nyx, the spelling was changed to Nix. Jürgen Blunck explains it as the "Spanish translation" of the Greek name.[11]

Kerberos is a small natural satellite of Pluto, about 12 km (7.5 mi) in its longest dimension. It was the fourth moon of Pluto to be discovered and its existence was announced on 20 July 2011.[1] It was imaged, along with Pluto and its four other moons, by the New Horizons spacecraft in July 2015.[5] The first image was released to the public on 22 October 2015.

QMRNeptune's innermost four moons—Naiad, Thalassa, Despina and Galatea—orbit close enough to be within Neptune's rings. The next-farthest out, Larissa, was originally discovered in 1981 when it had occulted a star. This occultation had been attributed to ring arcs, but when Voyager 2 observed Neptune in 1989, it was found to have caused it. Five new irregular moons discovered between 2002 and 2003 were announced in 2004.[118][119] A new moon and the smallest yet, S/2004 N 1, was found in 2013. Because Neptune was the Roman god of the sea, Neptune's moons have been named after lesser sea gods.[34]

QMRSynergetics coordinates is Clifford Nelson's attempt to describe, from another mathematical point of view, Buckminster Fuller's '60 degree coordinate system' for understanding nature. Synergetics is the word Fuller used to label his approach to mathematics.[1]

Regular triangular coordinates are in a grid of equilateral triangles and are of the form (x,y,z) such that x,y,z are equal to or greater than 0.

Regular tetrahedral coordinates are in a Euclidean 3-space 'grid' of equilateral tetrahedra and are of the form (w,x,y,z) such that w,x,y,z are equal to or greater than 0.

A system of synergetics coordinates uses only one type of simplex (triangle, tetrahedron, pentachoron, ..., n-simplex) as space units[disambiguation needed], and in fact uses a regular[disambiguation needed] simplex, rather like Cartesian coordinates use hypercubes (square, cube, tesseract, ..., n-cube.)

Synergetics coordinates in two dimensions

The n Synergetics coordinates axes are perpendicular to the n defining geometric objects that define a regular simplex; 2 end points for line segments, 3 lines for triangles, 4 planes for tetrahedrons etc.. The angles between the directions of the coordinate axes are Arc Cosine (-1/(n-1)). The coordinates can be positive or negative or zero and so can their sum. The sum of the n coordinates is the edge length of the regular simplex defined by moving the n geometric objects in increments of the height of the n-1 dimensional regular simplex that has an edge length of one. If the sum of the n coordinates is negative the triangle (n = 3) or tetrahedron (n = 4) is upside down and inside out.

QMRQuadray coordinates, also known as tetray coordinates or Chakovian coordinates, were Invented by Darrel Jarmusch and further developed by David Chako, Tom Ace, Kirby Urner, et al., as another take on simplicial coordinates, a coordinate system using the simplex or tetrahedron as its basis polyhedron.

Geometric definition[edit]

The four basis vectors stem from the origin of the regular tetrahedron and go to its four corners. Their coordinate addresses are (1, 0, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 0, 1) respectively. These may be scaled and linearly combined to span conventional XYZ space, with at least one of the four coordinates unneeded (set to zero) in any given quadrant.

The normalization scheme is somewhat unusual in keeping all coordinates non-negative. Typical of coordinate systems of this type (a, a, a, a) is an identity vector and may be added to normalize a result. To negate (1,0,0,0), write (−1, 0, 0, 0) then add (1, 1, 1, 1) to get (0, 1, 1, 1).

Pedagogical significance[edit]

A typical application might set the edges of the basis tetrahedron as unit, with the quadrays considered unit on some other scale. The tetrahedron itself may also be defined as the unit of volume, although the infrastructure does not demand using this setting.

The four quadrays may be linearly combined to provide integer coordinates for the inverse tetrahedron (0,1,1,1), (1,0,1,1), (1,1,0,1), (1,1,1,0), and for the cube, octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron and cuboctahedron of volumes 3, 4, 6 and 20 respectively, given the starting tetrahedron of unit volume.

For example, given A, B, C, D as (1,0,0,0), (0,1,0,0), (0,0,1,0) and (0,0,0,1) respectively, the vertices of an octahedron with the same edge length and volume four would be A + B, A + C, A + D, B + C, B + D, C + D or all eight permutations of {1,1,0,0}. The vertices of the volume 20 cuboctahedron are all 12 permutations of {2,1,1,0}.

Shape Volume Vertex Inventory (sum of Quadrays)

Tetrahedron 1 A,B,C,D

Inverse Tetrahedron 1 E,F,G,H = B+C+D, A+C+D, A+B+D, A+B+C

Duo-Tet Cube 3 A through H

Octahedron 4 I,J,K,L,M,N = A+B, A+C, A+D, B+C, B+D, C+D

Rhombic Dodecahedron 6 A through N

Cuboctahedron 20 O,P,Q,R,S,T = I+J, I+K, I+L, I+M, N+J, N+K; U,V,W,X,Y,Z = N+L, N+M, J+L, L+M, M+K, K+J

Points A-Z

If one now calls this volume "4D" as in "four-dimensional" or "four-directional" we have primed the pump for an understanding of R. Buckminster Fuller's "4D geometry," or Synergetics.

and he discusses that the Kabalistic tree of life is the double tetrahedron Merkaba matrix

Haramein discusses that in the Kabalistic tradition there is not just one tree of life but there is four

Haramein discusses that in Revelations it is described that the city of God has 144 crystals. 72 plus 72 is 144- It is two tetragrammaton or two tetrahedron matrices which makes the double tetrahedron Merkaba

Haramein describes at 47 minutes that there is said to be 72 names of God because if you add up the letters of the tetragrammaton you get 72

Watch at 33 minutes. That's the quadrant model. I told you guys that I knew the greatest theory in history and you guys felt sorry for me thought I was crazy tried to kill me but i was right and now I feel sorry for you

watch 8 minutes notice how the geometry of the iching reflects the quadrant pattern

QMRSnowflake formation

Haramein discusses this crop circle. He says how astronomers sent a message "what do we need to know" and afterwards this crop circle popped up which Haramein describes was the tetrahedral grid, which he had discovered prior to the crop circle coming up

NASSIM HARAMEIN, Ancient Civilizations and Sacred Geometry - PART 5 OF 6

NASSIM HARAMEIN, The structure of the vacuum, and Crop Circles Ancient Civilizations - PART 4 OF 6

QMRTetrahedral mensuration also involved substituting what Fuller called the "isotropic vector matrix" (IVM) for the standard XYZ coordinate system, as his principal conceptual backdrop for special case physicality:

The synergetics coordinate system -- in contradistinction to the XYZ coordinate system -- is linearly referenced to the unit-vector-length edges of the regular tetrahedron, each of whose six unit vector edges occur in the isotropic vector matrix as the diagonals of the cube's six faces. (986.203)

Nassim Harameim believes that this matrix is fundamental to existence

QMR

The Tetrahedron has four sides and is according to many scientists the most important shape in existence.

Synergetics is the empirical study of systems in transformation, with an emphasis on total system behavior unpredicted by the behavior of any isolated components, including humanity's role as both participant and observer.

Since systems are identifiable at every scale from the quantum level to the cosmic, and humanity both articulates the behavior of these systems and is composed of these systems, synergetics is a very broad discipline, and embraces a broad range of scientific and philosophical studies including tetrahedral and close-packed-sphere geometries, thermodynamics, chemistry, psychology, biochemistry, economics, philosophy and theology. Despite a few mainstream endorsements such as articles by Arthur Loeb and the naming of a molecule "buckminsterfullerene," synergetics remains an iconoclastic subject ignored by most traditional curricula and academic departments.

Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983) coined the term and attempted to define its scope in his two volume work Synergetics.[1][2][3] His oeuvre inspired many researchers to tackle branches of synergetics. Three examples: Haken explored self-organizing structures of open systems far from thermodynamic equilibrium, Amy Edmondson explored tetrahedral and icosahedral geometry, and Stafford Beer tackled geodesics in the context of social dynamics. Many other researchers toil today on aspects of Synergetics, though many deliberately distance themselves from Fuller's broad all-encompassing definition, given its problematic attempt to differentiate and relate all aspects of reality including the ideal and the physically realized, the container and the contained, the one and the many, the observer and the observed, the human microcosm and the universal macrocosm.

Here's an abridged list of some of the discoveries Fuller claims for Synergetics (see Controversies below) again quoting directly:

The rational volumetric quantation or constant proportionality of the octahedron, the cube, the rhombic triacontahedron, and the rhombic dodecahedron when referenced to the tetrahedron as volumetric unity.

The trigonometric identification of the great-circle trajectories of the seven axes of symmetry with the 120 basic disequilibrium LCD triangles of the spherical icosahedron. (See Sec. 1043.00.)

The rational identification of number with the hierarchy of all the geometries.

The A and B Quanta Modules.

The volumetric hierarchy of Platonic and other symmetrical geometricals based on the tetrahedron and the A and B Quanta Modules as unity of coordinate mensuration.

The identification of the nucleus with the vector equilibrium.

Omnirationality: the identification of triangling and tetrahedroning with second- and third-powering factors.

Omni-60-degree coordination versus 90-degree coordination.

The integration of geometry and philosophy in a single conceptual system providing a common language and accounting for both the physical and metaphysical.[8]

Tetrahedral accounting[edit]

A chief hallmark of this system of mensuration was its unit of volume: a tetrahedron defined by four closest-packed unit-radius spheres. This tetrahedron anchored a set of concentrically arranged polyhedra proportioned in a canonical manner and inter-connected by a twisting-contracting, inside-outing dynamic named the Jitterbug Transformation.

Shape Volume Properties

A,B,T modules 1/24 tetrahedral voxels

MITE 1/8 space-filler, 2As, 1B

Tetrahedron 1 self dual

Coupler 1 space filler

Cuboctahedron 2.5 cb.h = 1/2, cb.v = 1/8 of 20

Duo-Tet Cube 3 24 MITEs

Octahedron 4 dual of cube

Rhombic Triacontahedron 5 radius rt.h < 1, rt.v = 2/3 of 7.5

Rhombic Dodecahedron 6 space-filler, dual to cuboctahedron

Rhombic Triacontahedron 7.5 rt.h = phi/sqrt(2)

Icosahedron ~18.51 edges 1 = tetrahedron's edges

Cuboctahedron 20 edges 1, cb.h = 1

2F Cube 24 2-frequency, 8 x 3 volume

Shape Volume A B T

A module 1/24 1 0 0

B module 1/24 0 1 0

T module 1/24 0 0 1

MITE 1/8 2 1 0

Tetrahedron 1 24 0 0

Coupler 1 16 8 0

Duo-Tet Cube 3 48 24 0

Octahedron 4 48 48 0

Rhombic Triacontahedron 5 0 0 120

Rhombic Dodecahedron 6 96 48 0

Cuboctahedron 20 336 144 0

2F Cube 24 384 192 0

Corresponding to Fuller's use of a regular tetrahedron as his unit of volume was his replacing the cube as his model of 3rd powering.(Fig. 990.01) The relative size of a shape was indexed by its "frequency," a term he deliberately chose for its resonance with scientific meanings. "Size and time are synonymous. Frequency and size are the same phenomenon." (528.00) Shapes not having any size, because purely conceptual in the Platonic sense, were "prefrequency" or "subfrequency" in contrast.

Prime means sizeless, timeless, subfrequency. Prime is prehierarchical. Prime is prefrequency. Prime is generalized, a metaphysical conceptualization experience, not a special case.... (1071.10)

Generalized principles (scientific laws), although communicated energetically, did not inhere in the "special case" episodes, were considered "metaphysical" in that sense.

An energy event is always special case. Whenever we have experienced energy, we have special case. The physicist's first definition of physical is that it is an experience that is extracorporeally, remotely, instrumentally apprehensible. Metaphysical includes all the experiences that are excluded by the definition of physical. Metaphysical is always generalized principle.(1075.11)

Tetrahedral mensuration also involved substituting what Fuller called the "isotropic vector matrix" (IVM) for the standard XYZ coordinate system, as his principal conceptual backdrop for special case physicality:

The IVM scaffolding or skeletal framework was defined by cubic closest packed spheres (CCP), alternatively known as the FCC or face-centered cubic lattice, or as the octet truss in architecture (on which Fuller held a patent). The space-filling complementary tetrahedra and octahedra characterizing this matrix had prefrequency volumes 1 and 4 respectively (see above).

A third consequence of switching to tetrahedral mensuration was Fuller's review of the standard "dimension" concept. Whereas "height, width and depth" have been promulgated as three distinct dimensions within the Euclidean context, each with its own independence, Fuller considered the tetrahedron a minimal starting point for spatial cognition. His use of "4D" was in many passages close to synonymous with the ordinary meaning of "3D," with the dimensions of physicality (time, mass) considered additional dimensions.

Geometers and "schooled" people speak of length, breadth, and height as constituting a hierarchy of three independent dimensional states -- "one-dimensional," "two-dimensional," and "three-dimensional" -- which can be conjoined like building blocks. But length, breadth, and height simply do not exist independently of one another nor independently of all the inherent characteristics of all systems and of all systems' inherent complex of interrelationships with Scenario Universe.... All conceptual consideration is inherently four-dimensional. Thus the primitive is a priori four-dimensional, always based on the four planes of reference of the tetrahedron. There can never be less than four primitive dimensions. Any one of the stars or point-to-able "points" is a system-ultratunable, tunable, or infratunable but inherently four-dimensional. (527.702, 527.712)

Synergetics did not aim to replace or invalidate pre-existing geometry or mathematics, was designed to carve out a namespace and serve as a glue language providing a new source of insights

Intuitive geometry[edit]

Fuller took an intuitive approach to his studies, often going into exhaustive empirical detail while at the same time seeking to cast his findings in their most general philosophical context.

For example, his sphere packing studies led him to generalize a formula for polyhedral numbers: 2 P F2 + 2, where F stands for "frequency" (the number of intervals between balls along an edge) and P for a product of low order primes (some integer). He then related the "multiplicative 2" and "additive 2" in this formula to the convex versus concave aspects of shapes, and to their polar spinnability respectively.

These same polyhedra, developed through sphere packing and related by tetrahedral mensuration, he then spun around their various poles to form great circle networks and corresponding triangular tiles on the surface of a sphere. He exhaustively cataloged the central and surface angles of these spherical triangles and their related chord factors.

Fuller was continually on the lookout for ways to connect the dots, often purely speculatively. As an example of "dot connecting" he sought to relate the 120 basic disequilibrium LCD triangles of the spherical icosahedron to the plane net of his A module.(915.11Fig. 913.01, Table 905.65)

The Jitterbug Transformation provided a unifying dynamic in this work, with much significance attached to the doubling and quadrupling of edges that occurred, when a cuboctahedron is collapsed through icosahedral, octahedral and tetrahedral stages, then inside-outed and re-expanded in a complementary fashion. The JT formed a bridge between 3,4-fold rotationally symmetric shapes, and the 5-fold family, such as a rhombic triacontahedron, which later he analyzed in terms of the T module, another tetrahedral wedge with the same volume as his A and B modules.

He modeled energy transfer between systems by means of the double-edged octahedron and its ability to turn into a spiral (tetrahelix). Energy lost to one system always reappeared somewhere else in his Universe. He modeled a threshold between associative and disassociative energy patterns with his T-to-E module transformation ("E" for "Einstein").(Fig 986.411A)

"Synergetics" is in some ways a library of potential "science cartoons" (scenarios) described in prose and not heavily dependent upon mathematical notations. His demystification of a gyroscope's behavior in terms of a hammer thrower, pea shooter, and garden hose, is a good example of his commitment to using accessible metaphors. (Fig. 826.02A)

His modular dissection of a space-filling tetrahedron or MITE (minimum tetrahedron) into 2 A and 1 B module served as a basis for more speculations about energy, the former being more energy conservative, the latter more dissipative in his analysis.(986.422921.20, 921.30). His focus was reminiscent of later cellular automaton studies in that tessellating modules would affect their neighbors over successive time intervals.

QMRIn 2006, four tiny "moonlets" were found in Cassini images of the A Ring.[73] The moonlets themselves are only about a hundred metres in diameter, too small to be seen directly; what Cassini sees are the "propeller"-shaped disturbances the moonlets create, which are several kilometres across. It is estimated that the A Ring contains thousands of such objects. In 2007, the discovery of eight more moonlets revealed that they are largely confined to a 3000 km belt, about 130,000 km from Saturn's center,[74] and by 2008 over 150 propeller moonlets had been detected.[75] One that has been tracked for several years has been nicknamed Bleriot.[76]

He discussed the "principle of relative motion" in two papers in 1900[22][23] and named it the principle of relativity in 1904, according to which no physical experiment can discriminate between a state of uniform motion and a state of rest.[24] In 1905 Poincaré wrote to Lorentz about Lorentz's paper of 1904, which Poincaré described as a "paper of supreme importance." In this letter he pointed out an error Lorentz had made when he had applied his transformation to one of Maxwell's equations, that for charge-occupied space, and also questioned the time dilation factor given by Lorentz.[25] In a second letter to Lorentz, Poincaré gave his own reason why Lorentz's time dilation factor was indeed correct after all: it was necessary to make the Lorentz transformation form a group and gave what is now known as the relativistic velocity-addition law.[26] Poincaré later delivered a paper at the meeting of the Academy of Sciences in Paris on 5 June 1905 in which these issues were addressed. In the published version of that he wrote:[27]

The essential point, established by Lorentz, is that the equations of the electromagnetic field are not altered by a certain transformation (which I will call by the name of Lorentz) of the form:

x^\prime = k\ell\left(x + \varepsilon t\right)\!,\;t^\prime = k\ell\left(t + \varepsilon x\right)\!,\;y^\prime = \ell y,\;z^\prime = \ell z,\;k = 1/\sqrt{1-\varepsilon^2}.

and showed that the arbitrary function \ell\left(\varepsilon\right) must be unity for all \varepsilon (Lorentz had set \ell = 1 by a different argument) to make the transformations form a group. In an enlarged version of the paper that appeared in 1906 Poincaré pointed out that the combination x^2+ y^2+ z^2- c^2t^2 is invariant. He noted that a Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-dimensional space about the origin by introducing ct\sqrt{-1} as a fourth imaginary coordinate, and he used an early form of four-vectors.[28] Poincaré expressed a lack of interest in a four-dimensional reformulation of his new mechanics in 1907, because in his opinion the translation of physics into the language of four-dimensional geometry would entail too much effort for limited profit.[29] So it was Hermann Minkowski who worked out the consequences of this notion in 1907.

QMRControl theory is

a theory that deals with influencing the behavior of dynamical systems

an interdisciplinary subfield of science, which originated in engineering and mathematics, and evolved into use by the social sciences,[citation needed] such as economics, psychology, sociology, criminology and in the financial system.

Control systems may be thought of as having four functions: measure, compare, compute and correct.[citation needed] These four functions are completed by five elements: detector, transducer, transmitter, controller and final control element.[citation needed] The measuring function is completed by the detector, transducer and transmitter. In practical applications these three elements are typically contained in one unit. A standard example of a measuring unit is a resistance thermometer. The compare and compute functions are completed within the controller, which may be implemented electronically by proportional control, a PI controller, PID controller, bistable, hysteretic control or programmable logic controller. Older controller units have been mechanical, as in a centrifugal governor or a carburetor. The correct function is completed with a final control element. The final control element changes an input or output in the control system that affects the manipulated or controlled variable.

He's talking about a 4 4 4 tempo in weight lifting

QMRQuadrupole time-of-flight[edit]

Hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer.

A triple quadrupole mass spectrometer with the final quadrupole replaced by a time-of-flight device is known as a quadrupole time-of-flight instrument.[5][6] Such an instrument can be represented as QqTOF.

QMRQuadrupole mass analyzer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with Quadrupole ion trap or Radio frequency quadrupole.

Quadrupole elements

The quadrupole mass analyzer (QMS) is one type of mass analyzer used in mass spectrometry. It is also known as a transmission quadrupole mass spectrometer, quadrupole mass filter, or quadrupole mass spectrometer. As the name implies, it consists of four cylindrical rods, set parallel to each other.[1] In a quadrupole mass spectrometer the quadrupole is the component of the instrument responsible for filtering sample ions, based on their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z). Ions are separated in a quadrupole based on the stability of their trajectories in the oscillating electric fields that are applied to the rods.

Principle of operation[edit]

Image from "Apparatus For Separating Charged Particles Of Different Specific Charges" Patent number: 2939952 [2]

The quadrupole consists of four parallel metal rods. Each opposing rod pair is connected together electrically, and a radio frequency (RF) voltage with a DC offset voltage is applied between one pair of rods and the other. Ions travel down the quadrupole between the rods. Only ions of a certain mass-to-charge ratio will reach the detector for a given ratio of voltages: other ions have unstable trajectories and will collide with the rods. This permits selection of an ion with a particular m/z or allows the operator to scan for a range of m/z-values by continuously varying the applied voltage.[1] Mathematically this can be modeled with the help of the Mathieu differential equation.[3]

Ion path through a quadrupole

Ideally, the rods are hyperbolic. Cylindrical rods with a specific ratio of rod diameter-to-spacing provide an easier-to-manufacture adequate approximation to hyperbolas. Small variations in the ratio have large effects on resolution and peak shape. Different manufacturers choose slightly different ratios to fine-tune operating characteristics in context of anticipated application requirements. In recent decades some manufacturers have produced quadrupole mass spectrometers with true hyperbolic rods.

Multiple quadrupoles, hybrids and variations[edit]

Hybrid quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer.

A linear series of three quadrupoles is known as a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. The first (Q1) and third (Q3) quadrupoles act as mass filters, and the middle (q2) quadrupole is employed as a collision cell. This collision cell is an RF-only quadrupole (non-mass filtering) using Ar, He, or N2 gas (~10−3 Torr, ~30 eV) for collision induced dissociation of selected parent ion(s) from Q1. Subsequent fragments are passed through to Q3 where they may be filtered or fully scanned.

This process allows for the study of fragments that are useful in structural elucidation by tandem mass spectrometry. For example, the Q1 may be set to 'filter' for a drug ion of known mass, which is fragmented in q2. The third quadrupole (Q3) can then be set to scan the entire m/z range, giving information on the intensities of the fragments. Thus, the structure of the original ion can be deduced.

The arrangement of three quadrupoles was first developed by Jim Morrison of LaTrobe University, Australia for the purpose of studying the photodissociation of gas-phase ions.[4] The first triple-quadrupole mass spectrometer was developed at Michigan State University by Dr. Christie Enke and graduate student Richard Yost in the late 1970s.[5]

Quadrupoles can be used in hybrid mass spectrometers. For example, a sector instrument can be combined with a collision quadrupole and quadrupole mass analyzer to form a hybrid instrument.[6]

A mass selecting quadrupole and collision quadrupole with time-of-flight device as the second mass selection stage is a hybrid known as a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer (QTOF MS).[7][8] QqTOFs are used for the mass spectrometry of peptides and other large biological polymers.[9]

A variant of the quadrupole mass analyzer called the monopole was invented by von Zahn which operates with two electrodes and generates one quarter of the quadrupole field.[10] It has one circular electrode and one vee shaped electrode. The performance is however inferior to that of the quadrupole mass analyzer.

An enhancement to the performance of the quadrupole mass analyzer has been demonstrated to occur when a magnetic field is applied to the instrument. Manyfold improvements in resolution and sensitivity have been reported for a magnetic field applied in various orientations to a QMS.[11][12]

Applications[edit]

These mass spectrometers excel at applications where particular ions of interest are being studied because they can stay tuned on a single ion for extended periods of time. One place where this is useful is in liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry or gas chromatography-mass spectrometry where they serve as exceptionally high specificity detectors. Quadrupole instruments are often reasonably priced and make good multi-purpose instruments.

QMRRay transfer matrix analysis (also known as ABCD matrix analysis) is a type of ray tracing technique used in the design of some optical systems, particularly lasers. It involves the construction of a ray transfer matrix which describes the optical system; tracing of a light path through the system can then be performed by multiplying this matrix with a vector representing the light ray. The same analysis is also used in accelerator physics to track particles through the magnet installations of a particle accelerator, see Beam optics.

The technique that is described below uses the paraxial approximation of ray optics, which means that all rays are assumed to be at a small angle (θ in radians) and a small distance (x) relative to the optical axis of the system.[1]

QMRTwo-port network

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Figure 1: Example two-port network with symbol definitions. Notice the port condition is satisfied: the same current flows into each port as leaves that port.

A two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network or quadripole) is an electrical network (circuit) or device with two pairs of terminals to connect to external circuits. Two terminals constitute a port if the currents applied to them satisfy the essential requirement known as the port condition: the electric current entering one terminal must equal the current emerging from the other terminal on the same port.[1][2] The ports constitute interfaces where the network connects to other networks, the points where signals are applied or outputs are taken. In a two-port network, often port 1 is considered the input port and port 2 is considered the output port.

The two-port network model is used in mathematical circuit analysis techniques to isolate portions of larger circuits. A two-port network is regarded as a "black box" with its properties specified by a matrix of numbers. This allows the response of the network to signals applied to the ports to be calculated easily, without solving for all the internal voltages and currents in the network. It also allows similar circuits or devices to be compared easily. For example, transistors are often regarded as two-ports, characterized by their h-parameters (see below) which are listed by the manufacturer. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be regarded as a two-port network provided that it does not contain an independent source and satisfies the port conditions.

Examples of circuits analyzed as two-ports are filters, matching networks, transmission lines, transformers, and small-signal models for transistors (such as the hybrid-pi model). The analysis of passive two-port networks is an outgrowth of reciprocity theorems first derived by Lorentz.[3]

In two-port mathematical models, the network is described by a 2 by 2 square matrix of complex numbers. The common models that are used are referred to as z-parameters, y-parameters, h-parameters, g-parameters, and ABCD-parameters, each described individually below. These are all limited to linear networks since an underlying assumption of their derivation is that any given circuit condition is a linear superposition of various short-circuit and open circuit conditions. They are usually expressed in matrix notation, and they establish relations between the variables

V_1, voltage across port 1

I_1, current into port 1

V_2, voltage across port 2

I_2, current into port 2

which are shown in figure 1. The difference between the various models lies in which of these variables are regarded as the independent variables. These current and voltage variables are most useful at low-to-moderate frequencies. At high frequencies (e.g., microwave frequencies), the use of power and energy variables is more appropriate, and the two-port current–voltage approach is replaced by an approach based upon scattering parameters.

Impedance parameters (z-parameters)[edit]

Figure 2: z-equivalent two port showing independent variables I1 and I2. Although resistors are shown, general impedances can be used instead.

Main article: Impedance parameters

\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} z_{11} & z_{12} \\ z_{21} & z_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix}

where

\begin{align}

z_{11} \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_1}{I_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0} \qquad z_{12} \,\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_1}{I_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0} \\

z_{21} \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_2}{I_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0} \qquad z_{22} \,\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_2}{I_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0}

\end{align}

Notice that all the z-parameters have dimensions of ohms.

For reciprocal networks \textstyle z_{12} = z_{21}. For symmetrical networks \textstyle z_{11} = z_{22}. For reciprocal lossless networks all the \textstyle z_\mathrm {mn} are purely imaginary.[7]

Example: bipolar current mirror with emitter degeneration[edit]

Figure 3: Bipolar current mirror: i1 is the reference current and i2 is the output current; lower case symbols indicate these are total currents that include the DC components

Figure 4: Small-signal bipolar current mirror: I1 is the amplitude of the small-signal reference current and I2 is the amplitude of the small-signal output current

Figure 3 shows a bipolar current mirror with emitter resistors to increase its output resistance.[nb 1] Transistor Q1 is diode connected, which is to say its collector-base voltage is zero. Figure 4 shows the small-signal circuit equivalent to Figure 3. Transistor Q1 is represented by its emitter resistance rE ≈ VT / IE (VT = thermal voltage, IE = Q-point emitter current), a simplification made possible because the dependent current source in the hybrid-pi model for Q1 draws the same current as a resistor 1 / gm connected across rπ. The second transistor Q2 is represented by its hybrid-pi model. Table 1 below shows the z-parameter expressions that make the z-equivalent circuit of Figure 2 electrically equivalent to the small-signal circuit of Figure 4.

Table 1

Expression Approximation

R_{21} = \left. \frac{V_2}{I_1} \right|_{I_2=0} -(\beta r_O - R_E) \frac{r_E + R_E}{r_\pi + r_E + 2R_E} -\beta r_o \frac{r_E + R_E }{r_\pi + 2R_E}

R_{11} = \left. \frac{V_1}{I_1} \right|_{I_2=0} (r_E + R_E) \| (r_\pi + R_E) [nb 2]

R_{22} = \left. \frac{V_2}{I_2} \right|_{I_1=0} \left(1 + \beta \frac{R_E}{r_\pi + r_E + 2R_E} \right) r_O + \frac{r_\pi + r_E + R_E}{r_\pi + r_E + 2R_E} R_E \left(1 + \beta \frac{R_E}{r_\pi + 2R_E} \right) r_O

R_{12} = \left. \frac{V_1}{I_2} \right|_{I_1=0} R_E \frac{r_E + R_E}{r_\pi + r_E + 2R_E} R_E \frac{r_E + R_E}{r_\pi + 2R_E}

The negative feedback introduced by resistors RE can be seen in these parameters. For example, when used as an active load in a differential amplifier, I1 ≈ −I2, making the output impedance of the mirror approximately R22 -R21 ≈ 2 β rORE /(rπ + 2RE) compared to only rO without feedback (that is with RE = 0 Ω) . At the same time, the impedance on the reference side of the mirror is approximately R11 − R12 ≈ \frac{r_\pi}{r_\pi + 2R_E} (r_E + R_E), only a moderate value, but still larger than rE with no feedback. In the differential amplifier application, a large output resistance increases the difference-mode gain, a good thing, and a small mirror input resistance is desirable to avoid Miller effect.

Admittance parameters (y-parameters)[edit]

Figure 5: Y-equivalent two port showing independent variables V1 and V2. Although resistors are shown, general admittances can be used instead.

Main article: Admittance parameters

\begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} y_{11} & y_{12} \\ y_{21} & y_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix}

where

\begin{align}

y_{11} \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{I_1}{V_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0} \qquad y_{12} \,\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{I_1}{V_2 } \right|_{V_1 = 0} \\

y_{21} \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{I_2}{V_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0} \qquad y_{22} \,\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{I_2}{V_2 } \right|_{V_1 = 0}

\end{align}

Notice that all the Y-parameters have dimensions of siemens.

For reciprocal networks \textstyle y_{12} = y_{21}. For symmetrical networks \textstyle y_{11} = y_{22}. For reciprocal lossless networks all the \textstyle y_\mathrm {mn} are purely imaginary.[7]

Hybrid parameters (h-parameters) [edit]

Figure 6: H-equivalent two-port showing independent variables I1 and V2; h22 is reciprocated to make a resistor

\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} h_{11} & h_{12} \\ h_{21} & h_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix}

where

\begin{align}

h_{11} \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_1}{I_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0} \qquad h_{12} \,\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_1}{V_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0} \\

h_{21} \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{I_2}{I_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0} \qquad h_{22} \,\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{I_2}{V_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0}

\end{align}

This circuit is often selected when a current amplifier is wanted at the output. The resistors shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.

Notice that off-diagonal h-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the reciprocal of one another.

Example: common-base amplifier[edit]

Figure 7: Common-base amplifier with AC current source I1 as signal input and unspecified load supporting voltage V2 and a dependent current I2.

Note: Tabulated formulas in Table 2 make the h-equivalent circuit of the transistor from Figure 6 agree with its small-signal low-frequency hybrid-pi model in Figure 7. Notation: rπ = base resistance of transistor, rO = output resistance, and gm = transconductance. The negative sign for h21 reflects the convention that I1, I2 are positive when directed into the two-port. A non-zero value for h12 means the output voltage affects the input voltage, that is, this amplifier is bilateral. If h12 = 0, the amplifier is unilateral.

Table 2

Expression Approximation

h_{21} = \left. \frac{ I_{2} }{ I_{1} } \right|_{V_{2}=0} -\frac{ \frac{\beta}{\beta + 1} r_O + r_E }{ r_O + r_E } -\frac{ \beta }{ \beta + 1 }

h_{11} = \left. \frac{V_{1}}{I_{1}} \right|_{V_{2}=0} r_E \| r_O r_E

h_{22} = \left. \frac{I_{2}}{V_{2}} \right|_{I_{1}=0} \frac{1}{(\beta + 1)(r_O + r_E)} \frac{1}{(\beta + 1)r_O }

h_{12} = \left. \frac{V_{1}}{V_{2}} \right|_{I_{1}=0} \frac{r_E}{r_E + r_O} \frac{r_E}{r_O} \ll 1

Inverse hybrid parameters (g-parameters) [edit]

Figure 8: G-equivalent two-port showing independent variables V1 and I2; g11 is reciprocated to make a resistor

\begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} g_{11} & g_{12} \\ g_{21} & g_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix}

where

\begin{align}

g_{11} \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{I_1}{V_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0} \qquad g_{12} \,\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{I_1}{I_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0} \\

g_{21} \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0} \qquad g_{22} \,\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_2}{I_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0}

\end{align}

Often this circuit is selected when a voltage amplifier is wanted at the output. Notice that off-diagonal g-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the reciprocal of one another. The resistors shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.

Example: common-base amplifier[edit]

Figure 9: Common-base amplifier with AC voltage source V1 as signal input and unspecified load delivering current I2 at a dependent voltage V2.

Note: Tabulated formulas in Table 3 make the g-equivalent circuit of the transistor from Figure 8 agree with its small-signal low-frequency hybrid-pi model in Figure 9. Notation: rπ = base resistance of transistor, rO = output resistance, and gm = transconductance. The negative sign for g12 reflects the convention that I1, I2 are positive when directed into the two-port. A non-zero value for g12 means the output current affects the input current, that is, this amplifier is bilateral. If g12 = 0, the amplifier is unilateral.

Table 3

Expression Approximation

g_{21} = \left. \frac{ V_{2} }{ V_{1} } \right|_{I_{2}=0} \frac{r_o}{r_\pi} + g_m r_O + 1 g_m r_O

g_{11} = \left. \frac{I_1}{V_1} \right|_{I_2=0} \frac{1}{r_\pi} \frac{1}{r_\pi}

g_{22} = \left. \frac{V_2}{I_2} \right|_{V_1=0} r_O r_O

g_{12} = \left. \frac{I_1}{I_2} \right|_{V_1=0} -\frac{\beta + 1}{\beta} -1

ABCD-parameters [edit]

The ABCD-parameters are known variously as chain, cascade, or transmission line parameters. There are a number of definitions given for ABCD parameters, the most common is,[8][9]

\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A & B \\ C & D \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_2 \\ -I_2 \end{bmatrix}

For reciprocal networks \scriptstyle AD-BC=1. For symmetrical networks \scriptstyle A=D. For networks which are reciprocal and lossless, A and D are purely real while B and C are purely imaginary.[6]

This representation is preferred because when the parameters are used to represent a cascade of two-ports, the matrices are written in the same order that a network diagram would be drawn, that is, left to right. However, the examples given below are based on a variant definition;

\begin{bmatrix} V_2 \\ I'_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A' & B' \\ C' & D' \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{bmatrix}

where

\begin{align}

A' \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right|_{I_1 = 0} &\qquad B' \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. \frac{V_2}{I_1} \right|_{V_1 = 0}\\

C' \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. -\frac{I_2}{V_1} \right|_{I_1 = 0} &\qquad D' \,&\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\, \left. -\frac{I_2}{I_1} \right|_{V_1 = 0}

\end{align}

The negative signs in the definitions of parameters \scriptstyle C' and \scriptstyle D' arise because \scriptstyle I'_2 is defined with the opposite sense to \scriptstyle I_2, that is, \scriptstyle I'_2 = -I_2. The reason for adopting this convention is so that the output current of one cascaded stage is equal to the input current of the next. Consequently, the input voltage/current matrix vector can be directly replaced with the matrix equation of the preceding cascaded stage to form a combined \scriptstyle A'B'C'D' matrix.

The terminology of representing the \scriptstyle ABCD parameters as a matrix of elements designated a11 etc. as adopted by some authors[10] and the inverse \scriptstyle A'B'C'D' parameters as a matrix of elements designated b11 etc. is used here for both brevity and to avoid confusion with circuit elements.

\begin{align}

\left\lbrack\mathbf{a}\right\rbrack &= \begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} \\ a_{21} & a_{22} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A & B \\ C & D \end{bmatrix} \\

\left\lbrack\mathbf{b}\right\rbrack &= \begin{bmatrix} b_{11} & b_{12} \\ b_{21} & b_{22} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A' & B' \\ C' & D' \end{bmatrix}

\end{align}

An ABCD matrix has been defined for Telephony four-wire Transmission Systems by P K Webb in British Post Office Research Department Report 630 in 1977.

Scattering parameters (S-parameters)[edit]

Main article: Scattering parameters

Fig. 17. Terminology of waves used in S-parameter definition.

The previous parameters are all defined in terms of voltages and currents at ports. S-parameters are different, and are defined in terms of incident and reflected waves at ports. S-parameters are used primarily at UHF and microwave frequencies where it becomes difficult to measure voltages and currents directly. On the other hand, incident and reflected power are easy to measure using directional couplers. The definition is,[12]

\begin{bmatrix} b_1 \\ b_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} S_{11} & S_{12} \\ S_{21} & S_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} a_1 \\ a_2 \end{bmatrix}

where the \scriptstyle a_k are the incident waves and the \scriptstyle b_k are the reflected waves at port k. It is conventional to define the \scriptstyle a_k and \scriptstyle b_k in terms of the square root of power. Consequently, there is a relationship with the wave voltages (see main article for details).[13]

For reciprocal networks \textstyle S_{12} = S_{21}. For symmetrical networks \textstyle S_{11} = S_{22}. For antimetrical networks \textstyle S_{11} = -S_{22}.[14] For lossless reciprocal networks \textstyle |S_{11}| = |S_{22}| and \textstyle |S_{11}|^2 + |S_{12}|^2 = 1.[15

Scattering transfer parameters (T-parameters)[edit]

See also: Scattering transfer parameters

Scattering transfer parameters, like scattering parameters, are defined in terms of incident and reflected waves. The difference is that T-parameters relate the waves at port 1 to the waves at port 2 whereas S-parameters relate the reflected waves to the incident waves. In this respect T-parameters fill the same role as ABCD parameters and allow the T-parameters of cascaded networks to be calculated by matrix multiplication of the component networks. T-parameters, like ABCD parameters, can also be called transmission parameters. The definition is,[12][16]

\begin{bmatrix} a_1 \\ b_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} T_{11} & T_{12} \\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} b_2 \\ a_2 \end{bmatrix}

T-parameters are not so easy to measure directly unlike S-parameters. However, S-parameters are easily converted to T-parameters, see main article for details.[17]

QMRQuadrupole

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with two-port network, which is sometimes called quadripole.

A quadrupole or quadrapole is one of a sequence of configurations of—for example—electric charge or current, or gravitational mass that can exist in ideal form, but it is usually just part of a multipole expansion of a more complex structure reflecting various orders of complexity.

The quadrupole moment tensor Q is a rank-two tensor (3x3 matrix) and is traceless (i.e. Q_{xx}+Q_{yy}+Q_{zz}=0). The quadrupole moment tensor has thus 9 components, but because of the symmetry and zero-trace property, only 5 of these are independent.

For a discrete system of point charges (or masses in the case of a gravitational quadrupole), each with charge q_{l} (or mass m_{l}) and position \vec{r_l}=(r_{xl},r_{yl},r_{zl}) relative to the coordinate system origin, the components of the Q matrix are defined by:

Q_{ij}=\sum_l q_l(3r_{il} r_{jl}-\|\vec{r_l}\|^2\delta_{ij}).

The indices i,j run over the Cartesian coordinates x,y,z and \delta_{ij} is the Kronecker delta.

For a continuous system with charge density (or mass density) \rho(x,y,z), the components of Q are defined by integral over the Cartesian space r:[1]

Q_{ij}=\int\, \rho(3r_i r_j-\|\vec{r}\|^2\delta_{ij})\, d^3\bold{r}

As with any multipole moment, if a lower-order moment (monopole or dipole in this case) is non-zero, then the value of the quadrupole moment depends on the choice of the coordinate origin. For example, a dipole of two opposite-sign, same-strength point charges (which has no monopole moment) can have a nonzero quadrupole moment if the origin is shifted away from the center of the configuration (exactly between the two charges); or the quadrupole moment can be reduced to zero with the origin at the center. In contrast, if the monopole and dipole moments vanish, but the quadrupole moment does not (e.g., four same-strength charges, arranged in a square, with alternating signs), then the quadrupole moment is coordinate independent.

If each charge is the source of a "1/r" field, like the electric or gravitational field, the contribution to the field's potential from the quadrupole moment is:

V_q(\mathbf{R})=\frac{k}{|\mathbf{R}|^3} \sum_{i,j} \frac{1}{2} Q_{ij}\, n_i n_j\ ,

where R is a vector with origin in the system of charges and n is the unit vector in the direction of R. Here, k is a constant that depends on the type of field, and the units being used. The factors n_i, n_j are components of the unit vector from the point of interest to the location of the quadrupole moment.

Electric quadrupole [edit]

Contour plot of the equipotential surfaces of an electric quadrupole field.

The simplest example of an electric quadrupole consists of alternating positive and negative charges, arranged on the corners of a square. The monopole moment (just the total charge) of this arrangement is zero. Similarly, the dipole moment is zero, regardless of the coordinate origin that has been chosen. But the quadrupole moment of the arrangement in the diagram cannot be reduced to zero, regardless of where we place the coordinate origin. The electric potential of an electric charge quadrupole is given by [2]

V_q(\mathbf{R})=\frac{1}{4\pi \epsilon_0} \frac{1}{|\mathbf{R}|^3} \sum_{i,j} \frac{1}{2} Q_{ij}\, n_i n_j\ ,

where \epsilon_0 is the electric permittivity, and Q_{ij} follows the definition above.

Generalization: Higher multipoles[edit]

An extreme generalization ("Point octupole") would be: Eight alternating point charges at the eight corners of a parallelepiped, e.g. of a cube with edge length a. The "octupole moment" of this arrangement would correspond, in the "octupole limit" \lim_{a\to 0;\,a^3\cdot Q\to\rm{const.}}, to a nonzero diagonal tensor of order three. Still higher multipoles, e.g. of order 2l, would be obtained by dipolar (quadrupolar, octupolar, ...) arrangements of point dipoles (quadrupoles, octupoles, ...), not point monopoles, of lower order, e.g. 2l-1.

Magnetic quadrupole[edit]

Coils producing a quadrupole field.

Schematic quadrupole magnet ("four-pole").

See also: Quadrupole magnet

All known magnetic sources give dipole fields. However, to make a magnetic quadrupole it is possible to place four identical bar magnets perpendicular to each other such that the north pole of one is next to the south of the other. Such a configuration cancels the dipole moment and gives a quadrupole moment, and its field will decrease at large distances faster than that of a dipole.

An example of a magnetic quadrupole, involving permanent magnets, is depicted on the right. Electromagnets of similar conceptual design (called quadrupole magnets) are commonly used to focus beams of charged particles in particle accelerators and beam transport lines, a method known as strong focusing. The quadrupole-dipole intersect can be found by multiplying the spin of the unpaired nucleon by its parent atom. There are four steel pole tips, two opposing magnetic north poles and two opposing magnetic south poles. The steel is magnetized by a large electric current that flows in the coils of tubing wrapped around the poles.

A changing magnetic quadrupole moment produces electromagnetic radiation.

Gravitational quadrupole[edit]

The mass quadrupole is analogous to the electric charge quadrupole, where the charge density is simply replaced by the mass density and a negative sign is added because the masses are always positive and the force is attractive. The gravitational potential is then expressed as:

V_q(\mathbf{R})=-G \frac{1}{2} \frac{1}{|\mathbf{R}|^3} \sum_{i,j} Q_{ij}\, n_i n_j\ .

For example, because the Earth is rotating, it is oblate (flattened at the poles). This gives it a nonzero quadrupole moment. While the contribution to the Earth's gravitational field from this quadrupole is extremely important for artificial satellites close to Earth, it is less important for the Moon, because the \frac{1}{|\mathbf{R}|^3} term falls quickly.

The mass quadrupole moment is also important in general relativity because, if it changes in time, it can produce gravitational radiation, similar to the electromagnetic radiation produced by oscillating electric or magnetic dipoles and higher multipoles. However, only quadrupole and higher moments can radiate gravitationally. The mass monopole represents the total mass-energy in a system, which is conserved—thus it gives off no radiation. Similarly, the mass dipole corresponds to the center of mass of a system and its first derivative represents momentum which is also a conserved quantity so the mass dipole also emits no radiation. The mass quadrupole, however, can change in time, and is the lowest-order contribution to gravitational radiation.[3]

The simplest and most important example of a radiating system is a pair of mass points with equal masses orbiting each other on a circular orbit (an approximation to e.g. special case of binary black holes). Since the dipole moment is constant, we can for convenience place the coordinate origin right between the two points. Then the dipole moment will be zero, and if we also scale the coordinates so that the points are at unit distance from the center, in opposite direction, the system's quadrupole moment will then simply be

where M is the mass of each point, and x_i are components of the (unit) position vector of one of the points. As they orbit, this x-vector will rotate, which means that it will have a nonzero first, and also the second time derivative (this is of course true regardless the choice of the coordinate system). Therefore the system will radiate gravitational waves. Energy lost in this way was first inferred in the changing period of the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar, a pulsar in orbit with another neutron star of similar mass.

Just as electric charge and current multipoles contribute to the electromagnetic field, mass and mass-current multipoles contribute to the gravitational field in general relativity, causing the so-called "gravitomagnetic" effects. Changing mass-current multipoles can also give off gravitational radiation. However, contributions from the current multipoles will typically be much smaller than that of the mass quadrupole.

QMRQuadrupole magnets, abbreviated as Q-magnets, consist of groups of four magnets laid out so that in the planar multipole expansion of the field, the dipole terms cancel and where the lowest significant terms in the field equations are quadrupole. Quadrupole magnets are useful as they create a magnetic field whose magnitude grows rapidly with the radial distance from its longitudinal axis. This is used in particle beam focusing.

The simplest magnetic quadrupole is two identical bar magnets parallel to each other such that the north pole of one is next to the south of the other and vice versa. Such a configuration will have no dipole moment, and its field will decrease at large distances faster than that of a dipole. A stronger version with very little external field involves using a k=3 Halbach cylinder.

In some designs of quadrupoles using electromagnets, there are four steel pole tips: two opposing magnetic north poles and two opposing magnetic south poles. The steel is magnetized by a large electric current in the coils of tubing wrapped around the poles. Another design is a Helmholtz coil layout but with the current in one of the coils reversed.[1]

The four magnets are oriented like a quadrant.

Quadrupoles in particle accelerators[edit]

Main article: Strong focusing

Examples of quadrupole magnets

A quadrupole electromagnet as used in the storage ring of the Australian Synchrotron

Quadrupole electromagnets (in blue), surrounding the linac of the Australian Synchrotron, are used to focus the electron beam

At the speeds reached in high energy particle accelerators, magnetic deflection is more powerful than electrostatic, and use of the magnetic term of the Lorentz force:

\mathbf{F} = q (\mathbf{E} + \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}),

is enabled with various magnets that make up 'the lattice' required to bend, steer and focus a charged particle beam.

Magnetic field lines of an idealized quadrupole field in the plane transverse to the nominal beam direction. The red arrows show the direction of the magnetic field while the blue arrows indicate the direction of the Lorentz force on a positive particle going into the image plane (away from the reader)

The quadrupoles in the lattice are of two types: 'F quadrupoles' (which are horizontally focusing but vertically defocusing) and 'D quadrupoles' (which are vertically focusing but horizontally defocusing). This situation is due to the laws of electromagnetism (the Maxwell equations) which show that it is impossible for a quadrupole to focus in both planes at the same time. The image on the right shows an example of a quadrupole focusing in the vertical direction for a positively charged particle going into the image plane (forces above and below the center point towards the center) while defocusing in the horizontal direction (forces left and right of the center point away from the center).

If an F quadrupole and a D quadrupole are placed immediately next to each other, their fields completely cancel out (in accordance with Earnshaw's theorem). But if there is a space between them (and the length of this has been correctly chosen), the overall effect is focusing in both horizontal and vertical planes. A lattice can then be built up enabling the transport of the beam over long distances—for example round an entire ring. A common lattice is a FODO lattice consisting of a basis of a focusing quadrupole, 'nothing' (often a bending magnet), a defocusing quadrupole and another length of 'nothing'.

The four magnets are oriented like a quadrant.

QMRSchematic quadrupole magnet ("four-pole") magnetic field. There are four steel pole tips, two opposing magnetic north poles and two opposing magnetic south poles.

QMRAn electromagnetic four-potential is a relativistic vector function from which the electromagnetic field can be derived. It combines both an electric scalar potential and a magnetic vector potential into a single four-vector.[1]

As measured in a given frame of reference, and for a given gauge, the first component of the electromagnetic four-potential is the electric scalar potential, and the other three components make up the magnetic vector potential. While both the scalar and vector potential depend upon the frame, the electromagnetic four-potential is Lorentz covariant.

Like other potentials, many different electromagnetic four-potentials correspond to the same electromagnetic field, depending upon the choice of gauge.

In this article, index notation and the Minkowski metric (+−−−) will be used, see also Ricci calculus, covariance and contravariance of vectors and raising and lowering indices for more details on notation. Formulae are given in SI units and Gaussian-cgs units.

QMRFour of the largest natural satellites, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, and Titan, are thought to have subsurface oceans of liquid water, while smaller Enceladus may have localized subsurface liquid water.

QMRThe American Pioneer Venus project consisted of two separate missions.[146] The Pioneer Venus Orbiter was inserted into an elliptical orbit around Venus on 4 December 1978, and remained there for over 13 years, studying the atmosphere and mapping the surface with radar. The Pioneer Venus Multiprobe released a total of four probes, which entered the atmosphere on 9 December 1978, returning data on its composition, winds and heat fluxes.[147]

equal area projection of Venus's surface shown in false rainbow colour, with reds and yellows representing high altitudes and greens and blues representing low altitudes. Higher altitudes tend to cluster near the equator and the poles.

Position of Venera landing sites returning images form the surface

Four more Venera lander missions took place over the next four years, with Venera 11 and Venera 12 detecting Venusian electrical storms;[148] and Venera 13 and Venera 14, landing on 1 and 5 March 1982, returning the first colour photographs of the surface. All four missions deployed parachutes for braking in the upper atmosphere, then released them at altitudes of 50 km, the dense lower atmosphere providing enough friction to allow for unaided soft landings. Both Venera 13 and 14 analysed soil samples with an on-board X-ray fluorescence spectrometer, and attempted to measure the compressibility of the soil with an impact probe.[148] Venera 14 struck its own ejected camera lens cap and its probe failed to contact the soil.[148] The Venera programme came to a close in October 1983, when Venera 15 and Venera 16 were placed in orbit to conduct mapping of the Venusian terrain with synthetic aperture radar.[149]

QMRThe Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5424°,[110] much less than the 23.44° of Earth. Because of this, the Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season, and topographical details play a crucial role in seasonal effects.[111] From images taken by Clementine in 1994, it appears that four mountainous regions on the rim of Peary Crater at the Moon's north pole may remain illuminated for the entire lunar day, creating peaks of eternal light.

In 2004, a team led by Dr. Ben Bussey of Johns Hopkins University using images taken by the Clementine mission determined that four mountainous regions on the rim of Peary appeared to remain illuminated for the entire lunar day.[1] These unnamed "mountains of eternal light" are possible due to the Moon's extremely small axial tilt, which also gives rise to permanent shadow at the bottoms of many polar craters. No similar regions of eternal light exist at the less-mountainous south pole. Clementine's images were taken during the northern lunar hemisphere's summer season, and it remains unknown whether these four mountains are shaded at any point during their local winter season.

QMRTheories[edit]

Main article: Origin of the Moon

From the beginning of modern astronomy, there have been at least four hypotheses for the proposed origin of the Moon: that a single body somehow divided into Earth and Moon; that the Moon was captured by Earth's gravity (as most of the outer planets' smaller moons were captured); that Earth and Moon formed at the same time when the protoplanetary disk accreted; and the Theia scenario. The lunar rock samples retrieved by Apollo astronauts were found to be very similar in composition to Earth's crust, and so were likely removed from Earth in some violent event.[7][8]

QMRDonald Hill (1993) divided Islamic Astronomy into the four following distinct time periods in its history:

700–825[edit]

The period of assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian, and Sassanid astronomy.

The first astronomical texts that were translated into Arabic were of Indian and Persian origin.[13] The most notable of the texts was Zij al-Sindhind,[n 1] an 8th-century Indian astronomical work that was translated by Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari and Yaqub ibn Tariq after 770 CE under the supervision of an Indian astronomer who visited the court of caliph Al-Mansur in 770. Another text translated was the Zij al-Shah, a collection of astronomical tables (based on Indian parameters) compiled in Sasanid Persia over two centuries. Fragments of texts during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the sine function (inherited from India) in place of the chords of arc used in Greek trigonometry.[

825–1025[edit]

The Tusi-couple is a mathematical device invented by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi in which a small circle rotates inside a larger circle twice the diameter of the smaller circle. Rotations of the circles cause a point on the circumference of the smaller circle to oscillate back and forth in linear motion along a diameter of the larger circle.

This period of vigorous investigation, in which the superiority of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy was accepted and significant contributions made to it. However, Dallal notes that the use of parameters, sources and calculation methods from different scientific traditions made the Ptolemaic tradition "receptive right from the beginning to the possibility of observational refinement and mathematical restructuring".[14] Astronomical research was greatly supported by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun through The House of Wisdom. Baghdad and Damascus became the centers of such activity. The caliphs not only supported this work financially, but endowed the work with formal prestige.

The first major Muslim work of astronomy was Zij al-Sindh by al-Khwarizmi in 830. The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences. This work also marks the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of nontraditional methods of study and calculations.[15]

In 850, al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani (meaning "A compendium of the science of stars"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy based on findings of earlier Arab astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The book was widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin.[16]

1025–1450[edit]

An illustration from al-Biruni's astronomical works, explains the different phases of the moon.

The period when a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. The period began as the Muslim astronomers began questioning the framework of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. These criticisms, however, remained within the geocentric framework and followed Ptolemy's astronomical paradigm; one historian described their work as "a reformist project intended to consolidate Ptolemaic astronomy by bringing it into line with its own principles."[17]

Between 1025 and 1028, Ibn al-Haytham wrote his Al-Shukuk ala Batlamyus (meaning "Doubts on Ptolemy"). While maintaining the physical reality of the geocentric model, he criticized elements of the Ptolemic models. Many astronomers took up the challenge posed in this work, namely to develop alternate models that resolved these difficulties. In 1070, Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani published the Tarik al-Aflak. In his work, he indicated the so-called "equant" problem of the Ptolemic model. Al-Juzjani even proposed a solution for the problem. In Al-Andalus, the anonymous work al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus (meaning "Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy"), included a list of objections to the Ptolemic astronomy.

Other critical astronomers include: Mu'ayyad al-Din al-'Urdi (c. 1266), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–74), Qutb al-Din al Shirazi (c. 1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (c. 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (c. 1375), and Ali al-Qushji (c. 1474).[18]

1450–1900[edit]

The period of stagnation, when the traditional system of astronomy continued to be practised with enthusiasm, but with rapidly decreasing innovation of any major significance.

A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering around some 10,000 manuscript volumes scattered throughout the world. Much of this has not even been catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.

Chemistry Chapter

QMRChalk /ˈtʃɔːk/ is a soft, white, porous sedimentary carbonate rock, a form of limestone composed of the mineral calcite. Calcite is calcium carbonate or CaCO3. It forms under reasonably deep marine conditions from the gradual accumulation of minute calcite shells (coccoliths) shed from micro-organisms called coccolithophores. Flint (a type of chert unique to chalk) is very common as bands parallel to the bedding or as nodules embedded in chalk. It is probably derived from sponge spicules or other siliceous organisms as water is expelled upwards during compaction. Flint is often deposited around larger fossils such as Echinoidea which may be silicified (i.e. replaced molecule by molecule by flint).

Carbon gain is the miracle element

Composition[edit]

The chemical composition of chalk is calcium carbonate, with minor amounts of silt and clay. It is formed in the sea by sub-microscopic plankton, which fall to the sea floor and are then consolidated and compressed during diagenesis into chalk rock.

QMRAnatomy[edit]

In common with other Alcyonacea, red corals have the shape of small leafless bushes and grow up to a meter in height. Their valuable skeleton is composed of intermeshed spicules of hard calcium carbonate, colored in shades of red by carotenoid pigments.[1] In living specimens, the skeletal branches are overlaid with soft bright red integument, from which numerous retractable white polyps protrude.[3] The polyps exhibit octameric radial symmetry.

Carbon again is the miracle element

QMRA pearl is a hard object produced within the soft tissue (specifically the mantle) of a living shelled mollusk. Just like the shell of a clam, a pearl is composed of calcium carbonate in minute crystalline form, which has been deposited in concentric layers. The ideal pearl is perfectly round and smooth, but many other shapes (baroque pearls) occur. The finest quality natural pearls have been highly valued as gemstones and objects of beauty for many centuries. Because of this, pearl has become a metaphor for something rare, fine, admirable and valuable.

Carbon is known as the miracle element- It has four valence electrons

Because pearls are made primarily of calcium carbonate, they can be dissolved in vinegar. Calcium carbonate is susceptible to even a weak acid solution because the crystals of calcium carbonate react with the acetic acid in the vinegar to form calcium acetate and carbon dioxide.

The mollusk's mantle (protective membrane) deposits layers of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of the mineral aragonite or a mixture of aragonite and calcite (polymorphs with the same chemical formula, but different crystal structures) held together by an organic horn-like compound called conchiolin. The combination of aragonite and conchiolin is called nacre, which makes up mother-of-pearl. The commonly held belief that a grain of sand acts as the irritant is in fact rarely the case. Typical stimuli include organic material, parasites, or even damage that displaces mantle tissue to another part of the mollusk's body. These small particles or organisms gain entry when the shell valves are open for feeding or respiration. In cultured pearls, the irritant is typically an introduced piece of the mantle epithelium, with or without a spherical bead (beaded or beadless cultured pearls).[4][5]

Natural pearls[edit]

Natural pearls are nearly 100% calcium carbonate and conchiolin. It is thought that natural pearls form under a set of accidental conditions when a microscopic intruder or parasite enters a bivalve mollusk and settles inside the shell. The mollusk, irritated by the intruder, forms a pearl sac of external mantle tissue cells and secretes the calcium carbonate and conchiolin to cover the irritant. This secretion process is repeated many times, thus producing a pearl. Natural pearls come in many shapes, with perfectly round ones being comparatively rare.

Typically, the build-up of a natural pearl consists of a brown central zone formed by columnar calcium carbonate (usually calcite, sometimes columnar aragonite) and a yellowish to white outer zone consisting of nacre (tabular aragonite). In a pearl cross-section such as the diagram, these two different materials can be seen. The presence of columnar calcium carbonate rich in organic material indicates juvenile mantle tissue that formed during the early stage of pearl development. Displaced living cells with a well-defined task may continue to perform their function in their new location, often resulting in a cyst. Such displacement may occur via an injury. The fragile rim of the shell is exposed and is prone to damage and injury. Crabs, other predators and parasites such as worm larvae may produce traumatic attacks and cause injuries in which some external mantle tissue cells are disconnected from their layer. Embedded in the conjunctive tissue of the mantle, these cells may survive and form a small pocket in which they continue to secrete calcium carbonate, their natural product. The pocket is called a pearl sac, and grows with time by cell division. The juvenile mantle tissue cells, according to their stage of growth, secrete columnar calcium carbonate from pearl sac's inner surface. In time, the pearl sac's external mantle cells proceed to the formation of tabular aragonite. When the transition to nacre secretion occurs, the brown pebble becomes covered with a nacreous coating. During this process, the pearl sac seems to travel into the shell; however, the sac actually stays in its original relative position the mantle tissue while the shell itself grows. After a couple of years, a pearl forms and the shell may be found by a lucky pearl fisher.[6]

Cultured pearls are the response of the shell to a tissue implant. A tiny piece of mantle tissue (called a graft) from a donor shell is transplanted into a recipient shell, causing a pearl sac to form into which the tissue precipitates calcium carbonate.

QMRCarbon neutrality, or having a net zero carbon footprint, refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset, or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference. It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation, energy production, and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel.

The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases (GHG) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence (CO2e) —the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2. The term "climate neutral" reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change, even if CO2 is the most abundant, encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol, namely: methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article.

The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset. Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways:

Again carbon is the miracle element with four valence electrons

QMRCarbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2) is a colorless and odorless gas vital to life on Earth. Again carbon is the miracle element and is shaped like a quadrant

QMRVertebrate hormones fall into four main chemical classes:

Amino acid derived – Examples include melatonin and thyroxine.

Peptides, polypeptides and proteins. – Small peptide hormones include TRH and vasopressin. Peptides composed of scores or hundreds of amino acids are referred to as proteins. Examples of protein hormones include insulin and growth hormone. More complex protein hormones bear carbohydrate side-chains and are called glycoprotein hormones. Luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone are examples of glycoprotein hormones.

Eicosanoids – hormones derive from lipids such as arachidonic acid, lipoxins and prostaglandins.

Steroid – Examples of steroid hormones include the sex hormones estradiol and testosterone as well as the stress hormone cortisol.[9]

Biology Chapter

QMRThe pulmonary veins are large blood vessels that receive oxygenated blood from the lungs and drain into the left atrium of the heart. There are four pulmonary veins, two from each lung. The pulmonary veins are among the few veins that carry oxygenated blood.

Two pulmonary veins emerge from each lung hilum, receiving blood from three or four bronchial veins apiece and draining into the left atrium. An inferior and superior vein drains each lung, so there are four veins in total.[1] The veins are fixed to the pericardium. The pulmonary veins travel alongside the pulmonary arteries[2]

At the root of the lung, the right superior pulmonary vein lies in front of and a little below the pulmonary artery; the inferior is situated at the lowest part of the lung hilum. Behind the pulmonary artery is the bronchus.[2]

The right pulmonary veins (contains oxygenated blood) pass behind the right atrium and superior vena cava; the left in front of the descending thoracic aorta.

QMRIn humans, other mammals, and birds, the heart is divided into four chambers: upper left and right atria; and lower left and right ventricles.[4][5] Commonly the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and their left counterparts as the left heart.[6] Fish in contrast have two chambers, an atrium and a ventricle, while reptiles have three chambers.[5]

Chambers

Heart being dissected showing right and left ventricles, from above

The heart has four chambers, two upper atria, the receiving chambers, and two lower ventricles, the discharging chambers. The atria are connected to the ventricles by the atrioventricular valves and separated from the ventricles by the coronary sulcus. There is an ear-shaped structure in the upper right atrium called the right atrial appendage, or auricle, and another in the upper left atrium, the left atrial appendage. The right atrium and the right ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the right heart and this sometimes includes the pulmonary artery. Similarly, the left atrium and the left ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the left heart. The ventricles are separated by the anterior longitudinal sulcus and the posterior interventricular sulcus.

The cardiac skeleton is made of dense connective tissue and this gives structure to the heart. It forms the atrioventricular septum which separates the atria from the ventricles, and the fibrous rings which serve as bases for the four heart valves.[19] The cardiac skeleton also provides an important boundary in the heart’s electrical conduction system since collagen cannot conduct electricity. The interatrial septum separates the atria and the interventricular septum separates the ventricles.[7] The interventricular septum is much thicker than the interatrial septum, since the ventricles need to generate greater pressure when they contract.

Valves

Main article: Heart valves

With the atria and major vessels removed, all four valves are clearly visible.[7]

The heart, showing valves, arteries and veins. The white arrows shows the normal direction of blood flow.

Frontal section showing papillary muscles attached to the tricuspid valve on the right and to the mitral valve on the left via chordae tendineae.[7]

All four heart valves lie along the same plane. The valves ensure unidirectional blood flow through the heart and prevent backflow. Between the right atrium and the right ventricle is the tricuspid valve. This consists of three cusps (flaps or leaflets), made of endocardium reinforced with additional connective tissue. Each of the three valve-cusps is attached to several strands of connective tissue, the chordae tendineae (tendinous cords), sometimes referred to as the heart strings. They are composed of approximately 80 percent collagenous fibers with the remainder consisting of elastic fibers and endothelium. They connect each of the cusps to a papillary muscle that extends from the lower ventricular surface. These muscles control the opening and closing of the valves. The three papillary muscles in the right ventricle are called the anterior, posterior, and septal muscles, which correspond to the three positions of the valve cusps.

Between the left atrium and left ventricle is the mitral valve, also known as the bicuspid valve due to its having two cusps, an anterior and a posterior medial cusp. These cusps are also attached via chordae tendinae to two papillary muscles projecting from the ventricular wall.

The tricuspid and the mitral valves are the atrioventricular valves. During the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle, the papillary muscles are also relaxed and the tension on the chordae tendineae is slight. However, as the ventricle contracts, so do the papillary muscles. This creates tension on the chordae tendineae, helping to hold the cusps of the atrioventricular valves in place and preventing them from being blown back into the atria.[7]

The semilunar pulmonary valve is located at the base of the pulmonary artery. This has three cusps which are not attached to any papillary muscles. When the ventricle relaxes blood flows back into the ventricle from the artery and this flow of blood fills the pocket-like valve, pressing against the cusps which close to seal the valve. The semilunar aortic valve is at the base of the aorta and also is not attached to papillary muscles. This too has three cusps which close with the pressure of the blood flowing back from the aorta.[7]

Left heart

After gas exchange in the pulmonary capillaries, blood high in oxygen returns to the left atrium via one of the four pulmonary veins. Only the left atrial appendage contains pectinate muscles. Blood flows nearly continuously from the pulmonary veins back into the atrium, which acts as the receiving chamber, and from here through an opening into the left ventricle. Most blood flows passively into the heart while both the atria and ventricles are relaxed, but toward the end of the ventricular relaxation period, the left atrium will contract, pumping blood into the ventricle. This atrial contraction accounts for approximately 20 percent of ventricular filling. The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle by the mitral valve.[7]

Although both sides of the heart will pump the same amount of blood, the muscular layer is much thicker in the left ventricle compared to the right, due to the greater force needed here. Like the right ventricle, the left also has trabeculae carneae, but there is no moderator band. The left ventricle is the major pumping chamber for the systemic circuit; it ejects blood into the aorta through the aortic semilunar valve.[7

QMRTheories of function[edit]

Theories of frontal lobe function can be separated into four categories:

Single-process theories, which propose that "damage to a single process or system is responsible for a number of different dysexecutive symptoms” [11]

Multi-process theories, which propose "that the frontal lobe executive system consists of a number of components that typically work together in everyday actions (heterogeneity of function)" [12]

Construct-led theories, which propose that "most if not all frontal functions can be explained by one construct (homogeneity of function) such as working memory or inhibition" [13]

Single-symptom theories, which propose that a specific dysexecutive symptom (e.g., confabulation) is related to the processes and construct of the underlying structures.[14]

QMRThe Punnett square is a diagram that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment. It is named after Reginald C. Punnett, who devised the approach. The diagram is used by biologists to determine the probability of an offspring having a particular genotype. The Punnett square is a tabular summary of possible combinations of maternal alleles with paternal alleles. [1] These tables can be used to examine the genotypic outcome probabilities of the offspring of a single trait (allele), or when crossing multiple traits from the parents. The Punnett Square is a visual representation of Mendelian inheritance. It is important to understand the terms "heterozygous", "homozygous", "double heterozygote" (or homozygote), "dominant allele" and "recessive allele" when using the Punnet square method. For multiple traits, using the "forked-line method" is typically much easier than the Punnett square. Phenotypes may be assessed using a Punnet square, but the phenotype that may appear from a given genotype can be influenced by many other factors.

It is a quadrant

Monohybrid cross

Main article: Monohybrid cross

"Mono" means "one"; this cross indicates that we are examining a single trait being crossed. This could mean (for example) that we are looking at eye color. Each genetic locus is always represented by two letters. So in the case of eye color, say "B = Brown eyes" and "b = green eyes". In this example, both parents have the genotype Bb. For the example of eye color we stated above, this would mean they both have brown eyes. They can produce gametes that contain either the B or the b allele. (It is conventional in genetics to use capital letters to indicate dominant alleles and lower-case letters to indicate recessive alleles.) The probability of an individual offspring's having the genotype BB is 25%, Bb is 50%, and bb is 25%. The ratio of the phenotypes is 3:1, typical for a monohybrid cross. When assessing phenotype from this, "3" of the offspring will exhibit the "Brown" eyes and only one offspring will exhibit the "green" eyes. (3 are "B_" and 1 is "bb")

(M = Maternal, P = Paternal)

B b

M B BB Bb

b Bb bb

The way in which the B and b alleles interact with each other to affect the appearance of the offspring depends on how the gene products (proteins) interact (see Mendelian inheritance). This can be things like lethal effects and epistasis (where one allele masks another, regardless of dominant or recessive status).

The monohybrid cross is the four squares of the quadrant

Dihybrid cross

Main article: Dihybrid cross

More complicated crosses can be made by looking at two or more genes. The Punnett square works, however, only if the genes are independent of each other, which means that having a particular allele of gene "A" does not alter the probability of possessing an allele of gene "B". This is equivalent to stating that the genes are not linked, so that the two genes do not tend to sort together during meiosis.

The following example illustrates a dihybrid cross between two double-heterozygote pea plants. R represents the dominant allele for shape (round), while r represents the recessive allele (wrinkled). A represents the dominant allele for color (yellow), while a represents the recessive allele (green). If each plant has the genotype RrAa, and since the alleles for shape and color genes are independent, then they can produce four types of gametes with all possible combinations: RA, Ra, rA, and ra.

RA Ra rA ra

RA RRAA RRAa RrAA RrAa

Ra RRAa RRaa RrAa Rraa

rA RrAA RrAa rrAA rrAa

ra RrAa Rraa rrAa rraa

Since dominant traits mask recessive traits (assuming no epistasis), there are nine combinations that have the phenotype round yellow, three that are round green, three that are wrinkled yellow, and one that is wrinkled green. The ratio 9:3:3:1 is the expected outcome when crossing two double-heterozygous parents with unlinked genes. Any other ratio indicates that something else has occurred (such as lethal alleles, epistasis, linked genes...etc;).

This is the 16 squares of the quadrant

QMRA Simple Thinking About Blood Type (Korean: 혈액형에 관한 간단한 고찰 Revised: Hyeoraekyeonge gwanhan gandanhan gochal?) is a Korean 4-panel webcomic by Park Dong-Sun (박동선) under the penname "Real Crazy Man", an art teacher from Korea. The webcomic has been serialized on his blog. The comic has the theme of blood type personality classification. Japanese publisher Earth Star Entertainment published the comic in book form as Ketsuekigata-kun! (血液型くん!?) and a short anime adaptation was made by Japanese production houses Assez Finaund Fabric and Feel in 2013, with a second season in January 2015. Zexcs will co-produce a third season, scheduled to air in October 2015. A 4th season has been announced.[1]

QMRThe ABO blood group system is the most important blood type system (or blood group system) in human blood transfusion. Found on platelets, epithelium, and cells other than erythrocytes, AB antigens (as with other serotypes) can also cause an adverse immune response to organ transplantation.[1] The associated anti-A and anti-B antibodies are usually IgM antibodies, which are produced in the first years of life by sensitization to environmental substances, such as food, bacteria, and viruses. ABO blood types are also present in some other animals, for example rodents and apes, such as chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas

History of discoveries of the blood types[edit]

Czech serologist Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, 0)

The ABO blood group system is widely credited to have been discovered by the Austrian scientist Karl Landsteiner, who identified the O, A, and B blood types in 1900.[3] Landsteiner originally described the O blood type as type "C", and in parts of Europe it is rendered as "0" (zero), signifying the lack of A or B antigen. Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930 for his work. Alfred von Decastello and Adriano Sturli discovered the fourth type, AB, in 1902.[4]

Ukraine marine uniform imprint, showing the wearer's blood type as "B (III) Rh+"

Due to inadequate communication at the time, it was subsequently found that the Czech serologist Jan Janský had independently pioneered the classification of human blood into four groups,[5] but Landsteiner's independent discovery had been accepted by the scientific world while Janský remained then in relative obscurity. However, in 1921 an American medical commission acknowledged Janský's classification. Jan Janský is nowadays credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, 0).

Janský's classification remains in use today. In Russia and states of the former USSR blood types O, A, B, and AB are respectively designated I, II, III, and IV.[6] The designation A and B with reference to blood groups was proposed by Ludwik Hirszfeld.

Another theory states that there are four main lineages of the ABO gene and that mutations creating type O have occurred at least three times in humans.[34] From oldest to youngest, these lineages comprise the following alleles: A101/A201/O09, B101, O02 and O01. The continued presence of the O alleles is hypothesized to be the result of balancing selection.[34] Both theories contradict the previously held theory that type O blood evolved first.[citation needed]

Psychology Chapter

Sociology Chapter

QMRSWOT-i matrix[edit]

The previous sections described the major steps involved in context analysis. All these steps resulted in data that can be used for developing a strategy. These are summarized in a SWOT-i matrix. The trend and competitor analysis revealed the opportunities and threats posed by the market. The organization analysis revealed the competences of the organization and also its strengths and weaknesses. These strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats summarize the entire context analysis. A SWOT-i matrix, depicted in the table below, is used to depict these and to help visualize the strategies that are to be devised. SWOT- i stand for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats and Issues. The Issues refer to strategic issues that will be used to devise a strategic plan.

Opportunities (O1, O2, ..., On) Threats (T1, T2, ..., Tn)

Strengths (S1, S2, ..., Sn) S1O1...SnO1

...

S1On...SnOn S1T1...SnT1

...

S1Tn...SnTn

Weaknesses (W1, W2, ..., Wn) W1O1...WnO1

...

W1On...WnOn W1T1...WnT1

...

W1Tn...WnTn

This matrix combines the strengths with the opportunities and threats, and the weaknesses with the opportunities and threats that were identified during the analysis. Thus the matrix reveals four clusters:

Cluster strengths and opportunities: use strengths to take advantage of opportunities.

Cluster strengths and threats: use strengths to overcome the threats

Cluster weaknesses and opportunities: certain weaknesses hamper the organization from taking advantage of opportunities therefore they have to look for a way to turn those weaknesses around.

Cluster weaknesses and threats: there is no way that the organization can overcome the threats without having to make major changes.

QMRKiyosaki often refers to what he calls "The CASHFLOW Quadrant", a conceptual tool which he developed to categorize the four major ways income is earned in the world of money. Depicted in a diagram, this concept entails four groupings, split with two crossed lines (one vertical and one horizontal). In each of the four groups there is a letter representing a way in which an individual may earn income. The letters are as follows.

E: Employee – Working for someone else.

S: Self-employed or Small business owner – Where a person owns his own job and is his own boss.

B: Business owner – A person who owns a business to make money; typically where the owner's physical presence is not required.

I: Investor – Investing money in order to receive a larger income in the future or analyses other businesses as potential investments.

For those on the left side of the divide (E and S), Kiyosaki says that they may never obtain true wealth. Conversely, those on the right side of the divide (B and I) are supposedly following the only road to true wealth. Kiyosaki also classifies the four main "asset" classes as means of gaining wealth:[99][100]

Businesses: Businesses that generate monthly cash flow that don't require the owner's physical presence.

Real Estate: Real estate such as owning warehouses, small family homes, or apartment houses that generate monthly cash flow.

Paper Assets: Investments such as stocks, bonds, ETF's, hedge funds, etc.

Commodities: Gold, silver, iron ore, or copper that are used to hedge government's mismanagement printing of the nation's currency.

QMRVan Jones

Fabulous as the morning line up had been up to that point, social justice luminary Van Jones, co-founder and Executive Director of the Ella Baker Center, was the uncontested star of the day. Charismatic, generous and entertaining, Jones talked about how environmentalism has been the ‘nice (“white”) face’ that can open the door for long-needed social change, change that the harsher black face of social injustice has been unable to shift.

As the environmental movement moves from the margins to the center of mainstream culture, Van Jones challenges us with a question about who we are going to take with us, and who is going to be left behind.

Using his increasingly famous Fourth Quadrant slideshow (“the presentation Al Gore would do if he were black”), he walked us through an overview of the environmental movement up to now and show us a possible future. In a line from the Grey phase of problems on the left of the page to the Green of solutions on the right, we cross the unseen line of race, class, and gender. This line is often invisible, but when we include it, it creates a grid of four quadrants.

4quadrants

In the top left, in the quadrant of Rich and Grey, we have the problems of species loss, which is of course true, while in the lower left we have problems of human loss and degradation, no less true.

In the upper right quadrant, of Rich and Green, we have wonderful solutions – Priuses, solar panels, and Whole Foods (Whole Paycheck for anyone outside of Marin, Jones quips smile emoticon. Ultimately this area consists of business opportunities for rich people and consumer choices for the affluent. This is a good thing, too, Jones says. We WANT people to be investing in this area, and making better choices, but what about those who can’t afford a Hybrid, who are struggling to find rent – is there a place for them in the Environmental movement? In the lower right quadrant is where we begin to deliver the health and work benefits of the Environmental movement with Green-Collar jobs like the People’s Grocery, in Oakland, or the Solar Richmond project.

The moral challenge of the Environmental movement, Van Jones contends, is to bring the green economy to those who most need the advantages it can bring, the youth of color that would otherwise be jail fodder. “You save money, that young person’s life and the soul of this country”, he declares passionately; “in the green economy we don’t have any throw-away resources, throw-away people or throw-away neighborhoods.

QMRApple’s Four Quadrant product grid

Feb 26, 2012

Complexity distorts information flow and decelerates clear decision-making. Any decision made in the face of complex operations, unnecessary product types or models are increasingly incoherent. Companies that do well have a sense of clarity and focus with less complex operations and product lineups.

Companies whose business models are simple can replicate their successes repeatedly. Apple’s co-founder Steven Paul Jobs (Steve Jobs) realized this quite early. At the MacWorld Expo in 1998, Steve revealed a four-quadrant product grid. Upon his return to Apple, Steve toured the company and found that there were far too many teams working on the Mac. Each team had different names and viewpoint of the Mac in mind and lacked coherence. He came up with the idea of a simple four-quadrant grid with two rows labeled as ‘Consumer’, ‘Professional’, and the columns as ‘Portable’ and ‘Desktop’. This way Apple engineers and managers had to focus on only four core product areas and the company could deploy the best engineers in the right area. Additionally, there would be no product or resource overlap. Even the naming convention seems simple e.g. ‘i’ in consumer products and ‘Power/Mac’ in professional products.

Steve Jobs four-quadrant product grid

A newer grid today might look like this:

Steve Jobs four-quadrant product grid

Recent examples of companies reducing product complexity are Google, HP and MTV. Google has retired many products. In a recent conference call in Feb 2012, HP’s CEO Meg Whitman emphasized the need to trim down its many products models, SKUs and configurations and to remove unnecessary complexity from designing to manufacture and delivering products. MTV India, the music channel is shifting its focus back on music and reducing non-music format shows.

« Reinventing jcpenney

» Repeatability

QMRThe Four Quadrants[edit]

In his article, The Fourth Quadrant, Professor Zittrain develops a four quadrant framework for thinking about the Internet. This framework looks at two criteria: (1) how generative something is, and (2) how singular it is.

The generativity of a phenomena is assessed on a scale from entirely “top-down” to entirely “bottom-up.” The range of singularity runs from “hierarchy” to “polyarchy.” This is captured in the following chart from the article:

Zittrain Four Quadrants.png

Professor Zittrain uses precise (sometimes unconventional) definitions of these terms:

Top-down: systems in which “there is a separation between those who make the rules and those who live under them . . . .”

Bottom-up: systems where the rules can come from any person without separation between the people who make the rules and people who live under them.

Hierarchy: a system in which "gatekeepers control the allocation of attention and resources to an idea" or "a system for which there is no alternative, either because it does not exist, because it would be too costly, or because law precludes it."

Note: to see how Professor Zittrain's definition of hierarchy might differ from the lay person understanding, see Wikipedia.

Polyarchy: being able to choose between multiple regimes or systems and pursue ideas independently.

QMRThe Four Freedoms were goals articulated by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt on January 6, 1941. In an address known as the Four Freedoms speech (technically the 1941 State of the Union address), he proposed four fundamental freedoms that people "everywhere in the world" ought to enjoy:

Freedom of speech

Freedom of worship

Freedom from want

Freedom from fear

Declarations[edit]

Franklin Delano Roosevelt headshot

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

State of the Union (Four Freedoms) (January 6, 1941)

MENU0:00

Franklin Delano Roosevelt's January 6, 1941 State of the Union address introducing the theme of the Four Freedoms (starting at 32:02)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

The Four Freedoms Speech was given on January 6, 1941. Roosevelt’s hope was to provide a rationale for why the United States should abandon the isolationist policies that emerged from WWI. In the address, Roosevelt critiqued Isolationism, saying: "No realistic American can expect from a dictator’s peace international generosity, or return of true independence, or world disarmament, or freedom of expression, or freedom of religion–or even good business. Such a peace would bring no security for us or for our neighbors. “Those, who would give up essential liberty to purchase a little temporary safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety.”[6]

The speech coincided with the introduction of the Lend-Lease Bill, which promoted Roosevelt’s plan to become the “arsenal of democracy”[7] and support the Allies (mainly the British) with much-needed supplies.[8] Furthermore, the speech established what would become the ideological basis for America’s involvement in WWII, all framed in terms of individual rights and liberties that are the hallmark of American politics.[2]

The speech delivered by President Roosevelt incorporated the following text, known as the "Four Freedoms":

"In the future days, which we seek to make secure, we look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms.

The first is freedom of speech and expression—everywhere in the world.

The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way—everywhere in the world.

The third is freedom from want—which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants—everywhere in the world.

The fourth is freedom from fear—which, translated into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor—anywhere in the world.

That is no vision of a distant millennium. It is a definite basis for a kind of world attainable in our own time and generation. That kind of world is the very antithesis of the so-called new order of tyranny which the dictators seek to create with the crash of a bomb."—Franklin D. Roosevelt, excerpted from the State of the Union Address to the Congress, January 6, 1941

The four freedoms flag or "United Nations Honor Flag" ca. 1943–1948

The declaration of the Four Freedoms as a justification for war would resonate through the remainder of the war, and for decades longer as a frame of remembrance.[2] The Freedoms became the staple of America’s war aims, and the center of all attempts to rally public support for the war. With the creation of the Office of War Information (1942), as well as the famous paintings of Norman Rockwell, the Freedoms were advertised as values central to American life and examples of American exceptionalism.[9]

United Nations[edit]

The concept of the Four Freedoms became part of the personal mission undertaken by First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt regarding her inspiration behind the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, General Assembly Resolution 217A. Indeed, these Four Freedoms were explicitly incorporated into the preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which reads, "Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed the highest aspiration of the common people...."[17]

Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park[edit]

Main article: Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park

The Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park is a park designed by the architect Louis Kahn for the south point of Roosevelt Island.[19] The Park celebrates the famous speech, and text from the speech is inscribed on a granite wall in the final design of the Park.

Awards[edit]

Main article: Four Freedoms Award

The Roosevelt Institute[20] honors outstanding individuals who have demonstrated a lifelong commitment to these ideals. The Four Freedoms Award medals are awarded at ceremonies at Hyde Park, New York and Middelburg, Netherlands during alternate years. The awards were first presented in 1982 on the centenary of President Roosevelt's birth as well as the bicentenary of diplomatic relations between the United States and the Netherlands.

Among the laureates have been:

William Brennan

H.M. Juan Carlos of Spain

Jimmy Carter

Bill Clinton

The Dalai Lama

Mikhail Gorbachev

Averell Harriman

Václav Havel

John F. Kennedy

Mike Mansfield

Paul Newman

Tip O'Neill

Shimon Peres

H.R.H. Princess Juliana of the Netherlands

Coretta Scott King

Brent Scowcroft

Harry S. Truman

Liv Ullman

Elie Wiesel

Joanne Woodward

Art[edit]

Norman Rockwell’s paintings[edit]

Main article: Four Freedoms (Norman Rockwell)

Freedom of Speech from the Four Freedoms series by Norman Rockwell

Freedom from Want from the Four Freedoms series by Norman Rockwell

President Roosevelt’s Four Freedoms speech inspired a set of four Four Freedoms paintings by Norman Rockwell. The four paintings were published in The Saturday Evening Post on February 20, February 27, March 6, and March 13 in 1943. The paintings were accompanied in the magazine by matching essays on the Four Freedoms.

The United States Department of the Treasury toured Rockwell’s Four Freedoms paintings around the country after their publication in 1943. The Four Freedoms Tour raised over $130,000,000 in war bond sales.

Irving Berlin's Song of Freedom (1942), appears in the Christmas film Holiday Inn, starring Bing Crosby and Fred Astaire, among others, which also premiered the holiday classic "White Christmas."[citation needed]

Other artwork[edit]

In 1941, artist Kindred McLeary painted America the Mighty (also known as Defense of Human Freedoms) in the State Department's Harry S. Truman Building.[21]

In 1942, artist Hugo Ballin painted The Four Freedoms mural in the Council Chamber of the City Hall of Burbank, California.[22]

In 1943, New Jersey muralist Michael Lenson (1903–72) painted The Four Freedoms mural for the Fourteenth Street School in Newark, New Jersey.[23]

In 1948, muralist Anton Refregier completed the "History of San Francisco" in the Rincon Center in San Francisco, California. Panel 27 depicted the four freedoms.[24]

In the late 1950s, artist Mildred Nungester Wolfe painted four mural panels depicting the freedoms for a country store in Richton, Mississippi. Those panels now hang in the Mississippi Museum of Art.[25]

In 1982, Allyn Cox completed four paintings in the Great Experiment Hall in the United States House of Representatives. Four of the murals depict allegorical figures representing the four freedoms.[26]

In the early 1990s, artist David McDonald reproduced Rockwell's Four Freedoms paintings as four large murals on the side of an old grocery building in downtown Silverton, Oregon.[27]

In 2008, Florida International University's Wolfsonian museum hosted the Thoughts on Democracy exhibition that displayed posters created by sixty leading contemporary artists and designers, invited to create a new graphic design inspired by American illustrator Norman Rockwell’s “Four Freedoms” posters.[28]

Fictional entities[edit]

The Marvel Comics superhero team the Fantastic Four was based in the Four Freedoms Plaza building from 1986,[29] to 1998, when it was destroyed by the Masters of Evil (in the guise of the Thunderbolts).[30]

Games[edit]

The Splinter Cell franchise makes numerous references to the Four Freedoms. In the opening sequence of the first game, the Four Freedoms are displayed in text version as a splash screen at the opening of the game, with a fifth freedom added: The freedom to protect the other four—by any means necessary. It is this so-called "fifth freedom" that the game's protagonist operates under, and the theme is continued in subsequent entries in the series.

Literature[edit]

John Crowley's novel Four Freedoms (2009) is largely based on the themes of Roosevelt's speech.

Monument[edit]

Main article: Four Freedoms Monument

FDR commissioned sculptor Walter Russell to design a monument to be dedicated to the first hero of the war. The Four Freedoms Monument was created in 1941 and dedicated at Madison Square Garden, in New York City, in 1943.

Postage stamps[edit]

Rockwell's Four Freedoms paintings were reproduced as postage stamps by the United States Post Office in 1941,[31] in 1943, [32] in 1946,[33] and in 1994.[31]

QMRThe European Union's (EU) internal market, also known as the EU Single Market, is a single market that seeks to guarantee the free movement of goods, capital, services, and people – the "four freedoms" – between the EU's 28 member states.[1][2][3]

QMRFranklin D. Roosevelt included freedom from want in his Four freedoms speech. Roosevelt stated that freedom from want "translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants-everywhere in the world". In terms of US policy, Roosevelt's New Deal included economic freedoms such as freedom of trade union organisation, as well as a wide range of policies of government intervention and redistributive taxation aimed at promoting freedom from want. Internationally, Roosevelt favored the policies associated with the Bretton Woods Agreement which fixed exchange rates and established international economic institutions such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

Herbert Hoover saw economic freedom as a fifth freedom, which secures survival of Roosevelt's Four freedoms. He described economic freedom as freedom "for men to choose their own calling, to accumulate property in protection of their children and old age, [and] freedom of enterprise that does not injure others."

QMRThe Nolan Chart is a political view assessment diagram created by David Nolan in 1969. The chart divides human political opinions into two vectors – economic opinion and personal opinion – to produce a type of Cartesian chart. It expands political view analysis beyond the traditional "left–right" line, which measures politics along a one-dimensional line, into a graph with two dimensions: degrees of economic and personal freedom.

It is a quadrant.

Since, Nolan realized, most government activity (or government control) occurs in these two major areas, political positions can be defined by how much government control a person or political party favors in these two areas. The extremes are no government at all in either area (anarchism) or total or near-total government control of everything (various forms of totalitarianism). Most political philosophies fall somewhere in between. In broad terms:

Conservatives and those on the right tend to favor more freedom in economic areas (example: a free market), but more government intervention in personal matters (example: drug laws).

Liberals and those on the left (by the common US meanings of those terms) tend to favor more freedom in personal areas (example: no military draft), but more government activism or control in economics (example: a government-mandated minimum wage).

Libertarians favor both personal and economic freedom, and oppose most (or all) government intervention in both areas. Like conservatives, libertarians believe that people should be free to make economic choices for themselves. Like liberals, libertarians believe in personal freedom.

Statists favor a lot of government control in both the personal and economic areas. Different versions of the chart, as well as Nolan's original chart, use terms such as "communitarian" or "populist" to label this corner of the chart.

Positions[edit]

A variant of the Nolan chart using traditional political color-coding (red leftism versus blue rightism) and alternative labels for the sections. (Note that this chart is rotated 90° from the one above.)

Differing from the traditional "left/right" distinction and other political taxonomies, the Nolan Chart in its original form has two dimensions, with a horizontal x-axis labeled "...See More

QMRThe definition and the Four Freedoms[edit]

The definition published by FSF in February 1986 had two points:[2]

The word "free" in our name does not refer to price; it refers to freedom. First, the freedom to copy a program and redistribute it to your neighbors, so that they can use it as well as you. Second, the freedom to change a program, so that you can control it instead of it controlling you; for this, the source code must be made available to you.

In 1996, when the gnu.org website was launched, "free software" was defined referring to "three levels of freedom" by adding an explicit mention of the freedom to study the software (which could be read in the two-point definition as being part of the freedom to change the program).[4][5] Stallman later avoided the word "levels", saying that you need all of the freedoms, so it's misleading to think in terms of levels.

Finally, another freedom was added, to explicitly say that users should be able to run the program. The existing freedoms were already numbered one to three, but this freedom should come before the others, so it was added as "freedom zero".[6][better source needed]

The modern definition defines free software by whether or not the recipient has the following four freedoms:[7]

The freedom to run the program as you wish, for any purpose (freedom 0).

The freedom to study how the program works, and change it so it does your computing as you wish (freedom 1). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.

The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor (freedom 2).

The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to others (freedom 3). By doing this you can give the whole community a chance to benefit from your changes. Access to the source code is a precondition for this.

Freedoms 1 and 3 require source code to be available because studying and modifying software without its source code is highly impractical.

QMRThe Four Freedoms Mural (Burbank City Hall)

QMRFour Freedoms Plaza is a fictional structure in the Manhattan of the Marvel Universe; it served as the replacement headquarters for the Fantastic Four when their original dwelling, the Baxter Building, was destroyed by Kristoff Vernard, the adoptive son of Doctor Doom.[1] It is located at 42nd Street and Madison Avenue in New York City. The title of the building comes from a Franklin D. Roosevelt speech urging the Congress of the United States to enter World War II. In it Roosevelt outlined the four freedoms the world would enjoy if it united together to defeat the Axis Power:[2]

Freedom of speech

Freedom of worship

Freedom from want

Freedom from fear

Quadrant Model of Reality

Monday, February 22, 2016

Quadrant Model of Reality Book 23 Science

No comments:

Post a Comment