Quadrant Model of Reality: Quadrant Model of Reality Book 25 Science

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QMRThe Galilean moons are the four largest moons of Jupiter—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They were discovered by Galileo Galilei around January 1610 and were the first group of objects found to orbit another planet. Their names derive from the lovers of Zeus. They are among the largest objects in the Solar System with the exception of the Sun and the eight planets, with radii larger than any of the dwarf planets. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System, and is even bigger than the planet Mercury. The three inner moons—Io, Europa, and Ganymede—are in a 4:2:1 orbital resonance with each other.

The Galilean moons were discovered in either 1609 or 1610 when Galileo made improvements to his telescope, which enabled him to observe celestial bodies more distinctly than ever.[1] Galileo's discovery showed the importance of the telescope as a tool for astronomers by proving that there were objects in space that cannot be seen by the naked eye. More importantly, the incontrovertible discovery of celestial bodies orbiting something other than Earth dealt a serious blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic world system, or the geocentric theory in which everything orbits around Earth.

As a result of improvements Galileo Galilei made to the telescope, with a magnifying capability of 20×,[3] he was able to see celestial bodies more distinctly than was ever possible before. This allowed Galilei to discover in either December 1609 or January 1610 what came to be known as the Galilean moons.[1][4]

On January 7, 1610, Galileo wrote a letter containing the first mention of Jupiter's moons. At the time, he saw only three of them, and he believed them to be fixed stars near Jupiter. He continued to observe these celestial orbs from January 8 to March 2, 1610. In these observations, he discovered a fourth body, and also observed that the four were not fixed stars, but rather were orbiting Jupiter. The fourth is always different

Galileo asked whether he should name the moons the "Cosmian Stars", after Cosimo alone, or the "Medician Stars", which would honor all four brothers in the Medici clan. The secretary replied that the latter name would be best.[1]

On March 12, 1610, Galileo wrote his dedicatory letter to the Duke of Tuscany, and the next day sent a copy to the Grand Duke, hoping to obtain the Grand Duke's support as quickly as possible. On March 19, he sent the telescope he had used to first view Jupiter's moons to the Grand Duke, along with an official copy of Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger) that, following the secretary's advice, named the four moons the Medician Stars.[1] In his dedicatory introduction, Galileo wrote:

Scarcely have the immortal graces of your soul begun to shine forth on earth than bright stars offer themselves in the heavens which, like tongues, will speak of and celebrate your most excellent virtues for all time. Behold, therefore, four stars reserved for your illustrious name ... which ... make their journeys and orbits with a marvelous speed around the star of Jupiter ... like children of the same family ... Indeed, it appears the Maker of the Stars himself, by clear arguments, admonished me to call these new planets by the illustrious name of Your Highness before all others.[1]

Galileo initially called his discovery the Cosmica Sidera ("Cosimo's stars"), in honour of Cosimo II de' Medici (1590–1621). At Cosimo's suggestion, Galileo changed the name to Medicea Sidera ("the Medician stars"), honouring all four Medici brothers (Cosimo, Francesco, Carlo, and Lorenzo). The discovery was announced in the Sidereus Nuncius ("Starry Messenger"), published in Venice in March 1610, less than two months after the first observations.

Io[edit]

Main article: Io (moon)

The three inner Galilean moons revolve in a 1:2:4 resonance.

Io is the innermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and, with a diameter of 3,642 kilometers, the fourth-largest moon in the Solar System. It was named after Io, a priestess of Hera who became one of the lovers of Zeus. Nevertheless, it was simply referred to as "Jupiter I", or "The first satellite of Jupiter", until the mid-20th century.[9]

With over 400 active volcanos, Io is the most geologically active object in the Solar System.[18] Its surface is dotted with more than 100 mountains, some of which are taller than Earth's Mount Everest.[19] Unlike most satellites in the outer Solar System (which have a thick coating of ice), Io is primarily composed of silicate rock surrounding a molten iron or iron sulfide core.

Although not proven, recent data from the Galileo orbiter indicate that Io might have its own magnetic field.[20] Io has an extremely thin atmosphere made up mostly of sulfur dioxide (SO2).[21] If a surface data or collection vessel were to land on Io in the future, it would have to be extremely tough (similar to the tank-like bodies of the Soviet Venera landers) to survive the radiation and magnetic fields that originate from Jupiter.

Europa[edit]

Main article: Europa (moon)

Two Hubble Space Telescope views of a rare triple transit of Jupiter by Europa, Callisto and Io (24 January 2015).

Europa, the second of the four Galilean moons, is the second closest to Jupiter and the smallest at 3121.6 kilometers in diameter, which is slightly smaller than the Moon. The name comes from a mythical Phoenician noblewoman, Europa, who was courted by Zeus and became the queen of Crete, though the name did not become widely used until the mid-20th century.[9]

It is one of the smoothest objects in the Solar System,[23] with a layer of water surrounding the mantle of the planet, thought to be 100 kilometers thick.[24] The smooth surface includes a layer of ice, while the bottom of the ice is theorized to be liquid water.[25] The apparent youth and smoothness of the surface have led to the hypothesis that a water ocean exists beneath it, which could conceivably serve as an abode for extraterrestrial life.[26] Heat energy from tidal flexing ensures that the ocean remains liquid and drives geological activity.[27] Life may exist in Europa's under-ice ocean, perhaps subsisting in an environment similar to Earth's deep-ocean hydrothermal vents or the Antarctic Lake Vostok.[28] Life in such an ocean could possibly be similar to microbial life on Earth in the deep ocean.[29] So far, there is no evidence that life exists on Europa, but the likely presence of liquid water has spurred calls to send a probe there.[30]

The prominent markings that criss-cross the moon seem to be mainly albedo features, which emphasize low topography. There are few craters on Europa because its surface is tectonically active and young.[31] Some theories suggest that Jupiter's gravity is causing these markings, as one side of Europa is constantly facing Jupiter. Also, volcanic water eruptions splitting the surface of Europa, and even geysers have been considered as a cause. The color of the markings, reddish-brown, is theorized to be caused by sulfur, but scientists cannot confirm that, because no data collection devices have been sent to Europa.[32] Europa is primarily made of silicate rock and likely has an iron core. It has a tenuous atmosphere composed primarily of oxygen.

Ganymede[edit]

Main article: Ganymede (moon)

Ganymede, the third Galilean moon is named after the mythological Ganymede, cupbearer of the Greek gods and Zeus's beloved.[33] Ganymede is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System at 5262.4 kilometers in diameter, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury – although only at about half of its mass[34] since Ganymede is an icy world. It is the only satellite in the Solar System known to possess a magnetosphere, likely created through convection within the liquid iron core.[35]

Ganymede is composed primarily of silicate rock and water ice, and a salt-water ocean is believed to exist nearly 200 km below Ganymede's surface, sandwiched between layers of ice.[36] The metallic core of Ganymede suggests a greater heat at some time in its past than had previously been proposed. The surface is a mix of two types of terrain—highly cratered dark regions and younger, but still ancient, regions with a large array of grooves and ridges. Ganymede has a high number of craters, but many are gone or barely visible due to its icy crust forming over them. The satellite has a thin oxygen atmosphere that includes O, O2, and possibly O3 (ozone), and some atomic hydrogen.

Callisto[edit]

Main article: Callisto (moon)

Callisto is the fourth and last Galilean moon, and is the second largest of the four, and at 4820.6 kilometers in diameter, it is the third largest moon in the Solar System. Callisto was a daughter of the Arkadian King Lykaon and a hunting companion of the goddess Artemis. It does not form part of the orbital resonance that affects three inner Galilean satellites and thus does not experience appreciable tidal heating.[39] Callisto is composed of approximately equal amounts of rock and ices, which makes it the least dense of the Galilean moons. It is one of the most heavily cratered satellites in the Solar System, and one major feature is a basin around 3000 km wide called Valhalla.

Callisto is surrounded by an extremely thin atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide[40] and probably molecular oxygen.[41] Investigation revealed that Callisto may possibly have a subsurface ocean of liquid water at depths greater than 100 kilometers.[42] The likely presence of an ocean within Callisto indicates that it can or could harbor life. However, this is less likely than on nearby Europa.[43] Callisto has long been considered the most suitable place for a human base for future exploration of the Jupiter system since it is furthest from the intense radiation of Jupiter.[44]

All four Galilean moons are bright enough that they could be sighted from Earth without a telescope, if they were farther away from Jupiter. (They are, however, easily visible with even low-powered binoculars.) They have apparent magnitudes between 4.6 and 5.6 when Jupiter is in opposition with the Sun,[48] and are about one unit of magnitude dimmer when Jupiter is in conjunction. The main difficulty in observing the moons from Earth is their proximity to Jupiter since they are obscured by its brightness.[49] The maximum angular separations of the moons are between 2 and 10 minutes of arc from Jupiter,[50] which is close to the limit of human visual acuity. Ganymede and Callisto, at their maximum separation, are the likeliest targets for potential naked-eye observation.

QMRJupiter's moons in fiction

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Galilean moons of Jupiter

Jupiter's extensive system of natural satellites – in particular the four large Galilean moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) – has been a common science fiction setting.

Satellite system[edit]

Some references in fiction focus on more than one moon, or do not refer to a specific moon.

Literature[edit]

In Seetee Ship (1949) and Seetee Shock (1950) by Jack Williamson, the Jovian moons are colonised by the Soviet Union, which transfers its government there after the United States builds a nuclear base on the Moon, which enables the Americans to dominate the whole of Earth. The Jovian Soviet is one of the main powers contending for control of the mineral wealth of the Asteroid Belt.

Robert A. Heinlein's young adult novel Farmer in the Sky (1950) is set on Ganymede.

Arthur C. Clarke's short story, Jupiter Five (1953), has most of the action in the Jupiter system. Clarke also concentrates heavily on the system in his Space Odyssey series.

The novel The Runaway Robot (1965) by Lester Del Rey is set primarily on Ganymede.

The novels of Kim Stanley Robinson, including The Memory of Whiteness (1985), Green Mars (1993) and Blue Mars (1996) depict numerous ideas about the future colonization of Jupiter, focusing more on the moons than on the planet itself.

The Ilium/Olympos novels (2003-2005) of Dan Simmons depict numerous biomechanical organisms, called moravecs, that dwell on the Galilean moons and in the asteroid belt.

In Larklight (2006) by Philip Reeve, the moons of Jupiter have been colonised by the British empire and are the furthest outpost. Certain spores can have effects on their mind, though this is now only used for advertising. Millennia ago they warred with each other for control of other moons and used spores for this, until a spore produced by the King of Chumbley, but which blew back towards Chumbley, made them all peaceful. Jupiter is inhabited by sentient storms, the largest of which, Old Thunderhead, and worshipped by some Jovians as a god.

Jupiter Magazine, a science fiction quarterly published in Britain since July 2003 by Ian Redman, names each of the issues after one of the Jovian satellites, with the traditional number of the moon matching the issue number of the magazine.

The Expanse series of novels by James S. A. Corey partly take place on and around Jupiter's moons, particularly Ganymede, Europa and Io.

Film and television[edit]

In the anime Cowboy Bebop (1998), various episodes take place on Jupiter's moons. In "Mushroom Samba" en route to Europa the crew is forced to land on Io. The two-part episode "Jupiter Jazz" takes place on Callisto, and "Ganymede Elegy", takes place on Ganymede. There are also several reference to Titan throughout the series and in the movie, Cowboy Bebop: Knockin' on Heaven's Door.

The motion picture sequel 2010 involves Io and Europa.

The Canadian science fiction television series Starhunter often used the Jupiter system as the backdrop for the action, including a metropolis on Io called "Syn City", and a space station called "Clarke Station" (presumably a tip of the hat to Arthur C. Clarke.[original research?]) Various other moons are mentioned, including a prison on Ganymede.

The British science fiction television series Red Dwarf mentions the moons of Ganymede and Titan in the first two series. The ship Red Dwarf belongs to the Jupiter Mining Corporation.

The science fiction drama Cloud Atlas (2012) depicts humans living on a terraformed Europa or Callisto after a nuclear holocaust destroys much of Earth.

The Science Fiction horror drama "Europa Report" portrays 6 astronauts on a space mission to Europa after studies show life being possible in the underground ocean of Europa.

Games[edit]

In The Lost Episodes of Doom, an unofficial expansion pack for the game Doom, the three episodes take place on Io, Callisto, and Jupiter's Great Red Spot (depicted as a gateway to Hell).

The futuristic racing computer game POD - Planet of Death takes place on Io where a corrosive biosubstance known as "Pod" emerges from under the ground and devours the moon, eventually tearing it apart.

Io[edit]

Io is the closest of the Galilean satellites to Jupiter. It is almost the same size as the Moon. Because of its position, it is subject to constant tidal flexing and heavy radiation from Jupiter's magnetic field. Since 1979, it has also been known for its abundant volcanism.

Literature[edit]

The Mad Moon (1935), short story by Stanley G. Weinbaum. Io is home to two native races, the moronic balloon-headed loonies and the ratlike slinkers.

Lucky Starr and the Moons of Jupiter (1957), young adult novel by Isaac Asimov. Climactic confrontation between Lucky and a Sirian spy on Io.

Bio of a Space Tyrant - Volume 1 - Refugee (1983), novel by Piers Anthony. Io is a hellish planet where the protagonist, Hope Hubris, seeks the aid of a scientist, Mason, at a research station. Hope is shown a picture of Megan, Mason's niece, who would later become Hope's wife.

The Very Pulse of the Machine (1998), Hugo award-winning short story by Michael Swanwick. Features the volcanic, sulfurous landscape of Io, as well as the powerful electrical flux between Io and Jupiter.

Ilium (2003), novel by Dan Simmons. Io's magnetic flux tube is used to hyper-accelerate spacecraft throughout the Solar System. It is also the home of a moravec named Orphu.

In Camouflage (2004), by Joe Haldeman, several scientists attempt to communicate with an extraterrestrial object found on the floor of the Pacific Ocean by (among other methods) subjecting it to the atmospheres of various planets and moons, including Io. Haldeman writes, "Io's atmosphere is exotic and variable... The fact that it's a poisonous mixture of sulfur dioxide and sodium isn't relevant to human survival; a human would freeze solid in the middle of explosive decompression, not having time to notice that the air smelled bad."[1]

Kim Stanley Robinson's novels Galileo's Dream (2009) and 2312 (2012) both include descriptions of human colonies on Io, in the 29th and 24th centuries, respectively. In both novels, Io is an inhospitable, dangerous place and lava plays a significant role.

In Jake Stephen Jackson's The Dawning Clocks of Time (2011), Io is a habitable planet home to an extraterrestrial city.

Gregory Benford has in various writings described Io as being the color of pizza.[2]

Art[edit]

Back cover illustrations for Fantastic Adventures (May 1940) and Amazing Stories (July 1941) by Frank R. Paul. Io was inhabited by furry, black-and-white intelligent beings living in the city of Crystallis, built entirely of crystals.[3]

Film and television[edit]

2010 (1984) - sequel to 2001: A Space Odyssey. The ship from 2001 (the Discovery) is in orbit around Io where a joint Soviet and U.S. mission revive the ship and solve the mystery of the Monolith.

Outland (1981) - film written and directed by Peter Hyams (who also wrote and directed 2010, as above) which is set in a mining colony on Io.

V: The Series (1984–1985) - NBC TV series. Io is destroyed (vaporized) by the most powerful single weapon possessed by the Visitors from Sirius, the Particle Beam Triax.

Five Faces of Darkness, episode of The Transformers, animated series. Autobots Blurr and Wheelie end up stranded on Io after a Decepticon attack.

Red Dwarf (1988–2012), television comedy. Character Arnold Rimmer was born and raised on Io.

Exosquad (1993–1995), animated series. Io is the Exofleet's main base of operations after the Neosapien conquest of the homeworlds and the scene of several critical battles in the Terran-Neosapien War in the series' second season.

Babylon 5 (1993–1999), television series. Io is home to an Earth Alliance colony, second in size only to the colony on Mars. The Sol system's jumpgate is stationed in orbit around Io along with an Orion-Class Starbase serving as a transfer station for all spacecraft entering or leaving the system. There is also a research colony on Ganymede and an "ice mining operation" that is referred to as "a real cesspool of crime" on Europa.

Escape from Jupiter (1994), Australian ABC television series. Colonists in a mining colony on Io must evacuate to the orbiting space station KL5 when the moon's core destabilises.

Space Odyssey: Voyage to the Planets (2005), BBC docudrama about a hypothetical manned mission to various points of the Solar System. An astronaut lands on Io to collect samples of its rocks. Due to radiation risks and the astronaut becoming exhausted, the EVA on Io is aborted early and the samples are abandoned.

Heroic Age (2007), anime. Jupiter is destroyed when a high-powered energy gun is used to knock Io out of orbit. It plummets into the atmosphere and ignites it, and intervention by the Silver and Bronze fleets leads to a cataclysmic explosion.

Comics[edit]

Mobile Suit Crossbone Gundam (1994-1997) heavily features the moon in its narrative. The President of the Jupiter Empire is said to operate from Io.

Action Comics #775: What's So Funny About Truth, Justice & the American Way? (March 2001) is a story that was published by DC Comics. In the story, Superman battles the anti-hero group The Elite on Io. It was broadcast on live television. The story was adapted into the second DC Animated film Superman vs. The Elite (2012).

Games[edit]

Ultima II (1982) computer game. The player must travel through various worlds, including Io, to complete the game.

Pipeline (1989), Superior Software computer game. Set on a sulfur mine on Io.

Descent (1995), computer game. Level 11 is set in a sulfur mine on Io.

Disruptor (1996), game for Sony PlayStation. A level is set within "the sulphurine mines of Io".

Final Doom (1996) computer (and Sony PlayStation) game. The first set of levels, "Evilution", takes place on a research base on Io.

POD - Planet of Death (1997) computer racing game. After colonization for mining, a corrosive biosubstance known as Pod emerges from the ground, devoring the moon, eventually tearing it apart.

ZeroZone (1997), computer game. Io is one of the settings.

Battlezone I (1998), computer game. Some missions are set on the surface of Io and Europa. Ganymede is featured exclusively in the Red Odyssey expansion.

System Shock 2 (1999), computer game. During the character creation process, a tour of duty at the Io Survival Training School grants the character +2 Endurance.

Halo (2001), Xbox game. Early in the series' backstory, the United Nations Colonial Advisors on Io came under attack by "Frieden" secessionist forces which eventually led to the "Interplanetary War". Later, in Halo 2, detector stations on Io pick up a space-time "whisper" that warns of Covenant vessels approaching Earth via slipspace.

Dead Space 2 (2011), Xbox 360 and Playstation 3 game. While traversing through the church of Unitology on Titan Station, an announcer describes several stained glass windows of the church are in fact made from refined sand from "Jupiter's long lost moon, Io", suggesting that Io was planetcracked and mined into nonexistence long before the start of the game.

Dota 2 (2013), PC and Macintosh game. Dota 2 features a hero that goes by the name of Io. Io has various abilities, one of which summons orbs that appear to orbit around the hero similar to that of multiple moons. Io is commonly played as a support hero to various other heroes.

Music[edit]

The song Trust Fall by Incubus Mentions Io

The moon is sung about in the Blur song "Far Out".

"Songs from Io" an album by Absolution Project.

Kayo Dot's "Coffins on Io" takes place on the moon.

The "Dark Jovian" EP by Amon Tobin features two tracks about Io; "Io" and "Encounter on Io".

Radio[edit]

In the Big Finish Doctor Who audio drama Zagreus it is claimed that Winkle's Wonderland was located on Io in 2367. However, it was later relocated.

Europa[edit]

Europa

Europa is the smallest of the four Galilean satellites and the second closest to Jupiter. It is theorized to have an ocean of liquid water underneath its icy surface; the thickness of the ice is much debated. The probable presence of the water ocean has made it a favored location for modern fictional speculation about extraterrestrial life in the Solar System.

Literature[edit]

Redemption Cairn (1936), short story by Stanley G. Weinbaum. Europa has a small Earth-like area on its Jupiter-facing side.

2010: Odyssey Two (1982) and 2061: Odyssey Three (1988) by Arthur C. Clarke. Aliens taking interest in the primitive life forms under Europa's ice transform Jupiter into a star to kick-start their evolution. Fifty years later, Europa has become a tropical ocean world from which humans are banned.

The Memory of Whiteness (1985) by Kim Stanley Robinson. The protagonists visit Europa, which hosts large human colonies who live around pools of melted ice.

Schismatrix (1985) by Bruce Sterling. Europa is inhabited by genetically re-engineered posthumans as a philosophical/political statement by Abelard Lindsay's Lifesider's clique.

The Forge of God (1987) by Greg Bear. Europa is destroyed by aliens who use chunks of its ice to terraform planets.

A Spy in Europa (1997), short story in the Revelation Space series by Alastair Reynolds. An advanced human society called the Demarchists live in colonies on Europa on the underside of the ice crust at the top of the subsurface ocean. In later novels they become one of three social groups that dominate interstellar colonization. The race of genetically altered humans adapted to live in the subsurface ocean who feature in A Spy in Europa also appear later in Reynolds's 2006 short story Grafenwalder's Bestiary.

Ice Dragon's Song (1998), novella by Bud Sparhawk. A 12-year-old treks across the face of icy Europa.

Europa Strike (2000) by Ian Douglas. A massive ancient alien spacecraft lies in an ocean beneath the moon's surface, the discovery of which leads to a battle between Chinese forces and US Marines in 2067.

Outlaws of Europa (2002) by Michel Savage. Europa has been turned into a prison planet.[4]

Ilium (2003) by Dan Simmons. Creatures from Europa feature prominently.

Riding the White Bull (2004), short story by Caitlín R. Kiernan. Probes discover an ecosystem in the sea beneath Europa's ice and subsequently infect Earth with a sentient Europan microbe.

Ocean (2004), comic book by Warren Ellis. An ancient race of aliens is discovered in hibernation below the surface of Europa. At the climax the moon is destroyed by a horrific weapon.

The Quiet War (2008) by Paul J. McAuley. Europa's subsurface ocean is home to the only non-Terran (microbial) life in the Solar System, although as a result of panspermia from a microbe-laden meteorite from an early Solar System body's collision with Earth billions of years ago.

Galileo's Dream (2009) by Kim Stanley Robinson. Galileo is transported to Europa in the 29th century. The colonists live in a Venice-like underground city carved from ice. Under the ice live vast, sentient organisms in a subsurface ocean.

In Jeremy Robinson's Beneath (2010), a manned expedition travels to Europa to explore the moon and its potential for extraterrestrial life.

In Genevieve Valentine's "A Bead of Jasper, Four Small Stones" (2012), terraformers attempt to build a colony on Europa.

In Ernest Cline's Armada (2015), Earth is in a military conflict with an alien species from Europa.

Art[edit]

Back cover illustrations for Amazing Stories (September 1940, January 1942) by Frank R. Paul. Europa is inhabited by red, beetle-like intelligent beings who ride domesticated centipedes and live inside immense transparent plastic domes in a city called Oor.

Film and television[edit]

The movie sequel 2010 based on the similar book by Arthur C. Clark briefly depicts Europa.

In the anime series Geneshaft, Europa is not merely a moon, but a giant computer housing an AI called Oberus. Oberus uses Rings of its own creation to monitor the evolution of humanity and acts as a failsafe, should humanity threaten the natural order of the universe. In the final episode of the series, Oberus is forced to run its final program, attempting to use its rings to "crush" the sun. It is stopped from completing the process when the Shaft creates a Ring around Europa, terraforming the entire moon.

In the anime series Gundam Seed, George Glenn explores the moon and finds evidence of alien life forms.

In the Futurama episode "Put Your Head on My Shoulders", Fry, Amy and Dr Zoidberg go on a picnic to Europa.

Voices of a Distant Star features Europa as a United Nations Naval Base, where it is visited by the Lysithea, a battleship that shares its name with another one of Jupiter's moons.

In the Internet film To Boldly Flee, by ThatGuyWiththeGlasses.com, Europa is a major plot point.

The film Europa Report (2013) is about a manned expedition to Europa to search for signs of life.

Games[edit]

In the video game Infantry, large cities lie underneath the ice sheets of Europa.

In the video game Battlezone, Europa is featured as a cold, ice covered world, where battles take place in cracks between the ice.

In the video game Galaga: Destination Earth, Europa is featured as the third stage of this game.

The computer game Abyss: Incident at Europa involves an underwater base in Europa's ocean.

The computer game Descent has two levels set on Europa: level 13 (Europa Mining Colony) and level 14 (Europa CO2 Mine). Its second sequel, Descent 3 also has a level on Europa in which the player must destroy an energy refinery. The game depicts Europa as a snowy landscape.

In the role-playing game Transhuman Space (2002), life is discovered around hydrothermal vents in the oceans of Europa. Subsequently, a war begins under the ice between those who seek to preserve the native microbial fauna and those who wish to adapt sapient life of Earthly origin to live near the vents.

In the video game Starlancer, the introductory cinematic depicts a surprise attack on Fort Kennedy located on Europa.

In the PS1 game Carnage Heart, Europa is one of three of Jupiter's moons on which you battle to defend the mining outposts from the Drakken Group, a huge conglomerate comprising a few hundred of the world's biggest corporations.

The PC action/shooter Absolute Zero depicted a battle between strange aliens that rose from the ice of Europa and the human colonists.

The Amiga game Uropa 2, is set on the surface, and in underground bases of Europa.

Music[edit]

Rosetta released The Galilean Satellites in 2005 with Translation Loss. The album revolves around an astronaut's voyage to Europa, in a quest for solitude, only to find himself longing for what he's left behind on Earth.

The song "The Tale of Europa" by The Phenomenauts uses a conflict between humans and fictional Europan aliens to draw parallels to human wars on Earth.

Ganymede[edit]

Ganymede

Ganymede is the third of the Galilean moons from Jupiter. It is the largest moon in the Solar System, bigger than the planet Mercury (though less massive), almost 52% larger than the diameter of the Moon and with twice its mass. It is 77% the diameter of Mars. Ganymede's size made it a popular location for early science fiction authors looking for locations beyond Mars that might be inhabitable by humans. In reality, Ganymede is a cold, icy, cratered world with a vanishingly thin atmosphere.

Literature[edit]

In the short story Tidal Moon (1938) by Stanley G. Weinbaum and Helen Weinbaum, most of Ganymede's surface is flooded every three months due to Jupiter's tides.

In the short story Christmas on Ganymede (1940) by Isaac Asimov, native beings on Ganymede are introduced to the holiday.

In the short stories Not Final! (1941) and Victory Unintentional (1942) by Isaac Asimov, a conflict arises between humans living on Ganymede and the inhabitants of Jupiter.

In Arthur C. Clarke's novels 2061: Odyssey Three (1987) and 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997), Ganymede is warmed by the new sun Lucifer and contains a large equatorial lake. Anubis City is the centre of human colonization of the Jovian system.

In Robert A. Heinlein's work:[5]

In Space Cadet (1948), a recruit is a third generation colonist from Ganymede, and a mission is sent there.

In The Rolling Stones (1952), Ganymede is mentioned in passing as a human colony.

In Farmer in the Sky (1953), a young man and his family emigrate to Ganymede and join an agricultural pioneer settlement. The story describes the terraforming and colonization of this satellite. The novel assumes that Ganymede has a rocky surface under an ice layer.

In Double Star (1956), Ganymede is represented by a political party.

In I Will Fear No Evil (1970), the Lunar Commission proposes terraforming Ganymede.

In Variable Star (2006; written by Spider Robinson from the notes of R.A. Heinlein), Ganymede is a birthplace of the novel's protagonist, Joel Johnston.

Leigh Brackett's short story The Dancing Girl of Ganymede (1950) is set on a volcanic, jungle-covered Ganymede.

In Poul Anderson's novella The Snows of Ganymede (1954), a party of terraformers visits a settlement on Ganymede called X which was established two centuries earlier by American religious fanatics.

In Lester del Rey's novel Outpost of Jupiter (1963), a plague strikes the human settlement of Outpost on Ganymede. In another novel, Space Jockey, Ganymede is a former penal colony of Earth, now independent and distrustful of terrestrials.

In Poul Anderson's Three Worlds to Conquer (1964), human settlers on Ganymede, threatened by the power-mad captain of a space warship, make contact with a sympathetic culture on the Jovian surface—tribespeople menaced by invading cruel barbarians—and eventually manage to help each other overcome their respective enemies.

Ganymede is referred to in virtually all of Philip K. Dick's novels from the 1950s and 1960s, although it seldom receives more than a brief mention, with two exceptions: Clans of the Alphane Moon (1964) introduces Lord Running Clam, an intelligent slime mold from Ganymede, while The Ganymede Takeover (1967) involves sentient wormlike gestalt aliens who have invaded Earth.

In Lester del Rey's novel The Runaway Robot (1965), the main character Paul and his robot live in a colony on Ganymede at the beginning of the story.

The Goddess of Ganymede (1967) and Pursuit on Ganymede (1968) are sword and planet adventures by Mike Resnick.

Yo visité Ganímedes (I visited Ganymede, 1972) and Mi preparación para Ganímedes (My preparation for Ganymede, 1975) by Peruvian writer José Rosciano, relates in first person the story of a friend Pepe that keeps contacts with a civilisation in Ganymede. In this perfect civilisation, whose inhabitants communicate via telepathy, there are no wars or illnesses. The book follows the UFO religion line and plays with the story being actually true.

In the short story Marooned (1976) by John W. Campbell, the advanced base camp of the Corliss Jovian exploration mission is set on the frozen surface of Ganymede.

James P. Hogan wrote the Giants series that eventually spanned five books (Inherit the Stars (1977), The Gentle Giants of Ganymede (1978), Giants' Star (1981), Entoverse (1991) and Mission to Minerva (2005)) in which an alien race which inhabited a destroyed fifth planet between Mars and Jupiter is discovered in the hulk of an abandoned spacecraft discovered on Ganymede.

In the series of novels collectively called Bio of a Space Tyrant (1983–86) by Piers Anthony, the moon is analogous to 20th century Cuba, and is the focus of a futuristic missile crisis.

The science fiction novel Buddy Holly Is Alive and Well on Ganymede (1991) by Bradley Denton[6] begins when television sets throughout the world suddenly begin broadcasting a concert by an apparently living Buddy Holly, who says he is on Ganymede.

The majority of events in The Ganymede Club (1995), a science fiction mystery by Charles Sheffield, take place on Ganymede.

In the science fiction novel Bloom (1998) by Wil McCarthy, Earth's ecosystem is destroyed by a grey goo, annihilating all biological life. The grey goo then develops its own unique “ecosystem”. The only human survivors are colonists on Jupiter's moons and in the asteroid belt.[7]

In the novel Orphanage (2004) by Robert Buettner, an alien race uses Ganymede as a staging area for a war against Earth.

In Paul J. McAuley's The Quiet War (2008), Ganymede is one of the earliest sites for human colonization in the outer Solar System. Due to its proximity to Jupiter, its inhabitants live several kilometers beneath its ice cover. It is one of the dominant forces in "Outer" system politics due to its early settlement.

In James S. A. Corey's (pen name of authors Daniel Abraham and Ty Franck) science fiction novel Caliban's War (2012), there is a conflict in the Solar System that involves Earth, Mars, and the Asteroid Belt. This book continues the story from Leviathan Wakes, and follows Jim Holden and the crew of Rocinante. In the book they're drawn into a search for a missing child on the colonized mining moon of Jupiter; Ganymede, which is in the midst of war and on the verge of destruction.

In the Horus Heresy series of books by a large collaboration of authors (2006 - Current), Ganymede is briefly mentioned as "Another of the moons of Jupiter with shipyards centering around it, as well as the dozen other smaller, artificial moons." It is part of the Shipbuilding complex of Jupiter that supports the ongoing galaxy wide war of the Imperium of Man in the 30th millennium. It is led by the Emperor of mankind in an attempt to exterminate the "Xenos" (aliens) in the Milky-way Galaxy and unify mankind.

Art[edit]

In Frank R. Paul's series of back cover illustrations for Amazing Stories (October 1940, February 1942), Ganymede was inhabited by ferocious tiger-women who ride Dinosaurs. They live in the crater city of Gatos, which derives its power from the moon's magnetic field.

Film and television[edit]

The made-for-TV German movie Operation Ganymed (de) (1977) tells the story of five astronauts returning from an expedition to Ganymede. They find a seemingly desolate Earth and are trying to find out what happened while they were in space.

In the Power Rangers television series (1993-), Ganymede is the hiding place chosen by Zordon as the hiding space for a fleet of Zords known as the Mega Vehicles, which combine to form the Mega Voyager. The Space Rangers locate these Zords after winning Key Cards from Darkonda in a card game. ("Flashes of Darkonda", "The Rangers' Mega Voyage").

In the science fiction television series Babylon 5 (1993–1999), the Shadows bury a ship under the surface of Ganymede, which is dug up during the third season episode "Messages from Earth" (1996).

In Space Battleship Yamato (also called Star Blazers), Ganymede has a base where the Yamoto/Argo goes for repairs while fighting the Comet Empire.

In the anime series Cowboy Bebop (1998), Ganymede is depicted as an aquatic planet, a terraformed world that is entirely covered in water. Animal life, most likely created by human intervention, is also depicted, such as the Ganymede searat, a species of rodent-like seal. About 7 million people live on it in floating colonies which are supported on large barge-type foundations. The character Jet Black was a police officer on Ganymede, and presumably was born there. Jet also has a watch that is apparently from Ganymede which seems to imply a 30-hour day. Jet has been quoted during the series[8] saying "A woman's heart is as fickle as the skies of Ganymede."

In the anime series Geneshaft, Ganymede is the home of a human research outpost. It is also the former home of the extinct race that are assumed to have created humanity, the Giants of Ganymede. Their technology was unearthed and studied, culminating in the construction of the Bilkis and the Shaft.

In the anime Getter Robo Armageddon, after Invaders caused Jupiter and many of its moons to become a new Getter Ray Sun, Ganymede was thrown out of its orbit beside Jupiter and was then on a collision course with Earth, prompting the Getter Robos to stop the disaster.

Ganymede is the location of a mining colony in the series Return to Jupiter.

Games[edit]

In the 32nd Millennium of the Warhammer 40,000 (1987) universe, Ganymede is destroyed during a Warp Core experiment that goes horribly wrong.

In the Sharp X68000 game Star Cruiser, The game begins with the protagonist running a virtual combat training simulation on Ganymede.

In the DOS game One Must Fall: 2097, the prize for victory in the tournament is the development right to Ganymede, which is also the home of the Angels, who seek to prevent their home being developed.

In the PC game FOM, Ganymede is a space colony which has been terraformed to support humanity.

In the game Target Earth for Sega Genesis, the first level "Assault on Ganymede", takes place on a space station set on Ganymede where the space-outcast enemies make their first strike.

In the PS1 game Carnage Heart, Ganymede is one of three of Jupiter's moons on which you battle to defend the mining outposts from the Drakken Group, a huge conglomerate comprising a few hundred of the worlds biggest corporations.

In the PC game Shadowgrounds and its sequel Shadowgrounds Survivor, the story takes place in colonized and terraformed Ganymede.

In Halo 3, the EVA armor was built in a zero-g testing facility on Ganymede.

In Spore, Ganymede is one of the planets (or, in this case moons) from the Sol system that the player can terraform and colonize.

Callisto[edit]

Callisto

Callisto is the outermost of the Galilean satellites. It is a large moon, only slightly smaller than the planet Mercury. It is cold, icy, and heavily cratered, with a very tenuous atmosphere. Despite its size, it has not been featured in fiction as much as the other Galilean satellites.

Literature[edit]

In H. P. Lovecraft's Beyond the Wall of Sleep (1919), the writer mentions in passing "the insect-philosophers that crawl proudly over the fourth moon of Jupiter."

In Isaac Asimov's story The Callistan Menace (1940), Callisto has an atmosphere of carbon dioxide and is inhabited by large slugs that use magnetic fields to stun their prey.

In Robert A. Heinlein's Farmer in the Sky (1953) colonists on Ganymede mention that efforts to introduce an atmosphere have begun on Callisto.

In Philip K. Dick's short-story The Mold of Yancy (1955), colonists on Callisto conform to the messages of the near-constant broadcasts of the eponymous public commentator, Yancy, as he comments on almost every aspect of daily life.

Lin Carter's eight-novel Callisto series (1972–1978), consisting of Jandar of Callisto, Black Legion of Callisto, Sky Pirates of Callisto, Mad Empress of Callisto, Mind Wizards of Callisto, Lankar of Callisto, Ylana of Callisto and Renegade of Callisto, is set on an inhabitable Callisto.

In Piers Anthony's science fiction series Bio of a Space Tyrant (1983-), Callisto is the home planet of Hope Hubris, the Tyrant of Jupiter.

The protagonist of Anne McCaffrey's telepathic-society novel The Rowan (1990) lives in a terraformed dome on Callisto.

Kim Stanley Robinson's novel Blue Mars (1996) contains a description of a flourishing colony on Callisto.

In the novel Wheelers by Ian Stewart and Jack Cohen, a number of alien artifacts are found on Callisto shortly before the Galilean moons are observed to move, triggering the main events of the story.

In Paul J. McAuley's The Quiet War (2008), Callisto is home to one of the earliest outer Solar System colonial settlements, and has recently been given a genetically engineered biome.

Kim Stanley Robinson's Galileo's Dream (2009) is partly set on Callisto, which is home to a large city built around the concentric rings of the giant crater Valhalla. The same city is briefly mentioned in Robinson's 2312.

Comics/Manga[edit]

In the manga version of the Japanese animated series Space Battleship Yamato, (Star Blazers), the Yamato headed for Callisto on a rescue mission. It was here that the Yamato (known as the Argo) was held hostage by Gamilon forces.

In the DC Comics storyline Superman: World of New Krypton, 100,000 Kryptonians create a counter-Earth in the Solar System to be their new home. They take Callisto to be their moon in order to provide tides for their new planet.

Art[edit]

In Frank R. Paul's series of back cover illustrations for Amazing Stories (August 1940, December 1941), Callisto was inhabited by blue-skinned, white-haired, four-tentacled humanoids. Their city, Serenis, consists of colonnaded dwellings around the rim of a green lake.

Film and television[edit]

Jupiter Moon (1990) was a short-lived British soap opera. It was set on a space university that orbited Callisto.

Cowboy Bebop (1998) features a snowy, Siberia-like Callisto, filled with fugitives and populated only by men.

Terrahawks (1983) Series 1, Episode 8, "The Sporilla" is set in a radio surveillance post on Callisto.

Games[edit]

In the game Zone of the Enders: The 2nd Runner (2003), the protagonist, Dingo Egret, finds the Orbital Frame Jehuty buried in ice under Callisto's surface. It is also on Callisto, that Metatron is discovered.

In the video game series G-Police, your character is a pilot for a police force on Callisto.

In the computer game Descent, level 12 takes place at the Callisto Tower Colony.

In the PS1 game Carnage Heart, Callisto is one of three of Jupiter's moons on which you battle to defend the mining outposts from the Drakken Group, a huge conglomerate comprising a few hundred of the worlds biggest corporations.

In the arcade game Captain Commando, Callisto is the last stage, and headquarters of the game's main villain Scumocide.

Music[edit]

The moon is sung about in the Blur song "Far Out".

Other moons[edit]

Amalthea[edit]

Two views of Amalthea

Amalthea, or Jupiter V, is the third moon from Jupiter and the largest of the inner satellites of Jupiter.

James Blish's Cities in Flight series begins with the story They Shall Have Stars (1956), where a base has been established on Jupiter V. This base is the remote operations centre for the Bridge Project on Jupiter proper.

Arthur C. Clarke universe

The short story Jupiter Five (1951) is set on Amalthea; its plot depends on the moon's weak gravity, and explores what might happen if an astronaut were thrown from its surface. Clarke continued referring to Amalthea as Jupiter V in his later works.

In an early draft of 2001: A Space Odyssey novel, the predecessor of the giant monolith is located on the surface of Amalthea (according to Clarke in The Lost Worlds of 2001 [1972]).

In A Meeting with Medusa (1971), space vessels use Amalthea as a natural particle/radiation shield.

Paul Preuss' Venus Prime series book five, The Diamond Moon (1990), and six, The Shining Ones (1991), deal with the exploration of Amalthea.

In Dan Simmons's Olympos, the moravec Retrograde Sinopessen is a member of the Five Moons Consortium from Amalthea.

The Way to Amalthea is a sci-fi story set on Amaltheia written by Boris and Arkady Strugatsky in 1959, but first printed in 1990.

In the SHMUP Sol-Deace, the strongest line of the villain's defense and sixth level is on Amalthea.

In the 1980 animated series Astro Boy, Amalthea is destroyed by the illegal test-firing of an antiproton gun, with disastrous consequences.

In the X-Entertainment Advent Calendar, the villains Hare Winningham and Hssxxllo Usall were imprisoned on Amalthea.

Pasiphae[edit]

Pasiphae (Jupiter VIII) is used as a setting in John Varley's novel The Ophiuchi Hotline, though it is referred to by its pre-1975 name, Poseidon.

Sinope[edit]

Sinope, or Jupiter IX, is a small irregular satellite of Jupiter. From the time of its discovery in 1914 until the discovery of Megaclite in 2000, it was the outermost of Jupiter's known moons. It is still the most distant Jovian moon to have a diameter of more than 10 km.

In Isaac Asimov's 1957 novel Lucky Starr and the Moons of Jupiter, an experimental ship design is located on "Jupiter Nine". Asimov erroneously calls the moon "Adrastea", although in 1957 it had no official name and had been unofficially dubbed "Hades", while "Adrastea" was unofficially used for Jupiter XII (now called Ananke). Asimov's confusion may have arisen from the fact that, of the moons known in the 1950s, Jupiter IX was the twelfth most distant from Jupiter, and Jupiter XII was the ninth. To add to the confusion, Adrastea is now used as the name of an inner satellite of Jupiter that was not discovered until 1979.

In Exosquad (1993–1995), Sinope was the location of the Neosapiens' top-secret super-weapon, Fusion Pulse Cannon. After the Cannon has been destroyed by the Terrans, Sinope was blown to asteroids by the explosion and, thus, ceased to exist.

Other[edit]

In Planet Comics #29 a fictional moonlet of Jupiter, Pan, is shown.

The B-movie Fire Maidens from Outer Space (1956) features a space mission to "Jupiter's thirteenth moon". This cannot refer to the moon now numbered Jupiter XIII (Leda), as it was not discovered until 1974, long after the film was made.

In Brenda Hiatt's 2013 teen, science fiction themed romance novel, Starstruck, Rigel impresses Marsha with a telescope that clearly sees Leda. Rigel is in turn impressed that Marsha knows so much about the obscure Moon of Jupiter, to include that it was not even discovered until 1974.

In the comic book series Letter 44, a moon believed to be Carme is destroyed by a test firing of the mysterious alien construct known as the Chandelier.[9]

QMRGiovanni Domenico Cassini named the four moons he discovered (Tethys, Dione, Rhea and Iapetus) Sidera Lodoicea ("the stars of Louis") to honor king Louis XIV. Cassini found Dione in 1684 using a large aerial telescope he set up on the grounds of the Paris Observatory.[9] The satellites of Saturn were not named until 1847, when William Herschel's son John Herschel published Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope, suggesting that the names of the Titans (sisters and brothers of Cronus) be used. The fifth is always questionable

QMRGiovanni[a] Domenico Cassini (8 June 1625 – 14 September 1712) was an Italian mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and engineer. Cassini was born in Perinaldo,[1][2] near Imperia, at that time in the County of Nice, part of the Duchy of Savoy.[3][4] Cassini is known for his work in the fields of astronomy and engineering. Cassini discovered four satellites of the planet Saturn and noted the division of the rings of Saturn; the Cassini Division was named after him. Giovanni Domenico Cassini was also the first of his family to begin work on the project of creating a topographic map of France.

The Cassini spaceprobe, launched in 1997, was named after him and became the fourth to visit Saturn and the first to orbit the planet.

Cassini observed and published surface markings on Mars (earlier seen by Huygens but not published), determined the rotation periods of Mars and Jupiter, and discovered four satellites of Saturn, Iapetus and Rhea in 1671 and 1672, and Tethys and Dione (1684)."[6] Cassini was the first to observe these four Saturn's moons, which he called Sidera Lodoicea (the stars of Louis), including Iapetus, whose anomalous variations in brightness he correctly ascribed as being due to the presence of dark material on one hemisphere (now called Cassini regio in his honour). In addition he discovered the Cassini Division in the rings of Saturn (1675).[5] He shares with Robert Hooke credit for the discovery of the Great Red Spot on Jupiter (ca. 1665). Around 1690, Cassini was the first to observe differential rotation within Jupiter's atmosphere.

QMRMercury ☿ Mercury Mercury's winged helmet and caduceus Mind (crescent) poised over divine spirit (circle) and matter (cross)[dubious – discuss]

Venus ♀ Venus Venus's hand mirror. Divine spirit (circle) over matter (cross)[dubious – discuss]

Earth ♁ Earth Earth; a Solar symbol (sun cross) Planet Earth — the cardinal directions. C.f. Globus cruciger

Ceres ⚳ Ceres Scythe (handle down), emblematic of Ceres as goddess of the Harvest. A stylized sickle, a crescent of receptivity resting on a cross of matter.[dubious – discuss]

Jupiter ♃ Jupiter Jupiter's thunderbolt or eagle Mind (crescent) rising above the horizon of matter (cross)[dubious – discuss]

Saturn ♄ Saturn Saturn's sickle Matter (cross) taking precedence over mind or human spirit (crescent)[dubious – discuss]

Uranus ♅ Uranus H in symbol taken from discoverer's last name, Herschel The circle of spirit and a dominant cross of matter, in form of an antenna that uses matter as a way to insight.[dubious – discuss]

Neptune ♆ Neptune Neptune's trident Mind or receptivity (crescent) transcending matter (cross)[dubious – discuss]

Pluto Pluto (alternate) Modification of Neptune's astrological symbol Mind (crescent) transcending matter (cross) to reach for divine spirit (circle)[dubious – discuss]

Most modern astrologers use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the astrological chart.

QMRPlanets are generally divided into two main types: large low-density giant planets, and smaller rocky terrestrials. Under IAU definitions, there are eight planets in the Solar System. In order of increasing distance from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, then the four giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

QMRAstrological planets[edit]

Further information: Planets in astrology

The glyphs of the planets are usually (but not always) broken down into four common elements: A circle denoting spirit, a crescent denoting the mind, a cross denoting practical/physical matter and an arrow denoting action or direction.[25

QMRThe ancient Egyptian Cross-n(dj) hieroglyph, Gardiner sign listed no. Aa27, is a portrayal of a cross-(shape), possibly a 'tool', 'mill'?; it is often portrayed with the common pot hieroglyph, nu, no. W24

W24

; the Cross-ndj hieroglyph is displayed in some places in the subset for "agriculture, crafts, and professions", or the "unclassified" category.

In the Egyptian language, the cross-ndj hieroglyph is used as a biliteral for n(dj)-(nḏ).[1]

The hieroglyph is also used as an ideogram or determinative. Being used almost exclusively in a hieroglyph composition block with the nu-pot, (no. W24),

Aa27

W24

, and plural forms of grains, or a grinding stone, the definitions of "to rub out", or "grind" help explain other uses of the glyph.

Book of the Dead uses[edit]

Budge's dictionary to the Book of the Dead has the following uses for the hieroglyph:

1—(nos 1,2,4)-"to protect, guard, avenge", and "protector, advocate, avenger"

2—(no. 3)-"homage to thee", (a form of salutation to gods)

3—(nos. 5,6,7)-"discuss a matter with someone", "to converse", "to take counsel"; (uses the 'man-seated hieroglyph' for 'concepts', or 'speech', no. A2)

[2]

Usage with the nu-pot hieroglyph[edit]

Budge's two-volume dictionary has entries for "rub out" and "grind", both connected to Coptic language words. Of the thirty-three entries, six refer to these two definitions. Entry 24 refers to the Coptic word (n-o-u-t)-(nout), and 29 to (n-o-e-i-t)-(noeit); dictionary entry 24 has seven spellings using determinatives for "grinding", the block-of-stone (hieroglyph), no. 39,

N39

, or the man-grinding (hieroglyph), no. 34 (actually unlisted, a man grinding upon a stone-block-mortar),

A36

Entry 29, (six spellings, and Coptic word (noeit)), uses the small circle for grain, no. N33B,

N33B

, or the plural of grains,

N33B N33B N33B

; also another grain production hieroglyph, nos. U9, U10,

U9 (or) U10

Rosetta Stone usage[edit]

There are five[3] distinct uses of the cross-ndj hieroglyph in the Rosetta Stone. As Ptolemy V the author of the stone, his great-great-grandparents, Ptolemy I and Queen-wife are referenced twice, at lines R6 (Rosetta), and line N3 (Nubayrah Stele). The hieroglyph is used to refer to the husband-wife twin parents, ne(tsh)erui, ne(ch)erui, (nḏrui),

Aa27

, and uses the "god" hieroglyph, a flag-type glyph.

Two more uses refer to the word "Avenger". In line N10, referring to Ptolemy V: "....he (Ptolemy V) in the semblance of Horus, son of Isis, son of Osiris, the avenger of his father Osiris; Behold His Majesty with the heart of..." Line R6 (Rosetta) starts the listing of the ten rewards to be made to Ptolemy V (including the erecting of the Rosetta Stone). A statue of Ptolemy V is to be made and erected upon an altar, and the statement to be made: the accolades: "...."Ptolemy, the Avenger of Baq-t"-(Egypt), the interpretation whereof is "Ptolemy, the strong one of Kam-t"-(Egypt), and a statue of the god of the city giving to him a sword royal-(khepesh) of victory,..."

The fifth use is from line R5, and is for 'concerning himself'-(nedji): "...Behold His Majesty [had] the heart of a god perfect towards the gods, concerning himself with the affairs(?) of the temples beautiful,..." (Only this usage, and line R6, "Avenger of Baq-t" use the complement of the nu-pot hieroglyph.)

Preceded by

"god"

n(tsh)

nṯ

Aa27

Cross-ndj

n(dj)

nḏ Succeeded by

M29

carob

(hieroglyph)

n(dj)m

nḏm

Hieroglyphs from coffin of Ankhnesneferibre

Relief, Temple of Kom Ombo

QMRAstrological planets[edit]

Further information: Planets in astrology

QMRBurial at cross-roads[edit]

Historically, burial at cross-roads was the method of disposing of executed criminals and persons who have committed suicide. In Great Britain this tradition was altered by the ‘Burial of Suicide Act’ of 1823 which abolished the legal requirements of burying Suicides and other people at crossroads. Cross-roads form a crude cross shape and this may have given rise to the belief that these spots were selected as the next best burying-places to consecrated ground. Another possible explanation is that the ancient Teutonic (Germanic) ethnic groups often built their altars at the cross-roads, and since human sacrifices, especially of criminals, formed part of the ritual, these spots came to be regarded as execution grounds. Hence after the introduction of Christianity, criminals and suicides were buried at the cross-roads during the night, in order to assimilate as far as possible their funeral to that of the pagans. An example of a cross-road execution-ground was the famous Tyburn in London, which stood on the spot where the Roman road to Edgware and beyond met the Roman road heading west out of London.[18]

Superstition also played a part in the selection of crossroads in the burial of suicides. Folk belief often held such individuals could rise as some form of undead (such as a vampire) and burying them at crossroads would inhibit their ability to find and wreak havoc on their living relations and former associates.

QMRThe standard astronomical symbol of Earth consists of a cross circumscribed by a circle, Earth symbol.svg,[222] representing the four quadrants of the world.

QMRGanis Chasma consists of a group of rift zones located in the Ganiniki Planitia Quadrangle on Venus.[1] A chasma is defined as a long, narrow, steep sided depression on a planet.[2] These depressions, or canyons, formed as a result of extensional tectonics due to volcanism.[3] Ganis Chasma is associated with volcanism of Sapas Mons, a coronae feature located in the Alta Regio region of Venus. The rifts that make up Ganis Chasma formed in the shape of an arc along the edge of Sapas Mons, orientated in a North-South direction.[1]

Little is known about ongoing volcanic activity on Venus. So far, no volcanic activity has been determined to have occurred in the last two million years. In 2008 and 2009 images taken by the Venus Monitoring Camera on the European Space Agency's (ESA) Venus Express (VEx) in eight observational sessions detected four bright transient spots along the edges of Ganis Chasma. In 2014, this was interpreted by Eugene Shalygin and his colleagues as active hotspot volcanism. The team suggests that transient bright spots observed in several consequent images of Ganis Chasma is the first direct evidence of current volcanic activity on Venus.[1][4][5]

Ganis Chasma is located in the Ganiki Planitia Quadrangle. This quadrangle is positioned between two volcanic regions on Venus. To the north lies the Atlanta Planitia lowland which was formed as the result of mantle upwelling and downwelling.[6][7] To the south lies Alta Regio. This region is a major volcanic rise and was formed as the result of mantle upwelling.[6][7] The Ganiki Planitia Quadrangle was strongly influenced by mantle flow tectonics derived from these two regions.[7] The area contains many volcanic, tectonic, and impact features.[7][8] Ganis Chasma is one of the extensional features located in the region. Other features include grabens, troughs and lineaments. Chains of pit craters located throughout the Ganiki Planitia Quadrangle have been found to influence the formation and deformation of these extensional features.[8]

QMRIn 2008 and 2009, the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express, in the form of four transient localised infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma,[45][n 1] near the shield volcano Maat Mons. Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit. These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions.[46][47] The actual temperatures are not known, because the size of the hot spots could not be measured, but are likely have been in the 800–1100 K range, relative to a normal temperature of 740 K.[48]

The fourth is always different

QMRThe Solar System has four terrestrial planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Only one terrestrial planet, Earth, is known to have an active hydrosphere.

During the formation of the Solar System, there were probably many more terrestrial planetesimals, but most merged with or were ejected by the four terrestrial planets.

Dwarf planets, such as Ceres and Pluto, and large small Solar System bodies are similar to terrestrial planets in the fact that they do have a solid surface, but are, on average, composed of more icy materials (Ceres and Pluto have densities 2.17 and 1.87 g cm−3, respectively, and Haumea's density is similar to Pallas's 2.8 g cm−3).

QMRThe Maya may have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a messenger to the underworld.[

QMR In 1928, Paul Dirac developed a relativistic wave equation now termed the Dirac equation, which predicted the spin magnetic moment correctly, and at the same time treated the electron as a point-like particle. Solving the Dirac equation for the energy levels of electron the hydrogen atom, all four quantum numbers including s occurred naturally and agreed well with experiment.

QMRIn quantum mechanics, the principal quantum number (symbolized n) is one of four quantum numbers which are assigned to each electron in an atom to describe that electron's state. As a discrete variable, the principal quantum number is always an integer. As n increases, the electronic shells becomes more and the electron spends more time farther from the nucleus. As n increases, the electron is also at a higher potential energy and is therefore less tightly bound to the nucleus.

The principal quantum number was first created for use in the semiclassical Bohr model of the atom, distinguishing between different energy levels. With the development of modern quantum mechanics, the simple Bohr model was replaced with a more complex theory of atomic orbitals. However, modern theory still requires the principal quantum number. Apart from the principal quantum number, the other quantum numbers for bound electrons are the azimuthal quantum number, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number.

For an analogy, one could imagine a multistoried building with an elevator structure. The building has an integer number of floors, and a (well-functioning) elevator which can only stop at a particular floor. Furthermore, the elevator can only travel an integer number of levels. As with the principal quantum number, higher numbers are associated with higher potential energy.

Beyond this point the analogy breaks down; in the case of elevators the potential energy is gravitational but with the quantum number it is electromagnetic. The gains and losses in energy are approximate with the elevator, but precise with quantum state. The elevator ride from floor to floor is continuous whereas quantum transitions are discontinuous. Finally the constraints of elevator design are imposed by the requirements of architecture, but quantum behavior reflects fundamental laws of physics.

Chemistry Chapter

QMRSubshells

Each shell is composed of one or more subshells, which are themselves composed of atomic orbitals. For example, the first (K) shell has one subshell, called 1s; the second (L) shell has two subshells, called 2s and 2p; the third shell has 3s, 3p, and 3d; the fourth shell has 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f; the fifth shell has 5s, 5p, 5d, and 5f and can theoretically hold more but the 5f subshell, although partially occupied in actinides, is not filled in any element occurring naturally.[2] The various possible subshells are shown in the following table:

Subshell label ℓ Max electrons Shells containing it Historical name

s 0 2 Every shell sharp

p 1 6 2nd shell and higher principal

d 2 10 3rd shell and higher diffuse

f 3 14 4th shell and higher fundamental

g 4 18 5th shell and higher (theoretically) (next in alphabet after f)[4]

The first column is the "subshell label", a lowercase-letter label for the type of subshell. For example, the "4s subshell" is a subshell of the fourth (N) shell, with the type (s) described in the first row.

The second column is the azimuthal quantum number (ℓ) of the subshell. The precise definition involves quantum mechanics, but it is a number that characterizes the subshell.

The third column is the maximum number of electrons that can be put into a subshell of that type. For example, the top row says that each s-type subshell (1s, 2s, etc.) can have at most two electrons in it. In each case the figure is 4 greater than the one above it.

The fourth column says which shells have a subshell of that type. For example, looking at the top two rows, every shell has an s subshell, while only the second shell and higher have a p subshell (i.e., there is no "1p" subshell).

The final column gives the historical origin of the labels s, p, d, and f. They come from early studies of atomic spectral lines. The other labels, namely g, h and i, are an alphabetic continuation following the last historically originated label of f.

Although it is commonly stated that all the electrons in a shell have the same energy, this is an approximation. However, the electrons in one subshell do have exactly the same level of energy,[5] with later subshells having more energy per electron than earlier ones. This effect is great enough that the energy ranges associated with shells can overlap (see valence shells and Aufbau principle).

Number of electrons in each shell

Shell

name Subshell

max

electrons Shell

max

electrons

K 1s 2 2

L 2s 2 2 + 6 = 8

2p 6

M 3s 2 2 + 6 + 10

= 18

3p 6

3d 10

N 4s 2 2 + 6 +

+ 10 + 14

= 32

4p 6

4d 10

4f 14

Each subshell is constrained to hold 4ℓ + 2 electrons at most, namely:

Each s subshell holds at most 2 electrons

Each p subshell holds at most 6 electrons

Each d subshell holds at most 10 electrons

Each f subshell holds at most 14 electrons

Each g subshell holds at most 18 electrons

Therefore, the K shell, which contains only an s subshell, can hold up to 2 electrons; the L shell, which contains an s and a p, can hold up to 2 + 6 = 8 electrons, and so forth; in general, the nth shell can hold up to 2n2 electrons.[1]

Although that formula gives the maximum in principle, in fact that maximum is only achieved (by known elements) for the first four shells (K, L, M, N). No known element has more than 32 electrons in any one shell.[6][7] This is because the subshells are filled according to the Aufbau principle. The first elements to have more than 32 electrons in one shell would belong to the g-block of period 8 of the periodic table. These elements would have some electrons in their 5g subshell and thus have more than 32 electrons in the O shell (fifth principal shell).

There has never been created a g subshell

The fifth is always questionable

Each subshell is constrained to hold 4ℓ + 2 electrons at most, namely:

Each s subshell holds at most 2 electrons

Each p subshell holds at most 6 electrons

Each d subshell holds at most 10 electrons

Each f subshell holds at most 14 electrons

Each g subshell holds at most 18 electrons

QMRThe number and identities of metalloids depend on what classification criteria are used. Emsley[41] recognised four metalloids (germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium); James et al.[42] listed twelve (Emsley's plus boron, carbon, silicon, selenium, bismuth, polonium, ununpentium and livermorium)'

QMRCrusaders coin, Acre, 1230- it had a cross on it

QMRSixteenth-century bronze statue of Godfrey of Bouillon from the group of heroes surrounding the memorial to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in the Hofkirche, Innsbruck.

His shield had the 16 squares of the quadrant model on it. The bronze statue of him shows the shield with the quadrant model on it

QMRThe periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by their atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus), electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties. The table also shows four rectangular blocks: s-, p- d- and f-block. In general, within one row (period) the elements are metals on the lefthand side, and non-metals on the righthand side.

The f block is separate from the s p and d blocks. The fourth square is always different.

QMRThe idea that the number of valences of a given element was invariant was a key component of Kekulé's version of structural chemistry. This generalization suffered from many exceptions, and was subsequently replaced by the suggestion that valences were fixed at certain oxidation states. For example, periodic acid according to Kekuléan structure theory could be represented by the chain structure I-O-O-O-O-H. By contrast, the modern structure of (meta) periodic acid has all four oxygen atoms surrounding the iodine in a tetrahedral geometry

Kekulé's most famous work was on the structure of benzene. In 1865 Kekulé published a paper in French (for he was then still in Francophone Belgium) suggesting that the structure contained a six-membered ring of carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds.[4] The next year he published a much longer paper in German on the same subject.[5]

The empirical formula for benzene had been long known, but its highly unsaturated structure was a challenge to determine. Archibald Scott Couper in 1858 and Joseph Loschmidt in 1861 suggested possible structures that contained multiple double bonds or multiple rings, but the study of aromatic compounds was in its earliest years, and too little evidence was then available to help chemists decide on any particular structure.[citation needed]

More evidence was available by 1865, especially regarding the relationships of aromatic isomers. Kekulé argued for his proposed structure by considering the number of isomers observed for derivatives of benzene. For every monoderivative of benzene (C6H5X, where X = Cl, OH, CH3, NH2, etc.) only one isomer was ever found, implying that all six carbons are equivalent, so that substitution on any carbon gives only a single possible product. For diderivatives such as the toluidines, C6H4(NH2)(CH3), three isomers were observed, for which Kekulé proposed structures with the two substituted carbon atoms separated by one, two and three carbon-carbon bonds, later named ortho, meta, and para isomers respectively.[citation needed]

The counting of possible isomers for diderivatives was however criticized by Albert Ladenburg, a former student of Kekulé, who argued that Kekulé's 1865 structure implied two distinct "ortho" structures, depending on whether the substituted carbons are separated by a single or a double bond.[6] Since ortho derivatives of benzene were never actually found in more than one isomeric form, Kekulé modified his proposal in 1872 and suggested that the benzene molecule oscillates between two equivalent structures, in such a way that the single and double bonds continually interchange positions.[7][8] This implies that all six carbon-carbon bonds are equivalent, as each is single half the time and double half the time. A firmer theoretical basis for a similar idea was later proposed in 1928 by Linus Pauling, who replaced Kekulé's oscillation by the concept of resonance between quantum-mechanical structures.[9]

The ouroboros dream[edit]

The ouroboros, Kekulė's inspiration for the structure of benzene.

The new understanding of benzene, and hence of all aromatic compounds, proved to be so important for both pure and applied chemistry after 1865 that in 1890 the German Chemical Society organized an elaborate appreciation in Kekulé's honor, celebrating the twenty-fifth anniversary of his first benzene paper. Here Kekulé spoke of the creation of the theory. He said that he had discovered the ring shape of the benzene molecule after having a reverie or day-dream of a snake seizing its own tail (this is an ancient symbol known as the ouroboros).[10] This vision, he said, came to him after years of studying the nature of carbon-carbon bonds.

A similar humorous depiction of benzene had appeared in 1886 in the Berichte der Durstigen Chemischen Gesellschaft (Journal of the Thirsty Chemical Society), a parody of the Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, only the parody had monkeys seizing each other in a circle, rather than snakes as in Kekulé's anecdote.[11] Some historians have suggested that the parody was a lampoon of the snake anecdote, possibly already well-known through oral transmission even if it had not yet appeared in print.[12] Others have speculated that Kekulé's story in 1890 was a re-parody of the monkey spoof, and was a mere invention rather than a recollection of an event in his life. Kekulé's 1890 speech,[13] in which these anecdotes appeared, has been translated into English.[14] If one takes the anecdote as the memory of a real event, circumstances mentioned in the story suggest that it must have happened early in 1862.[15]

He told yet another anecdote in 1890, of a vision of dancing atoms and molecules that led to his theory of structure. This happened, he claimed, while he was riding on the upper deck of a horse-drawn omnibus in London. This probably occurred in the late summer of 1855.[16]

QMRIn 1857, German chemist August Kekulé observed that carbon often has four other atoms bonded to it. Methane, for example, has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.[46] This concept eventually became known as valency; different elements bond with different numbers of atoms.[47]

QMRSand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-sized particles (by mass).[1]

The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.

QMRChrysobalanaceae is a family of flowering plants, consisting of trees and shrubs in 17 genera and about 460 species of pantropical distribution with a centre of diversity in the Amazon.[2] Some of the species contain silica in their bodies for rigidity and so the mesophyll often has sclerenchymatous idioblasts- silica has the four valence electros

An idioblast is an isolated plant cell that differs from neighboring tissues. They have various functions such as storage of reserves, excretory materials, pigments, and minerals. They could contain oil, latex, gum, resin, tannin or pigments etc. Some can contain mineral crystals such as acrid tasting and poisonous calcium oxalate or carbonate or silica

Biology Chapter

QMRIn Origin of Species (1859), Charles Darwin mentioned four coloured drawings of hybrids between the ass and zebra. He also wrote "In Lord Morton's famous hybrid from a chestnut mare and male quagga, the hybrid, and even the pure offspring subsequently produced from the mare by a black Arabian sire, were much more plainly barred across the legs than is even the pure quagga."

QMRWound healing is the process by which skin or other body tissue repairs itself after trauma. In undamaged skin, the epidermis (surface layer) and dermis (deeper layer) form a protective barrier against the external environment. When the barrier is broken, an orchestrated cascade of biochemical events is set into motion to repair the damage.[1][2] This process is divided into predictable phases: blood clotting (hemostasis), inflammation, tissue growth (proliferation) and tissue remodeling (maturation). Blood clotting may be considered to be part of the inflammation stage instead of a separate stage.[3]

Hemostasis (blood clotting): Within the first few minutes of injury, platelets in the blood begin to stick to the injured site. This activates the platelets, causing a few things to happen. They change into an amorphous shape, more suitable for clotting, and they release chemical signals to promote clotting. This results in the activation of fibrin, which forms a mesh and acts as "glue" to bind platelets to each other. This makes a clot that serves to plug the break in the blood vessel, slowing/preventing further bleeding.[4][5]

Inflammation: During this phase, damaged and dead cells are cleared out, along with bacteria and other pathogens or debris. This happens through the process of phagocytosis, where white blood cells "eat" debris by engulfing it. Platelet-derived growth factors are released into the wound that cause the migration and division of cells during the proliferative phase.

Proliferation (growth of new tissue): In this phase, angiogenesis, collagen deposition, granulation tissue formation, epithelialization, and wound contraction occur.[6] In angiogenesis, vascular endothelial cells form new blood vessels.[7] In fibroplasia and granulation tissue formation, fibroblasts grow and form a new, provisional extracellular matrix (ECM) by excreting collagen and fibronectin.[6] Concurrently, re-epithelialization of the epidermis occurs, in which epithelial cells proliferate and 'crawl' atop the wound bed, providing cover for the new tissue.[8] In wound contraction, myofibroblasts decrease the size of the wound by gripping the wound edges and contracting using a mechanism that resembles that in smooth muscle cells. When the cells' roles are close to complete, unneeded cells undergo apoptosis.[6]

Maturation (remodeling): During maturation and remodeling, collagen is realigned along tension lines, and cells that are no longer needed are removed by programmed cell death, or apoptosis.

Psychology Chapter

Sociology Chapter

Religion Chapter

QMRAt Maecenas' insistence (according to the tradition) Virgil spent the ensuing years (perhaps 37–29 BC) on the long didactic hexameter poem called the Georgics (from Greek, "On Working the Earth") which he dedicated to Maecenas. The ostensible theme of the Georgics is instruction in the methods of running a farm. In handling this theme, Virgil follows in the didactic ("how to") tradition of the Greek poet Hesiod's Works and Days and several works of the later Hellenistic poets. The four books of the Georgics focus respectively on raising crops and trees (1 and 2), livestock and horses (3), and beekeeping and the qualities of bees (4). Well-known passages include the beloved Laus Italiae of Book 2, the prologue description of the temple in Book 3, and the description of the plague at the end of Book 3. Book 4 concludes with a long mythological narrative, in the form of an epyllion which describes vividly the discovery of beekeeping by Aristaeus and the story of Orpheus' journey to the underworld. Ancient scholars, such as Servius, conjectured that the Aristaeus episode replaced, at the emperor's request, a long section in praise of Virgil's friend, the poet Gallus, who was disgraced by Augustus, and who committed suicide in 26 BC.

QMRThe north panel depicts Titus as triumphator attended by various genii and lictors, who carry fasces. A helmeted Amazonian, Valour, leads the quadriga or four horsed chariot, which carries Titus. Winged Victory crowns him with a laurel wreath.[7] The juxtaposition is significant in that it is one of the first examples of divinities and humans being present in one scene together. This contrasts with the panels of the Ara Pacis, where humans and divinities are separated.

Quadrant Model of Reality

Tuesday, February 23, 2016

Quadrant Model of Reality Book 25 Science

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