Quadrant Model of Reality: Quadrant Model of Reality Book 9 Religion

Religion chapter

Buddhism chapter

Christianity chapter

QMRAcademic quarter (year division)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An academic quarter refers to the division of an academic year into four parts, found in a minority of universities in the United States and in some European and Asian countries.

Contents [hide]

1 Background and trends

2 Arguments

3 See also

4 References

Background and trends[edit]

In the United States, quarters typically comprise 10 weeks of class instruction,[1] although they have historically ranged from eight to 13 weeks.[2] Academic quarters first came into existence as such when William Rainey Harper organized the University of Chicago on behalf of John D. Rockefeller in 1891. Harper decided to keep the school in session year-round and divide it into four terms instead of the then-traditional two.[2]

Of the four traditional academic calendars (semester, quarter, trimester, and 4-1-4), the semester calendar is used the most widely, at over 60% of U.S. higher learning institutions, with fewer than 20% using the quarter system.[3] This number has stayed fairly constant since 1930, when 75% of U.S. institutions surveyed indicated they used a semester plan, with 22% on the quarter system.[4]

During the 1960s, a number of U.S. statewide educational systems made a switch from a semester to quarter system, typically in an attempt to accommodate the Tidal Wave I enrollment boom, most prominently the University of California system.[5] Since then, UC Berkeley switched back to semesters in 1983,[6] the new UC Merced branch opened with the semester system, and some UC professional schools have switched back to semesters at various points.[5] At various points since, committees have been established and official discussions have taken place within the UC system to discuss a systemwide switch back to the semester system.[5][7]

In recent years, a number of higher education institutions have considered or already approved a switch to a semester system including the higher education systems of Ohio[8][9] and Georgia,[10] and individual public colleges.[11] Rochester Institute of Technology has announced their intention to convert to semesters by Fall 2013, although the decision is highly controversial, overriding a student vote to remain with quarters.[12]

Arguments[edit]

Concerns over the quarter system include faculty dislike of the brevity of the term, the loss of faculty research and collaboration time, the shortness of student internship periods, difficulties in recovering from illness-linked absence, and the heavy administrative workload.[3]

A quarter system calendar also may put schools at a disadvantage in competing for prospective students, who wish to keep in-step with friends, and offer more opportunities for students to "disconnect from school."[3]

Quarter systems do allow students to enroll in a richer variety of courses and school-coordinated internships and may encourage students to take on double majors, minors, concentrations, and the like.[3] A quarter system can maximize the use of college facilities in a time of enrollment growth, as it allows for four regular periods of academic instruction.[13] Also, quarters allow for faculty to engage in terms with a relatively light course load of teaching and greater opportunities for short sabbaticals.[5]

QMRIn the liturgical calendar of the Western Christian churches, Ember days are four separate sets of three days within the same week — specifically, the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday — roughly equidistant in the circuit of the year, that are set aside for fasting and prayer. These days set apart for special prayer and fasting were considered especially suitable for the ordination of clergy. The Ember Days are known in Latin as the quattuor anni tempora (the "four seasons of the year"), or formerly as the jejunia quattuor temporum ("fasts of the four seasons").

The four quarterly periods during which the ember days fall are called the embertides.

Ember Weeks[edit]

The Ember Weeks, the weeks in which the Ember Days occur, are these weeks:

between the third and fourth Sundays of Advent (although the Common Worship lectionary of the Church of England places them in the week following the second Sunday in Advent);

between the first and second Sundays of Lent;

between Pentecost and Trinity Sunday; and

the liturgical Third Week of September. According to an old way of counting, as first Sunday of a month (an information important to determine the appropriate Matins readings) was considered the Sunday proximate to, not on or after, the first of the month, so this yielded as Ember Week precisely the week containing the Wednesday after Holy Cross Day (September 14), and as Ember Days said Wednesday and the following Friday and Saturday. It has been preserved in that order by Anglicans,[1] while for Roman Catholics, a 20th century reform of the Breviary shifted the First Sunday in September to what the name literally implies, and by implication, Ember Week to the Week beginning with the Sunday after Holy Cross day. Therefore, in a year that September 14 falls on a Monday or Tuesday, the Ember Days for Anglicans are a week sooner than for those of modern day Catholics.

Origins[edit]

Ember days are possibly related to similar observances in pre-Christian Rome. In pagan Rome, offerings were made to various gods and goddesses of agriculture in the hope that the deities would provide a bountiful harvest (the feriae messis in July), a rich vintage (the feriae vindimiales in September), or a productive seeding (the feriae sementivae in December). At first, the Church in Rome had fasts in June, September, and December. The Liber Pontificalis ascribes to Pope Callixtus I (217-222) a law regulating the fast, although Leo the Great (440-461) considers it an Apostolic institution. When the fourth season was added cannot be ascertained, but Pope Gelasius I (492-496) speaks of all four.

The earliest mention of four seasonal fasts is known from the writings of Philastrius, bishop of Brescia (died ca 387) (De haeres. 119). He also connects them with the great Christian festivals.

The Christian observation of this seasonal observance of the Ember days had its origin as an ecclesiastical ordinance in Rome and spread from there to the rest of the Western Church. They were known as the jejunium vernum, aestivum, autumnale and hiemale, so that to quote Pope Leo's words (A.D. 440 - 461) the law of abstinence might apply to every season of the year. In Leo's time, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday were already days of special observance. In order to tie them to the fasts preparatory to the three great festivals of Christmas, Easter and Pentecost, a fourth needed to be added "for the sake of symmetry" as the Encyclopædia Britannica 1911 has it.

From Rome the Ember days gradually spread unevenly through the whole of Western Christendom. In Gaul they do not seem to have been generally recognized much before the 8th century.

Their observation in Britain, however, was embraced earlier than in Gaul or Spain, interestingly, and Christian sources connect the Ember Days observations with Augustine of Canterbury, AD. 597, said to be acting under the direct authority of Pope Gregory the Great. The precise dates appears to have varied considerably however, and in some cases, quite significantly, the Ember Weeks lost their connection with the Christian festivals altogether. Spain adopted them with the Roman rite in the eleventh century. Charles Borromeo introduced them into Milan in the sixteenth century.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church ember days have never been observed.[2]

Timing[edit]

The Ordo Romanus fixed the spring fast in the first week of March (then the first month), thus loosely associated with the first Sunday in Lent; the summer fast in the second week of June, after Whitsunday; the autumnal fast in the third week of September following the Exaltation of the Cross, September 14; and the winter fast in the complete week next before Christmas Eve, following St. Lucy's Day (Dec. 13).

Other regulations prevailed in different countries, until the inconveniences arising from the want of uniformity led to the rule now observed being laid down under Pope Urban II as the law of the church, at the Council of Piacenza and the Council of Clermont, 1095.

These dates are given in the following mnemonic:

Dant Crux, Lucia, Cineres, Charismata Dia

Ut sit in angariâ quarta sequens feria

Or in an old English rhyme

"Fasting days and Emberings be

Lent, Whitsun, Holyrood, and Lucie."

The ember days began on the Wednesday immediately following those days. This meant, for instance, that if September 14 were a Tuesday, the ember days would occur on September 15, 17, and 18. As a result the ember days in September could fall after either the second or third Sunday in September. This, however, was always the liturgical Third Week of September, since the First Sunday of September was the Sunday closest to September 1 (August 29 to September 4). As a simplification of the liturgical calendar, Pope John XXIII modified this so that the Third Sunday was the third Sunday actually within the calendar month. Thus if September 14 were a Sunday, September 24, 26 and 27 would be ember days, the latest dates possible; with September 14 as a Saturday, however, the ember days would occur on September 18, 20 and 21 - the earliest possible dates.

Prior to the reforms instituted after the Second Vatican Council, the Roman Catholic Church mandated fasting (only one full meal per day plus two partial, meatless meals) on all Ember Days (which meant both fasting and abstinence from meat on Ember Fridays), and the faithful were encouraged (though not required) to receive the sacrament of penance whenever possible. On February 17, 1966, Pope Paul VI's decree Paenitemini excluded the Ember Days as days of fast and abstinence for Roman Catholics.[3]

The revision of the liturgical calendar in 1969 laid down the following rules for Ember Days and Rogation days:

In order to adapt the rogation and ember days to various regions and the different needs of the people, the conferences of bishops should arrange the time and plan of their celebration.

Consequently, the competent authority should lay down norms, in view of local conditions, on extending such celebrations over one or several days and on repeating them during the year.

On each day of these celebrations the Mass should be one of the votive Masses for various needs and occasions that is best suited to the intentions of the petitioners.[4]

They may appear in some calendars as "days of prayer for peace".[5]

They were made optional by churches of the Anglican Communion in 1976. In the Episcopal Church, the September Ember Days are still (optionally) observed on the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after Holy Cross Day,[6] so that if September 14 is a Tuesday, the Ember Days fall on September 15, 17, and 18, a week before the dates observed by the Roman Catholic Church.

Some Lutheran church calendars continue the observation of Ember and Rogation days though the practice has diminished over the past century.

Ordination of clergy[edit]

Main article: Ordination

The present rule which fixes the ordination of clergy in the Ember weeks was set in documents traditionally associated with Pope Gelasius I (492 - 496). In the earlier church ordinations took place whenever necessity required. Gelasius is stated to have been the first who limited them to these particular times. The rule once introduced commended itself to the mind of the church, and its observance spread. We find it laid down in the pontificate of Archbishop Ecgbert of York, A.D. 732 - 766, and referred to as a canonical rule in a capitulary of Charlemagne, and it was finally established as a law of the church in the pontificate of Pope Gregory VII, ca 1085.

Etymology[edit]

The English name for these days, "Ember", derives from the Anglo-Saxon ymbren, a circuit or revolution (from ymb, around, and ryne, a course, running), clearly relating to the annual cycle of the year. The word occurs in such Anglo-Saxon compounds as ymbren-tid ("Embertide"), ymbren-wucan ("Ember weeks"), ymbren-fisstan ("Ember fasts"), ymbren-dagas ("Ember days"). The word imbren even makes it into the acts of the "Council of Ænham"[7] (1009): jejunia quatuor tempora quae imbren vocant, "the fasts of the four seasons which are called "imbren'".[8] It corresponds also with Pope Leo the Great's definition, jejunia ecclesiastica per totius anni circulum distributa ("fasts of the church distributed through the whole circuit of the year").

However, others maintain that the term is derived from the Latin quatuor tempora, meaning "four times" (a year), while folk etymology even cites the phrase "may ye remember (the inevitability of death)" as the source. J. M. Neale's Essays of Liturgiology (1863), Chapter X, explains the etymology:

"The Latin name has remained in modern languages, though the contrary is sometimes affirmed, Quatuor Tempora, the Four Times. In French and Italian the term is the same; in Spanish and Portuguese they are simply Temporas. The German converts them into Quatember, and thence, by the easy corruption of dropping the first syllable, a corruption which also takes place in some other words, we get the English Ember. Thus, there is no occasion to seek after an etymology in embers; or with Nelson, to extravagate still further to the noun ymbren, a recurrence, as if all holy seasons did not equally recur. Ember-week in Wales is Welsh: "Wythnos y cydgorian", meaning "the Week of the Processions". In mediæval Germany they were called Weihfasten, Wiegfastan, Wiegefasten, or the like, on the general principle of their sanctity.... We meet with the term Frohnfasten, frohne being the then word for travail. Why they were named foldfasten it is less easy to say."

"Quattuor tempora" was rendered into Irish quite literally as Laethanta na gCeithre Thráth, meaning "the days of the four times", and into somewhat archaic English as "Quarter tense".

QMRQuarter tense (called in all other English speaking countries "ember days") is a uniquely Irish name for those days set aside in the western Christian church for prayer and fasting to sanctify the liturgical seasons. They are of very ancient and uncertain origin, though are generally believed to have originated in Rome. The dates of their celebration are now normally determined by national Roman Catholic hierarchies and not by the universal calendar of the church. The Saturdays of Quarter Tense were considered especially appropriate for priestly ordination. The days of Quarter Tense were, until the Second Vatican Council, time of obligatory fasting and abstinence. However, in Ireland, the obligation of abstinence (the complete avoidance of meat) on the Saturdays of Quarter Tense outside Lent was removed by the Vatican in 1912.

The term "quarter tense" is derived from the official Latin name; "quattuor tempora" ("the four times").

In the Irish language, Quarter Tense is Cátaoir or Laethanta na gCeithre Thráth (lit. "the days of the four times").

The old dates in the Irish calendar for the observation of Quarter Tense were:

The Wednesday, Friday and Saturday following Ash Wednesday, (liturgical colour - Purple).

The Wednesday, Friday and Saturday after Pentecost Sunday, (liturgical colour - Red).

The Wednesday, Friday and Saturday after September 14- the Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, (liturgical colour - Purple).

The Wednesday, Friday and Saturday following December 13- Feast of Saint Lucy, (liturgical colour - Purple).

QMRIn southern Austria, in Carinthia among the Slovenes, a male form of Perchta was known as Quantembermann, in German, or Kvaternik, in Slovene (the man of the four Ember days).[6] Grimm thought that her male counterpart or equivalent is Berchtold.[7]

QMRQuarter days

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In British and Irish tradition, the quarter days were the four dates in each year on which servants were hired, school terms started, and rents were due. They fell on four religious festivals roughly three months apart and close to the two solstices and two equinoxes.

The significance of quarter days is now limited, although leasehold payments and rents for land and premises in England are often still due on the old English quarter days.

The quarter days have been observed at least since the Middle Ages, and they ensured that debts and unresolved lawsuits were not allowed to linger on. Accounts had to be settled, a reckoning had to be made and publicly recorded on the quarter days.[1]

The English quarter days (also observed in Wales and the Channel Islands) are

Lady Day (25 March)

Midsummer Day (24 June)

Michaelmas (29 September)

Christmas (25 December)

Lady Day was also the first day of the year in British dominions (excluding Scotland) until 1752 (when it was harmonised with the Scottish practice of 1 January being New Year's Day). The British tax year still starts on "Old" Lady Day (6 April under the Gregorian calendar corresponded to 25 March under the Julian calendar : 11 days new style calendar advance in 18th century plus 1 day due to the twelfth skipped Julian leap day in 1800; however it was not changed to 7 April when a thirteenth Julian leap day was skipped in 1900). The dates of the Quarter Days observed in northern England until the 18th century were the same as those in Scotland.[2]

The cross-quarter days are four holidays falling in between the quarter days: Candlemas (2 February), May Day (1 May), Lammas (1 August), and All Hallows (1 November). The Scottish term days, which fulfil a similar role as days on which rents are paid, correspond more nearly to the cross-quarter days than to the English quarter days.

There is a mnemonic for remembering on which day of the month the first three quarter days fall (Christmas being easy to recall): the second digit of the day of the month is the number of letters in the month's name. So March has five letters and Lady Day is 25 March; similarly June has four letters and September nine, with Midsummer Day and Michaelmas falling on the 24th and 29th respectively.

At many schools, class terms would begin on the Quarter days; for example, the autumn term would start on September 29, and thus continues to be called the Michaelmas term well into the 21st century, especially at more traditional universities.[3]

In Ireland[edit]

Prior to the Christianization of Ireland in the 5th century AD, the Celtic quarter days were observed:

Lughnasadh (1 August)

Samhain (1 November)

Imbolc (1 February)

Beltaine (1 May)

These are now called cross-quarter days since they fall about halfway into each of the English quarters.

In Scotland[edit]

The "Old Scottish term days" corresponded approximately to the old Celtic quarter days:

Candlemas (2 February)

Whitsunday (legislatively fixed for this purpose on 15 May)

Lammas (1 August)

Martinmas (11 November).

These were also the dates of the Quarter Days observed in northern England until the 18th century.[2]

The dates for removals and for the employment of servants of Whitsunday and Martinmas were changed in 1886 to 28 May and 28 November respectively.[4] The Term & Quarter Days (Scotland) Act 1990 redefined the "Scottish term days", in official use, as the 28th of February, May, August and November respectively. The Act specifies that the new dates take effect on 13 June 1991 (12 months from the date it was passed).

QMRThe Wheel of the Year is an annual cycle of seasonal festivals, observed by many modern Pagans. It consists of either four or eight festivals: either the solstices and equinoxes, known as the "quarter days", or the four midpoints between, known as the "cross quarter days"; syncretic traditions like Wicca often celebrate all eight festivals.

The festivals celebrated by differing sects of modern Paganism can vary considerably in name and date. Observing the cycle of the seasons has been important to many people, both ancient and modern, and many contemporary Pagan festivals are based to varying degrees on folk traditions.[1]

Among Wiccans, the festivals are also referred to as sabbats /ˈsæbət/, with Gerald Gardner claiming this term was passed down from the Middle Ages, when the terminology for Jewish Shabbats was commingled with that of other heretical celebrations. See Witches' Sabbath

Origins[edit]

See also: Education in South Africa

All South African public schools have a four-term school year as determined by the national Department of Education. Each term is between 10 and 11 weeks long. The terms are roughly structured as follows:

First Term

Begins mid-January and ends before Good Friday (Usually in March or April).

Followed by the Easter Holidays, which usually last 10 days.

Second Term

Begins mid-April and ends June

Followed by the Winter Holidays, which usually last 21 days.

Third Term

Begins mid-July and ends September

Followed by the September Holidays, also sometimes called the Spring Holidays, which usually last 10 days.

Fourth Term

Begins early October and ends early December

Followed by the Christmas Holidays, also sometimes called the December or Summer Holidays, which usually last approximately 40 days.

The academic year is approximately 200 school days in duration and runs from January to December.

Private schools follow a similar calendar, but slightly alter it according to their academic and religious needs. Some independent (private) schools have a three-term year instead [3].

The dates of the school year for coastal schools are slightly different from those for inland schools.[18]

The National Education Department proposed a five-week-long school break in June–July 2010 for the 2010 Soccer World Cup-hosted in South Africa-to avoid pupil and teacher absenteeism and a chaotic transport system.[19]

South African universities have a year consisting of two semesters, with the first semester running from early February to early June, and the second semester from late July to late November. Each semester consists of twelve or thirteen teaching weeks, interrupted by a one-week short vacation, and followed by three or four weeks of examinations. In the first semester the short vacation often falls around the Easter weekend, while in the second semester it occurs in early September.

QMR

The nature of the quadrant model is the first three squares are connected. The fourth is always different and transcendent (yet contains the previous three)

There have four major relics that are claimed to be the Holy Lance or parts of it. The Holy Lance is the lance that punctured Jesus during the crucifixion.

Rome[edit]

A mitred Adhémar de Monteil carrying one of the instances of the Holy Lance in one of the battles of the First Crusade

The Holy Lance in Rome is preserved beneath the dome of Saint Peter's Basilica, although the Catholic Church makes no claim as to its authenticity. The first historical reference to the lance was made by the pilgrim Antoninus of Piacenza (AD 570) in his descriptions of the holy places of Jerusalem, writing that he saw in the Basilica of Mount Zion "the crown of thorns with which Our Lord was crowned and the lance with which He was struck in the side".[2] A mention of the lance occurs in the so-called Breviarius at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The presence in Jerusalem of the relic is attested by Cassiodorus (c. 485–585)[3][4] as well as by Gregory of Tours (c. 538–594), who had not actually been to Jerusalem.

In 615, Jerusalem and its relics were captured by the Persian forces of King Khosrau II (Chosroes II). According to the Chronicon Paschale, the point of the lance, which had been broken off, was given in the same year to Nicetas, who took it to Constantinople and deposited it in the church of Hagia Sophia, and later to the Church of the Virgin of the Pharos. This point of the lance, which was now set in an icon, was acquired by the Latin Emperor, Baldwin II of Constantinople, who later sold it to Louis IX of France. The point of the lance was then enshrined with the crown of thorns in the Sainte Chapelle in Paris. During the French Revolution these relics were removed to the Bibliothèque Nationale but subsequently disappeared.[5] (The present "Crown of Thorns" is a wreath of rushes.)

The statue of St Longinus by Gianlorenzo Bernini sits above the relic in St Peter's Basilica

As for the larger portion of the lance, Arculpus claimed he saw it at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around 670 in Jerusalem, but there is otherwise no mention of it after the sack in 615. Some claim that the larger relic had been conveyed to Constantinople in the 8th century, possibly at the same time as the Crown of Thorns. At any rate, its presence at Constantinople seems to be clearly attested by various pilgrims, particularly Russians, and, though it was deposited in various churches in succession, it seems possible to trace it and distinguish it from the relic of the point. Sir John Mandeville declared in 1357 that he had seen the blade of the Holy Lance both at Paris and at Constantinople, and that the latter was a much larger relic than the former; it is worth adding that Mandeville is not generally regarded as one of the Middle Ages' most reliable witnesses, and his supposed travels are usually treated as an eclectic amalgam of myths, legends and other fictions. "The lance which pierced Our Lord's side" was among the relics at Constantinople shown in the 1430s to Pedro Tafur, who added "God grant that in the overthrow of the Greeks they have not fallen into the hands of the enemies of the Faith, for they will have been ill-treated and handled with little reverence."[6]

Whatever the Constantinople relic was, it did fall into the hands of the Turks, and in 1492, under circumstances minutely described in Pastor's History of the Popes, the Sultan Bayezid II sent it to Pope Innocent VIII to encourage the pope to continue to keep his brother and rival Zizim (Cem Sultan) prisoner. At this time great doubts as to its authenticity were felt at Rome, as Johann Burchard records,[7] because of the presence of other rival lances in Paris (the point that had been separated from the lance), Nuremberg (see Holy Lance in Vienna below), and Armenia (see Holy Lance in Echmiadzin below). In the mid-18th century Pope Benedict XIV states that he obtained from Paris an exact drawing of the point of the lance, and that in comparing it with the larger relic in St. Peter's he was satisfied that the two had originally formed one blade.[8] This relic has never since left Rome, and its resting place is at Saint Peter's.

Vienna[edit]

The Holy Lance, displayed in the Imperial Treasury at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, Austria

The Holy Lance in Vienna is displayed in the Imperial Treasury or Weltliche Schatzkammer (lit. Secular Treasure Room) at the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, Austria. In the tenth century, the Holy Roman Emperors came into possession of the lance, according to sources from the time of Otto I (912–973). In 1000, Otto III gave Boleslaw I of Poland a replica of the Holy Lance at the Congress of Gniezno. In 1084, Henry IV had a silver band with the inscription "Nail of Our Lord" added to it. This was based on the belief that this was the lance of Constantine the Great which enshrined a nail used for the Crucifixion.

In 1273, the Holy Lance was first used in a coronation ceremony. Around 1350, Charles IV had a golden sleeve put over the silver one, inscribed Lancea et clavus Domini (Lance and nail of the Lord). In 1424, Sigismund had a collection of relics, including the lance, moved from his capital in Prague to his birthplace, Nuremberg, and decreed them to be kept there forever. This collection was called the Imperial Regalia (Reichskleinodien).

When the French Revolutionary army approached Nuremberg in the spring of 1796 the city councilors decided to remove the Reichskleinodien to Vienna for safe keeping. The collection was entrusted to one "Baron von Hügel", who promised to return the objects as soon as peace had been restored and the safety of the collection assured.[citation needed] However, the Holy Roman Empire was disbanded in 1806 and the Reichskleinodien remained in the keeping of the Habsburgs. When the city councilors asked for the Reichskleinodien back, they were refused. As part of the imperial regalia it was kept in the Imperial Treasury and was known as the lance of Saint Maurice.

During the Anschluss, when Austria was annexed to Germany, the Reichskleinodien were returned to Nuremberg and afterwards hidden. They were found by invading U.S. troops and returned to Austria by American General George S. Patton after World War II.

The inscription on the Holy Lance

Dr. Robert Feather, an English metallurgist and technical engineering writer, tested the lance for a documentary in January 2003.[9] He was given unprecedented permission not only to examine the lance in a laboratory environment, but was allowed to remove the delicate bands of gold and silver that hold it together. In the opinion of Feather and other academic experts, the likeliest date of the spearhead is the 7th century A.D. – only slightly earlier than the Museum's own estimate. However, Dr. Feather stated in the same documentary that an iron pin – long claimed to be a nail from the crucifixion, hammered into the blade and set off by tiny brass crosses – is "consistent" in length and shape with a 1st-century A.D. Roman nail. According to Paul the Deacon, the Lombard royal line bore the name of the Gungingi,[10] which Karl Hauck[11] and Stefano Gasparri[12] maintain identified them with the name of Odin’s lance, Gungnir (a sign that they probably claimed descent from Odin, as did most of the Germanic royal lines). Paul the Deacon notes[13] that the inauguration rite of a Lombard king consisted essentially of his grasping of a sacred/royal lance. Milan, which had been the capital of the Western Roman Empire in the time of Constantine, was the capital of the Lombard kings Perctarit and his son Cunipert, who became Catholic Christians in the 7th century. Thus it seems possible that the iron point of the Lombardic royal lance might have been recast in the 7th century in order to enshrine one of the 1st-century Roman nails that St. Helena was reputed to have found at Calvary and brought to Milan, thus giving a more Christian sacred aura to the old pagan royal lance. If Charlemagne’s inauguration as the King of the Lombards in 774 had likewise included his grasping of this Christian sacred lance or royal lance, this would explain how it would have eventually become the oldest item in the German imperial regalia. The Iron Crown of Lombardy (dated to the 8th century), which eventually became the primary symbol of Lombardic kingship, takes its name from the tradition that it contains one of the holy nails. Gregory of Tours in his Libri Historiarum VII, 33, states that in 585 the Merovingian king Guntram designated his nephew Childebert II his heir by handing him his lance; it is possible that a royal lance was a symbol of kingship among the Merovingian kings and that a nail from Calvary was in the 7th century incorporated into this royal lance and thus eventually would have come into the German imperial regalia.

Echmiadzin[edit]

The Holy Lance in Echmiadzin

The Holy Lance in Echmiadzin (Armenian: Geghard) is conserved in Vagharshapat, Armenia (Echmiadzin), the religious capital of the country. The first source that mentions it is a text Holy Relics of Our Lord Jesus Christ, in a thirteenth-century Armenian manuscript. According to this text, the spear which pierced Jesus was to have been brought to Armenia by the Apostle Thaddeus. The manuscript does not specify precisely where it was kept, but the Holy Lance gives a description that exactly matches the lance, the monastery gate, since the thirteenth century precisely, the name of Geghardavank (Monastery of the Holy Lance).[clarification needed]

In 1655, the French traveler Jean-Baptiste Tavernier was the first Westerner to see this relic in Armenia. In 1805, the Russians captured the monastery and the relic was moved to Tchitchanov Geghard, Tbilisi, Georgia. It was later returned to Armenia at Echmiadzin, where it is always visible in the museum Manoogian, enshrined in a 17th-century reliquary.

Antioch[edit]

During the June 1098 Siege of Antioch, a poor monk named Peter Bartholomew reported that he had a vision in which St. Andrew told him that the Holy Lance was buried in the Church of St. Peter in Antioch. After much digging in the cathedral, Peter apparently discovered a lance. Despite the doubts of many, including the papal legate Adhemar of Le Puy, the discovery of the Holy Lance of Antioch inspired the starving Crusaders to break the siege and secure the city.

QMRIn the theology of the Catholic Church, Limbo (Latin limbus, edge or boundary, referring to the "edge" of Hell) is a speculative idea about the afterlife condition of those who die in original sin without being assigned to the Hell of the Damned. Medieval theologians of western Europe described the underworld ("hell", "hades", "infernum") as divided into four distinct parts: Hell of the Damned,[2] Purgatory, Limbo of the Fathers or Patriarchs, and Limbo of the Infants. However, Limbo of the Infants is not an official doctrine of the Catholic Church.

QMRA monde, meaning "world" in French, is an orb located near the top of a crown. Representing, as the name suggest, the world that the king rules. The only thing that can traditionally be placed above the monde is the Christian cross representing God.

It is the point at which a crown's half arches meet. It is usually topped off either with a national or religious symbol, for example a cross in Christian countries.

QMRMedieval period[edit]

Medieval Christian biblical interpretations of text incorporated exegesis into a fourfold mode which emphasized the distinction between the letter and the spirit of the text. This schema was based on the various ways of interpreting text that were utilized by the patristic writers.

The literal sense (sensus historicus) of scripture denotes what the text states or reports directly.

The allegorical sense (sensus allegoricus) explains text in the light of the doctrinal content of church dogma, so that each literal element has a symbolic meaning (see also Typology (theology)).

The moral application of a text to the individual reader or hearer is the third sense (the sensus tropologicus or sensus moralis).

The fourth sense (sensus anagogicus) draws out of the text the implicit allusions it contains to secret metaphysical and eschatological knowledge, called gnosis.

“ The hermeneutical terminology used here is in part arbitrary. For almost all three interpretations which go beyond the literal explanations are in a general sense "allegorical". The practical application of these three aspects of spiritual interpretation varied considerably. Most of the time, the fourfold sense of the Scriptures was used only partially, dependent upon the content of the text and the idea of the exegete.... We can easily notice that the basic structure is in fact a twofold sense of the Scriptures, that is, the distinction between the sensus literalis and the sensus spiritualis or mysticus, and that the number four was derived from a restrictive systematization of the numerous possibilities which existed for the sensus spiritualis into three interpretive dimensions.[23] ”

Biblical hermeneutics in the Middle Ages witnessed the proliferation of nonliteral interpretations of the Bible. Christian commentators could read Old Testament narratives simultaneously:

as prefigurations of analogous New Testament episodes,

as symbolic lessons about church institutions and current teachings,

and as personally applicable allegories of the Spirit.

In each case, the meaning of the narrative was constrained by imputing a particular intention to the Bible, such as teaching morality. But these interpretive bases were posited by the religious tradition rather than suggested by a preliminary reading of the text.

A similar fourfold mode is found in rabbinic writings. The four categories are:

Peshat (simple interpretation)

Remez (allusion)

Derash (interpretive)

Sod (secret or mystical)

It is uncertain whether the rabbinic categories of interpretation predate those of the patristic version. The medieval period saw the growth of many new categories of rabbinic interpretation and of exegesis of the Torah. Among these were the emergence of Kabbalah and the writings of Maimonides.

The customary medieval exegetical technique commented on the text in glossae or annotations that were written between the lines or at the side of the text (which was left with wide margins for this purpose). The text might be further commented on in scholia, which are long, exegetical passages, often on a separate page.

QMRThe Four Doctors of Bologna (Latin: Quatuor Doctores) were Italian jurists and glossators of the 12th century, based in the University of Bologna: Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Jacobus de Boragine and Hugo de Porta Ravennate.[1]

Their teachings in the law school of Bologna were based on glosses and commentaries on the rediscovered Corpus juris civilis of Justinian. Martinus may have studied with the founder of legal scholarship in Bologna, Irnerius.[2] The revived importance of Roman law, in the form of medieval Roman law, embodied by the Quattuor Doctores made its first impact in the political arena in 1158, when they gave their support to Frederick Barbarossa in his conflict with the Italian communes over imperial rights in Lombardy.[2]

Of the four the strongest contrast in interpretations of the revived Roman law were Bulgarus and Martinus. Bulgarus took the law at face value and applied the narrowest interpretation, the ius strictum; Martinus, on the other hand, applied the legal principle of aequitas, "equity" or "equivalence", which permitted broad latitude in extending Roman principles to modern situations. The followers of Bulgarus, the Bulgari, held sway in Bologna in the following generation, as nostri doctores ("our doctors"), while the followers of Martinus, the Gosiani, taught particularly in southern France.[2] The form of Questiones, questions and answers on the principles of law, rather than glosses on specific texts, was the particular contribution of Hugo.[3]

In the 13th century the combined tradition of the doctores bononienses were summarized in the form of a glossa ordinaria of Roman law, compiled by Accursius.

QMRBulgarus was a twelfth-century Italian jurist, born in Bologna. He is often confused with Bulgarinus, another 15th-century jurist.

Bulgarus was the most celebrated of the famous Four Doctors of the law school of the University of Bologna, probably because his school promoted Roman emperors, such as Justinian I, as the highest authority. Bulgarus was regarded as the Chrysostom of the Glossators, being frequently designated by the title of the "Golden Mouth" (os aureum). He died in 1166 at a very advanced age.[vague] According to popular tradition, all four of the famous Four Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) were pupils of Irnerius; however, while there is currently no insuperable difficulty in substantiating this claim with regard to Bulgarus, Friedrich Karl von Savigny considers the evidence to be insufficient to support this claim. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, corresponding in many respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of Imperial Rome, Martinus being at the head of a school that accommodated the law in a manner that his opponents referred to as the "equity of the purse" (aequitas bursalis), whilst Bulgarus adhered more closely to the letter of the law. Martinus' school was also generally more flexible in its interpretation of the law, whereas Bulgarus' school was much more orthodox and adhered more closely to the tradition of the "Corpus Iuris Civilis". Bulgarus' school ultimately prevailed. Joannes Bassianus, Azo and Accursius all numbered amongst its notable adherents, each of whom, in turn, went on to exercise a commanding influence over the course of legal studies in Bologna.

Decretals with Glossa ordinaria

At the Diet of Roncaglia in 1158, Bulgarus assumed the leading role amongst the Four Doctors, and was one of the most trusted advisors to the emperor Frederick I.[1] His most celebrated work is a notable commentary, De Regulis Juris, which was at one time printed amongst the writings of Placentinus. However, this commentary has since been properly credited to its true author, Cujacius, based on internal evidence contained in the additions annexed to it, which were undoubtedly penned by Placentinus himself. This commentary is the earliest extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the Glossators. According to Savigny, it is a model specimen of the excellence of the method introduced by Irnerius, and a striking example of the brilliant results obtained in a short period of time by virtue of a constant, exclusive study of the sources of law.[2]

While the teaching of Bulgarus, became dominant in Bologna, the followers of Martinus, taught in southern France where they became known as the commentators.[3] Bulgarus teaching in turn influenced Joannes Bassianus, Azo and Accursius.

Martinus Gosia was one of the glossators and a 12th-century Italian jurist, counted among the Four Doctors of Bologna, the others being Bulgarus, Hugo de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine.

Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus were the chiefs of two opposite schools at the University of Bologna, corresponding in many respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of the Roman Empire. Martinus was at the head of a school which accommodated the law to what his opponents styled the equity of the purse (aequitas bursalis), whilst Bulgarus adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus ultimately prevailed.

While the teaching of Bulgarus, became dominant in Bologna, among the nostri doctores, the followers of Martinus, taught in southern France where they became known as the commentators.[1]

Jacobus de Boragine was one of the Glossators, and Four Doctors of Bologna[1][2]

Also known as Jacobus, he was born in the early 12th century and was an Italian lawyer, one of four students of Irnerius called the Quattuor Doctores, although Savigny disputes the general tradition of his inclusion in this list.[3] The other doctors were Bulgarus, Martinus and Hugo. The legal philosophy of Bulgarus adhered closely to the letter of the law while their fellow, Martinus took a more natural law and Equity approach. His time at Bologna was therefore one of the formative times in legal theory.

Students of the German nation at Bologna university.

He was an author of many parts of the Gloss of the Corpus juris civilis.

The legal commentary De Regulis Juris, which Savigny called "a striking example of the brilliant results which had been obtained in a short space of time by a constant and exclusive study of the sources of law".[4]

He died 1178.[5]

Hugo de Porta Ravennate was an Italian jurist, and member of the Glossators of Bologna.

He came from a noble family who had residence in the city of Bologna, but whose family name meant "the gate of Ravenna".

Study and teaching at the University of Bologna, Hugo was one of the "four doctors", a group of disciples of Irnerius who were formitive in the development of European law. Their authority was such that the four lawyers were called by Frederick Barbarossa as directors imperial in the diet of Roncaglia in 1158. This royal patronage allowed them to secure privillages for the newly developing institution of the university, at Bologna.[1]

It is not known when he died but it was after 1166AD, when a document is attested to him, but no later than 1171AD, when a document mentions his widow.

He wrote the glosses to the recovered Roman law, the distinctiones and Summula de pugna.[2][3][4] His students established a third and latter fourth generation of legal scholars at bologna and also included many leaders of Europe including William of Tyre.

QMRThe Four Marks of the Church is a term describing four specific adjectives — one, holy, catholic and apostolic — indicating four major distinctive marks or distinguishing characteristics of the Christian Church. The belief that the Church is characterized by these four particular "marks" was first expressed by the First Council of Constantinople in the year 381 in its revision of the Nicene Creed, in which it included the statement: "[We believe] in one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church." In Protestant theology these are sometimes called the attributes of the Church.[1] They are still professed today in the Nicene Creed, recited in the liturgy of Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and many Protestant churches' worship services.

While specific doctrines, based on both tradition and different interpretations of the Bible, distinguish one Church or denomination from another, largely explaining why there are so many different ones, the Four Marks, when defined the same way, represent a summary of what historically have been considered the most important affirmations of the Christian faith.

QMRIn traditional communities, men wear the kittel throughout the day's prayers. A Tallit (four-cornered prayer shawl) is donned for evening and afternoon prayers–the only day of the year in which this is done. The prayers on Yom Kippur evening are lengthier than on any other night of the year. Once services reconvene in the morning, the services (in all traditions) are the longest of the year. In some traditional synagogues prayers run continuously from morning until nightfall, or nearly so. Two highlights of the morning prayers in traditional synagogues are the recitation of Yizkor, the prayer of remembrance, and of liturgical poems (piyyutim) describing the temple service of Yom Kippur.

QMRSince the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, the Knesset, in consultation with the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, has established four national holidays or days of remembrance:

Yom HaShoah: Holocaust Remembrance Day

Yom Hazikaron: Memorial Day

Yom Ha'atzmaut: Israel Independence Day

Yom Yerushalayim: Jerusalem Day

The status of these days as religious events is not uniform within the Jewish world. Non-Orthodox, Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox Jewish religious movements[Note 26] accept these days as religious as well as national in nature.

As a rule, these four days are not accepted as religious observances by most Haredi Jews, including Hasidim. Some ḥaredim are opposed to the existence of the State of Israel altogether on religious grounds; others simply feel that there are not sufficient grounds under Jewish law to justify the establishment of new religious holidays. For details, see Haredim and Zionism.

Observance of these days in Jewish communities outside Israel is typically more muted than their observance in Israel. Events held in government and public venues within Israel are often held in Jewish communal settings (synagogues and community centers) abroad.

The Israeli government also recognizes several ethnic Jewish observances with holiday status.

QMRThe Four Holy Marshals (Vier Marschälle Gottes or just Vier Marschälle) are four saints venerated in the Rhineland, especially at Cologne, Liège, Aachen, and Eifel.[1] They are conceived as standing particularly close to throne of God, and thus powerful intercessors.[2] Their joint veneration is comparable to that of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, who are also venerated in the Rhineland.

They are considered “marshals of God” and were invoked against diseases and epidemics during the Middle Ages.

Evidence of their cult is testified by documentation dating from 1478; however, the joint cult of these four saints may have existed earlier.[2][3] The cult reached its high point in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and diminished by the seventeenth.[1] There were churches dedicated to them at Hüngersdorf, Schleiden, and in the Mariwald.[4]

The four saints are:

Name (Alternate) Feast day Patronage

Quirinus of Neuss (Quirin) March 30, April 30 Against smallpox and goiter

Hubertus(Hubert) November 3 Against rabies and dog bites

Cornelius September 16 Against cramps and epilepsy

Saint Anthony the Great(Antonius, Antony) January 17 invoked against the plague

In terms of protection over animals, Anthony as the patron of pigs, Cornelius cattle, Hubertus dogs, and Quirinus horses.[1] In addition, each saint has its own particular place of special veneration: Anthony was venerated at Cologne, Hubertus at St-Hubert in the Ardennes, Cornelius at Aachen, and Quirinus at Neuss.[3]

QMRMagical mirror with Zodiac signs, Louvre

- it has 16 squares

Islam chapter

QMRThere are four major Iranian flat breads:

Flatbread Description

Nan-e barbari Thick and oval-shaped, also known as Tabrizi Bread or Nan-e Tabrizi, for its origins in and links to the city of Tabriz.

Nan-e lavash Thin, flaky and round or oval, and is also the oldest known bread in the Middle East and the Caucasus. It is the most widely eaten bread in Iran as well as neighboring Turkey and the Caucasus.

Nan-e sangak Triangle-shaped bread that is stone-baked.

Nan-e taftoon Thin, but thicker than lavash, soft and round

QMRThe name Muhammad (/mʊˈhæməd, -ˈhɑːməd/)[20] means "praiseworthy" and appears four times in the Quran

QMR Salah is preceded by ritual ablution. Salah consists of the repetition of a unit called a rakʿah (pl. rakaʿāt) consisting of prescribed actions and words. The number of obligatory (fard) rakaʿāt varies from two to four according to the time of day or other circumstances (such as Friday congregational worship, which has two rakats). Prayer is obligatory for all Muslims except those who are prepubescent, menstruating, or are experiencing bleeding in the 40 days after childbirth.[1] Every movement in the salah is accompanied by the takbir except the standing between the ruku and sujud, and the ending which has a derivation of the Muslim greeting As-salamu alaykum.[2]

QMRTypes of prayers[edit]

Prayers may be classified into four categories of obligation: fard, wajib, sunnah, and nafl.[51]

Fard As-salah[edit]

The fard as-salat are the five compulsory daily prayers, the Friday prayer (jumu'ah), and the funeral prayer (janazah). Nonperformance of fard as-salat renders one a non-Muslim according to the Hanbali Sunni School, while for the other Sunni schools it renders one a sinner. The denial of its compulsory status, however, is agreed upon by all Sunni schools to render the denier outside the fold of Islam. Fard prayers (as with all fard actions) are further classed as fard al-ayn (obligation of the self) and fard al-kifayah (obligation of sufficiency). Fard al-ayn are those actions that are obligatory on each individual; he or she will be held to account if the actions are not performed. Fard al-kifayah are actions obligatory on the Muslim community at large, so that if some people within the community carry it out no Muslim is considered blameworthy, but if no one carries it out all incur a collective punishment.

Men are required to perform the fard salat in congregation (jama'ah), behind an imam when they are able. According to most Islamic scholars, performing prayers in congregation is mustahabb(recommended) for men,[52] when they are able, but is neither required nor forbidden for women.

QMRThe five daily prayers[edit]

Display showing prayer times in a Turkish mosque.

I. Fajr, II. Zuhr, III. Asr, IV. Maghrib, V. Isha

Muslims are commanded to perform prayers five times a day. These prayers are obligatory on every Muslim who has reached the age of puberty, with the exception being those who are mentally ill, too physically ill for it to be possible, menstruating, or experiencing postnatal bleeding. Those who are ill or otherwise physically unable to offer their prayers in the traditional form are permitted to offer their prayers while sitting or lying, as they are able. The five prayers are each assigned to certain prescribed times (al waqt) at which they must be performed, unless there is a compelling reason for not being able to perform them on time. These times are measured according to the movement of the sun. These are: near dawn (fajr), after midday has passed and the sun starts to tilt downwards / Noon (zuhr or ẓuhr), in the afternoon (asr), just after sunset (maghrib) and around nightfall (Isha). Under some circumstances ritual worship can be shortened or combined (according to prescribed procedures). In case a ritual worship is not performed at the right time, it must be performed later.

Some Muslims offer voluntary prayers (sunna rawatib) immediately before and after the prescribed fard prayers. Sunni Muslims classify these prayers as sunnah, while Shi'ah consider them nafil. The number of rakats for each of the five obligatory prayers as well as the voluntary prayers (before and after) are listed below:

Name Prescribed time period (waqt) Voluntary before fard[t 1] Obligatory Voluntary after fard[t 1]

Sunni Shi'a Sunni Shi'a

Fajr (فجر) Dawn to sunrise, should be read at least 10–15 minutes before sunrise 2 Rakats Sunnat-Mu'akkadah[t 1] 2 Rakats[t 1] 2 Rakats[t 1] — 2 Rakats[t 1]

Zuhr (ظهر) After true noon until Asr 4 Rakats Sunnat-Mu'akkadah[t 2] 4 Rakats 4 Rakats[t 3] 2 Rakats Sunnat-Mu'akkadah[t 2] 8 Rakats[t 1][t 4][t 5]

Asr (عصر) Afternoon[t 6][t 7] 4 Rakats Sunnat-Ghair-Mu'akkdah 4 Rakats 4 Rakats - 8 Rakats[t 1][t 4][t 5]

Maghrib (مغرب) After sunset until dusk 3 Rakats Sunnat-Ghair-Mu'akkdah 3 Rakats 3 Rakats 2 Rakats Sunnat-Mu'akkadah[t 2] 2 Rakats[t 1][t 4][t 5]

Isha (عشاء)[t 8] Dusk until dawn[t 7] 4 Rakats Sunnat-Ghair-Mu'akkadah 4 Rakats 4 Rakats 2 Rakats Sunnat-Mu'akkadah,[t 2]

3 Rakats Witr 2 Rakats[t 1][t 4][t 5]

Sunni Muslims also perform two rakats nafl (voluntary) after the Zuhr and Maghrib prayers. During the Isha prayer, they perform the two rakats nafl after the two Sunnat-Mu'akkadah and after the witr prayer.

Table notes

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j According to Shia Muslims, these are to be performed in sets of two rakats each. This is not the case for Sunni Muslims.

^ Jump up to: a b c d According to Sunni Muslims, there is a difference between Sunnat-Mu'akkadah (obligatory) and Sunnat-Ghair-Mu'akkadah (voluntary). Unlike for the Sunnat-Ghair-Mu'akkadah, the Sunnat-Mu'akkadah was prayed by Muhammed daily.

Jump up ^ Replaced by Jumu'ah on Fridays, which consists of two rakats.

^ Jump up to: a b c d Mustahab (praiseworthy) to do everyday. (Shias)

^ Jump up to: a b c d According to Shia Muslims, this prayer is termed nawafil.

Jump up ^ According to Imam Abu Hanifa, "Asr starts when the shadow of an object becomes twice its height (plus the length of its shadow at the start time of Zuhr)." For the rest of Imams, "Asr starts when the shadow of an object becomes equal to its length (plus the length of its shadow at the start time of Zuhr)." Asr ends as the sun begins to set.

^ Jump up to: a b According to Shia Muslims, Asr prayer and Isha prayer have no set times but are performed from mid-day. Zuhr and Asr prayers must be performed before sunset, and the time for Asr prayer starts after Zuhr has been performed. Maghrib and Isha prayers must be performed before midnight, and the time for Isha prayer can start after Maghrib has been performed, as long as no more light remains in the western sky signifying the arrival of the true night.

Jump up ^ Further information on the usage of the word "Isha" (evening) see Quran 12:16, Quran 79:46

Jumu'ah[edit]

Main article: Jumu'ah

Jumu'ah at Kaohsiung Mosque, Taiwan.

Salat al-Jumu'ah is a congregational prayer on Friday, which replaces the Zuhr prayer. It is compulsory upon men to perform it in congregation, while women may perform it so or may perform Zuhr salat instead. Salat al-Jumu'ah consists of a sermon (khutba) given by the speaker (khatib) after which two rakats are performed. There is no Salat al-Jumu'ah without a khutba.

Wajib salat[edit]

Wajib As-salat are compulsory, non-performance of which renders one a sinner. However, the evidence of the obligation is open to interpretation, with some of the madhab saying it is obligatory while others saying it is optional. To deny that a fard salah is obligatory is an act of disbelief while denying the obligation of a wajib salat is not disbelief. There are some who believe that as the 5 prayers are obligatory, it automatically renders all other prayers optional.

Sunnah salah[edit]

Main article: Sunnah salah

Though not a mandatory part of the course, most Muslims supplicate after completing salah.

Sun'nah sal'ah are optional and were additional voluntary prayers performed by Muhammad — they are of two types [61]— the Sunnah Mu'akkaddah, those practiced on a regular basis, which if abandoned cause the abandoner to be regarded as sinful by the Hanafi School and the Sunnah Ghair Mu'akkaddah, those practiced on a semi-regular practice by Muhammad about which all are that their abandonment doesn't render one sinful.

Certain sunnah prayers have prescribed waqts associated with them. Those ordained for before each of the fard prayers must be performed between the first call to prayer (adhan) and the second call (iqama), which signifies the start of the fard prayer.[62] Those sunnah ordained for after the fard prayers can be performed any time between the end of the fard prayers and the end of the current prayer's waqt.[62] Any amount of extra rakats may be offered, but most madha'ib prescribe a certain number of rakats for each sunnah salah

Nafl salah[edit]

Main article: Nafl salah

Nafl salah (supererogatory prayers) are voluntary, and one may offer as many as he or she likes almost any time.[63] There are many specific conditions or situations when one may wish to offer nafl prayers. They cannot be offered at sunrise, true noon, or sunset.[64] The prohibition against salah at these times is to prevent the practice of sun worship.

Salat-al-Witr[edit]

Main article: Witr

Witr is performed after the salah of Isha (dusk). Some Muslims consider witr wajib while others consider it optional. It may contain any odd number of rakats from one to eleven according to the different schools of jurisprudence. However, Witr is most commonly offered with three rakats.

To end prayers for the night after Isha, the odd numbered rakats must have the niyyah of "wajib-ul-Lail", which is mandatory to "close" one's salah for that day.

Shi'ahs offer this as a one rakat salah at the end of salatul layl (the night prayer), which is an optional prayer according to some shi'ah scholars, and a wajib (obligatory) prayer according to others. This is to be prayed any time after Isha, up until fajr. The best time to pray it is the last third of the night (the night being divided into three, between maghrib and fajr of that night). It is considered highly meritorious by all shi'ah Muslims, and is said to bring numerous benefits to the believer, mainly gaining proximity to Allah. There are various methods of salatul-layl's performance, including shorter and longer versions, in the longer version the believer must perform 8 nawafil salah, in sets of 2 rakats each, then they must pray a 2 rakats salah called 'salatul shafa'ah' this is to include surah nas after surah fatihah in the first rakat and surah falaq after surah fatihah in the secound rakat, and unusually no qunut (a du'ah recited before going into ruku' of the second rakat of most prayers performed by shi'ahs) It is after this that the believer performs salatul witr, it's long method being - Starting with takbiratul ehram, then surah fatihah, then surah ikhlas, then surah falaq, then surah nas, then the hands are raised to recite qunut, upon which the believer can recite any du'a, however there are many recommended du'as for this purpose. Within qunut, the believer must pray for the forgiveness of 40 believers, then further prayers are read where the believer asks for forgiveness for himself a certain number of times using specified phrases and amounts of times to repeat those phrases. The believer then completes the salah in the usual way, by completing his qunut, reciting takbir whilst rasing his hands, going into ruku' and reciting the usual phrase for that, then returning up right and reciting takbir whilst doing so and upon being upright recites 'sami allahu liman hamida' (verily Allah has heard the one who has praised him) thereupon the believer recites takbir whilst raising his hands and goes into sajda. He recites the proscribed phrase in sajda rises, recites takbir whilst rising and then again whilst returnin to sajdah, then rises with takbir again and recites tashahud and salam, thus ending this prayer. It is then optional to recite certain other du'as and dhikr (remembrance of Allah through certain phrases and some of his names being repeated) It is then recommended to perform and sajdah ash-shukr (prostration of thanks) and to then recite ayatul kursi (verse of the throne) and then perform another sajdah ash-shukr.

QMR There are four main salah postures and associated prayers and recitations for

QMRThe acts of wudū[edit]

A wudu tap in Al-Ittihad Mosque, Pekanbaru. This kind of tap is common in Indonesian mosques.

Basin for ablutions of the Jama Masjid, Ahmedabad, India

There are four fard (obligatory) acts. If one of these acts is omitted, it must be returned to and then completion of the successive acts are to be performed.

QMR Wudu is considered extremely important for Muslims. It is one of the concepts most emphasized. There are four Fard (Compulsory) components in Wudu (Ablution).

Wudu (Ablution) is not considered complete Unless these Fard (Compulsory) components are done:

1. Washing complete face at least once, from hairline to underneath the chin and from ear to ear.

2. Washing both hands and arms including elbows.

3. Doing Mash (Wiping) of hair.

4. Washing both feet up to the ankles at least once.

Jews similarly wash each hand twice for a total of four times

QMRFour directions and Political divisions of Iran by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī

QMRThe beginnings of the study of India by outsiders date back at least to Megasthenes (ca. 350–290 BC), a Greek ambassador of the Seleucids to the court of Chandragupta (ruled 322-298 BC), founder of the Mauryan Empire.[1] Based on his life in India Megasthenes composed a four-volume Indica, fragments of which still exist, and which influenced the classical geographers Arrian, Diodor and Strabo.[1] Megasthenes reported that the caste system dominated an essentially illiterate India.[2][3]

QMRThe Shariʻah (literally "the path leading to the watering place") is Islamic law and constitutes a system of duties that are incumbent upon a Muslim by virtue of his or her religious belief.[87] The study of Islamic law is called Fiqh, or "Islamic jurisprudence". The methods of jurisprudence used are known as usul al-fiqh ("legal theory", or "principles of jurisprudence"). Much of it has evolved with the objective to prevent innovation or alteration in the original religion, known as bid‘ah. Four fundamental evidence, codified by ash-Shafi'i, used are, in order of precedence: the Qur'an, the Hadith (the practice of Muhammad), the consensus of the Muslim jurists (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas). Rulings over actions can be categorized as those that are obligatory (fardh) recommendanded (mustahabb), permissible (mubah), frowned on (makrooh) and prohibited (haraam).

The fourth is different. The fifth is ultra transcendent.

QMRSunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him and those leaders were elected. Sunnis believe that anyone who is righteous and just could be a caliph but they have to act according to the Qur'an and the Hadith, the example of Muhammad and give the people their rights.

The Sunnis follow the Quran, then the Hadith. Then for legal matters not found in the Quran or the Hadith, they follow four madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively

QMRPerhaps the most important expression of Islamic art is architecture, particularly that of the mosque (four-iwan and hypostyle).[268] Through the edifices, the effect of varying cultures within Islamic civilization can be illustrated. The North African and Spanish Islamic architecture, for example, has Roman-Byzantine elements, as seen in the Great Mosque of Kairouan which contains marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[269] in the Alhambra palace at Granada, or in the Great Mosque of Cordoba.

QMRMarch to Badr

Muhammad's forces included Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali, Hamza, Mus`ab ibn `Umair, Az-Zubair bin Al-'Awwam, Ammar ibn Yasir, and Abu Dharr al-Ghifari. The Muslims also brought seventy camels and two horses, meaning that they either had to walk or fit three to four men per camel.[10] However, many early Muslim sources indicate that no serious fighting was expected,[11] and the future Caliph Uthman stayed behind to care for his sick wife Ruqayyah, the daughter of Muhammad.[12] Salman the Persian also could not join the battle, as he was still not a free man.[13]

QMRThe right to choose a leader belongs to the Muslim public, generally known as the Muslim Ummah (أمة مسلمة) referring to all Muslims as a single group. The non-Muslim residents of the caliphate do not have any voice in this matter. The Muslim Ummah may choose a leader through any of the following means.

If a caliph is given the pledge of allegiance by Ahl al hal wal 'aqd (أهل الحل والعقد), which signifies the people of authority and influence. These are the people whom the public listens to, and who represent the public. If they give the pledge of allegiance (Bay'ah) to any one person, he has been enacted the caliph. This is how Abu Bakr, the first caliph was chosen.

The Muslim public may delegate their right to choose to a person who they believe will make the right decision. If this person then pledges allegiance to anyone, he is enacted the caliph. Omar, the second caliph, was chosen this way by Abu Bakr when the public asked him to choose his successor. Otherwise, a caliph does not have the right to choose his successor.

The caliph may be elected by general election. This was the mode of succession of Uthman, the third caliph.

If a large group of Muslims pledges allegiance to a person, he is enacted caliph. This was the mode of succession of Ali, the fourth caliph.

The above are the only valid ways by which a caliph may accede to the caliphate. The determining factor of the enactment of a person's caliphate is the Bay'ah, of which there are two versions: Bay'atul In'iqaad (بيعة الإنعقاد), the pledge of enactment is the Bay'ah that enacts that Caliphate of a Caliph, and it is not required to be given by all Muslims, as detailed in the above four points. Bay'atul Itaa'ah (بيعة الإطاعة), the pledge of obedience is the pledge given by the general (Muslim) public. It may not always be given explicitly by every Muslim, but it is an individual obligation (Fard فرض) for every Muslim.

The Caliph, once enacted, serves for life, unless a change in his situation causes him to no longer fulfill the seven aforementioned conditions, or if he begins to defy the Quran and Sunnah in his rule, or fails to implement the Shari'ah. In this case, the Chief Justice, known as Qadi al Qudat (قاضي القضاة) is authorized to depose him. If he insists on remaining in power, he must be deposed forcefully, which becomes a duty upon Muslims.

There may be only one Caliph at a time (in the world). Anyone who declares himself Caliph while there is an existing Caliph is subject to execution by Shari'ah Law. Obedience to the Caliph is a duty upon every Muslim, as long as the Caliph does not issue any commands such that obedience would entail disobedience to Allah or His Messenger. Moreover, if the Caliph becomes subject to deposition, the Bay'ah contract is considered voided, and obedience is no longer required of Muslims.

QMRThe Rashidun Caliphs (meaning "Rightly Guided", "Righteously Guided", "Righteous" Caliphs; Arabic: الخلفاء الراشدون al-Khulafāʾu ar-Rāshidūn), often simply called, collectively, "the Rashidun", is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the 30-year reign of the first four caliphs (successors) following the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, namely: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali of the Rashidun Caliphate, the first caliphate. The concept of "Rightly Guided Caliphs" originated with the later Abbasid Caliphate based in Baghdad. It is a reference to the Sunni imperative "Hold firmly to my example (sunnah) and that of the Rightly Guided Caliphs" (Ibn Majah, Abu Dawood).[1]

QMRIslamic art and architecture borrows many Sasanian decorative motifs and architectural forms, including the iwan; however, the adoption of the iwan was not immediate. For example, the implementation of the standard four-iwan plan which has become standard in Islamic mosque design was not introduced until the twelfth century, long after its invention in the first century CE.[28] Iwans were used frequently in Islamic non-religious architecture before the twelfth century, including houses, community spaces, and civic structures such as the bridge of Si-o-Se Pol in Isfahan.[29] Furthermore, Islamic architecture incorporated the Sasanian placement for the iwan by making it a grand entrance to the prayer hall or to a mosque tomb, and often placing it before a domed space.[30]

As well as often using numbers of iwans on the exterior of buildings, as at the Taj Mahal, iwans were often placed on all or several sides of internal spaces and courtyards, a form going back to Parthian times.[31]

One of the first elaborate iwans used in an Islamic religious context can be found at the Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, which dates from the 12th Century.[32] The history of the evolution of the standard four-iwan plan has been debated by scholars, and some claim that it originated in madrasas, or religious schools designed to educate aristocratic children about Sunnism.[33] However, the four-iwan plan was already in use in palace and temple architecture during both the Parthian and Sasanian periods.[12] The use of iwans would continue to flourish in both mosques and secular spaces starting in the thirteenth century, and would become one of the most iconic features of Islamic architecture, as suggested by the elaborate seventeenth-century iwans in the Great Mosque at Isfahan.

QMRThe names of the first four caliphs inscribed at the dome of Yeni Mosque in Eminönü, Istanbul. Construction was begun during the regency of Safiye Sultan and completed by Turhan Hatice Valide Sultan, the mother of Sultan Mehmed IV.

QMR Muslim views[edit]

The first four caliphs are particularly significant to modern intra-Islamic debates: for Sunni Muslims, they are models of righteous rule; for Shia Muslims, the first three of the four were usurpers. It is prudent to note here that accepted traditions of both Sunni and Shia Muslims detail disagreements and tensions between the four rightly guided caliphs

The fourth square is always different

QMRThe Four Companions, also called the Four Pillars of the Sahaba is a Shi'a term that refers to the four Sahaba Shi'a believe stayed most loyal to Imam Ali after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad:

Abū Dhar al-Ghifāri

Ammār ibn Yāsir

Miqdad ibn Aswād al-Kindi

Salman the Persian

Those among Muhammad's companions who were closest to both Muhammad and Imam Ali were called Shias of Ali "partisans of ‘Alī" during Muhammad's lifetime and it was for these primarily that the following hadith was said:

Glad tidings, Ali! Verily you and your Shia will be in Paradise.

These companions are later referred to as "Real Shi'a". Abdullah ibn Abbas, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr and Malik al-Ashtar were other such partisans. However, it is only The Four Companions that are believed to have attained the rank of "the Real Shi‘a" and remained so.

Generalized eigenvectors[edit]

Main article: Generalized eigenvector

Consider the matrix A from the example in the previous section. The Jordan normal form is obtained by some similarity transformation P−1AP = J, i.e.

\; AP = PJ.

Let P have column vectors pi, i = 1, ..., 4, then

A \begin{bmatrix} p_1 & p_2 & p_3 & p_4 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} p_1 & p_2 & p_3 & p_4 \end{bmatrix}

\begin{bmatrix}

1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\

0 & 2 & 0 & 0 \\

0 & 0 & 4 & 1 \\

0 & 0 & 0 & 4 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} p_1 & 2p_2 & 4p_3 & p_3+4p_4 \end{bmatrix}.

We see that

\; (A - 1 I) p_1 = 0

\; (A - 2 I) p_2 = 0

\; (A - 4 I) p_3 = 0

\; (A - 4 I) p_4 = p_3.

For i = 1,2,3 we have p_i \in \operatorname{Ker}(A-\lambda_{i} I), i.e. pi is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λi. For i=4, multiplying both sides by (A-4I) gives

\; (A-4I)^2 p_4 = (A-4I) p_3.

But (A-4I)p_3 = 0, so

\; (A-4I)^2 p_4 = 0.

Thus, p_4 \in \operatorname{Ker}(A-4 I)^2.

Vectors such as p_4 are called generalized eigenvectors of A.

Thus, given an eigenvalue λ, its corresponding Jordan block gives rise to a Jordan chain. The generator, or lead vector, say pr, of the chain is a generalized eigenvector such that (A − λ I)rpr = 0, where r is the size of the Jordan block. The vector p1 = (A − λ I)r−1pr is an eigenvector corresponding to λ. In general, pi is a preimage of pi−1 under A − λ I. So the lead vector generates the chain via multiplication by (A − λ I).[11][12]

Therefore, the statement that every square matrix A can be put in Jordan normal form is equivalent to the claim that there exists a basis consisting only of eigenvectors and generalized eigenvectors of A.

Real matrices[edit]

If A is a real matrix, its Jordan form can still be non-real, however there exists a real invertible matrix P such that P−1AP = J is a real block diagonal matrix with each block being a real Jordan block. A real Jordan block is either identical to a complex Jordan block (if the corresponding eigenvalue \lambda_i is real), or is a block matrix itself, consisting of 2×2 blocks as follows (for non-real eigenvalue \lambda_i = a_i+ib_i). The diagonal blocks are identical, of the form

C_i =

\begin{bmatrix}

a_i & b_i \\

-b_i & a_i \\

\end{bmatrix}

and describe multiplication by \lambda_i in the complex plane. The superdiagonal blocks are 2×2 identity matrices. The full real Jordan block is given by

J_i =

\begin{bmatrix}

C_i & I & \; & \; \\

\; & C_i & \ddots & \; \\

\; & \; & \ddots & I \\

\; & \; & \; & C_i \\

\end{bmatrix}.

This real Jordan form is a consequence of the complex Jordan form. For a real matrix the nonreal eigenvectors and generalized eigenvectors can always be chosen to form complex conjugate pairs. Taking the real and imaginary part (linear combination of the vector and its conjugate), the matrix has this form with respect to the new basis.

QMRIslamic holy books are the texts which Muslims believe were authored by God to various prophets throughout humanity's history. All these books, in Muslim belief, promulgated the code and laws that God ordained for those people.

Muslims believe the Quran to be the final revelation of God's word to man, and a completion and confirmation of previous scriptures.[1] Despite the primacy that Muslims place upon the Qur'an as God's final word, Islam speaks of respecting all the previous scriptures, and belief in all the revealed books is an article of faith in Islam.

Among the books considered to be revealed, the four mentioned by name in the Qur'an are the Torah (revealed to Moses), the Psalms (Zabur) (revealed to David), the Injil (Gospel) (revealed to Jesus), and the Qur'an itself.

QMRIn order to produce perceptive mujtahids that could fulfill this important role, principles of Shi'i jurisprudence were developed to provide a foundation for scholarly deduction of Islamic law. Shaykh Murtada Ansari and his successors developed the school of Shi'i law, dividing the legal decisions into four categories of certainty (qat),valid conjecture (zann), doubt (shakk), and erroneous conjecture (wahm).

QMRVincent J. Cornell, a scholar of Islamic studies quotes the following statement from Ali:[9]

To know God is to know his oneness. To say that God is one has four meanings: two of them are false and two are correct. As for the two meanings that are false, one is that a person should say "God is one" and be thinking of a number and counting. This is false because that which has no second cannot enter into the category of number. Do you not see that those who say that God is a third of a trinity fall into this infidelity? Another meaning is to say, "So-and-So is one of his people," namely, a species of this genus or a member of this species. This meaning is also false when applied to God, because it implies likening something to God, whereas God is above all likeness. As to the two meanings that are correct when applied to God, one is that it should be said that "God is one" in the sense that there is no likeness to him among things. Another is to say that "God is one" in the sense that there is no multiplicity or division conceivable in Him, neither outwardly, nor in the mind, nor in the imagination. God alone possesses such a unity.[9]

QMRThe following excerpt provides a brief synopsis of the historical origins and starting points for the teachings that took place in the Ottoman madrasas in the Early Modern Period:

Taşköprülüzâde's concept of knowledge and his division of the sciences provides a starting point for a study of learning and medrese education in the Ottoman Empire. Taşköprülüzâde recognises four stages of knowledge—spiritual, intellectual, oral and written. Thus all the sciences fall into one of these seven categories: calligraphic sciences, oral sciences, intellectual sciences, spiritual sciences, theoretical rational sciences, and practical rational sciences. The first Ottoman medrese was created in İznik in 1331, when a converted Church building was assigned as a medrese to a famous scholar, Dâvûd of Kayseri. Suleyman made an important change in the hierarchy of Ottoman medreses. He established four general medreses and two more for specialised studies, one devoted to the ḥadīth and the other to medicine. He gave the highest ranking to these and thus established the hierarchy of the medreses which was to continue until the end of the empire.

QMRProgress in theory and methodology happened with the coming of the early Muslim jurist Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (767–820), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah. The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, Sunnah, ijma, and qiyas) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language

Hinduism chapter

QMRThere are Four Kinds of Lama (Guru) or spiritual teacher[89] (Tib. lama nampa shyi) in Tibetan Buddhism:

gangzak gyüpé lama — the individual teacher who is the holder of the lineage

gyalwa ka yi lama — the teacher which is the word of the buddhas

nangwa da yi lama — the symbolic teacher of all appearances

rigpa dön gyi lama — the absolute teacher, which is rigpa, the true nature of mind

QMRKumbh Mela, a mass-gathering of sadhus from all parts of India, takes place every three years at one of four points along sacred rivers in India, including the holy River Ganges. In 2007 it was held in Nasik, Maharashtra. Peter Owen-Jones filmed one episode of "Extreme Pilgrim" there during this event. It took place again in Haridwar in 2010.[11] Sadhus of all sects join in this reunion. Millions of non-sadhu pilgrims also attend the festivals, and the Kumbh Mela is the largest gathering of human beings for a single religious purpose on the planet; the most recent Kumbh Mela started on 14 January 2013, at Allahabad.[citation needed] At the festival, sadhus are the "biggest crowd pullers", where many of them, "completely naked with ash-smeared bodies, sprint into the chilly waters for a dip at the crack of dawn".[12]

QMRWild silks are often referred to in India as 'Vanya' silks:

The term 'Vanya' is of Sanskrit origin, meaning untamed, wild, or forest-based. Muga, Tasar, and Eri silkworms are not fully tamed and the world lovingly calls the silks they produce as 'wild silks'.[4]

India produces four kinds of silk: mulberry, tasar, muga and eri. The silkworm Bombyx mori is fed on mulberry leaves cultivated in plantations. Silkworms are also found wild on forest trees, e.g Antheraea paphia which produces the tasar silk (Tussah). Antheraea paphia feeds on several trees such as Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, T. arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), Lagerstroemia parviflora and Madhuca indica. Wild silkworm Antheraea assamensis produces muga silk, and another wild silkworm Philosamia synthia ricini smile emoticon Samia cynthia) produces eri silk. The estimated annual production of tasar silk is 130 tonnes. Production of other types of silk exceeds 10 000 tonnes (Gupta 1994).[5]

The eri silk worm from India feeds on the leaves of the castor plant. It is the only completely domesticated silkworm other than Bombyx mori. The silk is extremely durable, but cannot be easily reeled off the cocoon and is thus spun like cotton or wool.[6]

QMRStudy of tenet systems[edit]

Monks debating in Drepung Monastery

Tibetan Buddhists practice one or more understandings of the true nature of reality, śūnyatā, or the emptiness of inherent existence of all things. Emptiness is propounded according to four classical Indian schools of philosophical tenets.

Two belong to the older path referred to as the Hinayana:

Vaibhāṣika (Wylie: bye brag smra ba)

Sautrāntika (Wylie: mdo sde pa)

The primary source for the former is the Abhidharma-kośa of Vasubandhu and its commentaries. The Abhidharmakośa was also an important source for the Sautrāntikas. Dignāga and Dharmakīrti are the most prominent exponents.

The other two are Mahayana:

Yogācāra, also called Cittamātra "Mind-Only" (Wylie: sems-tsam-pa)

Madhyamaka (Wylie: dbu-ma-pa)

Yogacārins base their views on texts from Maitreya, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, Madhyamakas on Nāgārjuna and Āryadeva. There is a further classification of Madhyamaka into Svatantrika and Prasaṅgika. The former stems from Bhāviveka, Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla and the latter from Buddhapālita and Candrakīrti.

The tenet system is used in the monasteries and colleges to teach Buddhist philosophy in a systematic and progressive fashion, each philosophical view being more subtle than its predecessor. Therefore, the four schools can be seen as a gradual path from a rather easy-to-grasp, "realistic" philosophical point of view, to more and more complex and subtle views on the ultimate nature of reality, that is on emptiness and dependent arising, culminating in the philosophy of the Mādhyamikas, which is widely believed to present the most sophisticated point of view.[

QMRA tetraquark, in particle physics, is an exotic meson composed of four valence quarks. In principle, a tetraquark state may be allowed in quantum chromodynamics, the modern theory of strong interactions. Any established tetraquark state would be an example of an exotic hadron which lies outside the quark model classification.

Contents [hide]

1 History

2 See also

3 References

4 External links

History[edit]

Colour flux tubes produced by four static quark and antiquark charges, computed in lattice QCD.[1] Confinement in Quantum Chromo Dynamics leads to the production of flux tubes connecting colour charges. The flux tubes act as attractive QCD string-like potentials.

In 2003 a particle temporarily called X(3872), by the Belle experiment in Japan, was proposed to be a tetraquark candidate,[2] as originally theorized.[3] The name X is a temporary name, indicating that there are still some questions about its properties to be tested. The number following is the mass of the particle in 100 MeV/c2.

In 2004, the DsJ(2632) state seen in Fermilab's SELEX was suggested as a possible tetraquark candidate.[citation needed]

In 2007, Belle announced the observation of the Z(4430) state, a ccdu tetraquark candidate. In 2014, the Large Hadron Collider experiment LHCb confirmed this resonance with a significance of over 13.9σ.[4][5] There are also indications that the Y(4660), also discovered by Belle in 2007, could be a tetraquark state.[6]

In 2009, Fermilab announced that they have discovered a particle temporarily called Y(4140), which may also be a tetraquark.[7]

In 2010, two physicists from DESY and a physicist from Quaid-i-Azam University re-analyzed former experimental data and announced that, in connection with the ϒ(5S) meson (a form of bottomonium), a well-defined tetraquark resonance exists.[8][9]

In June 2013, two independent groups reported on Zc(3900).[10] [11]

QMRTantra techniques[edit]

Main article: Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)

Classifications of tantra[edit]

The various Tantra-texts can be classified in various ways.

Fourfold division[edit]

The best-known classification is by the Gelug, Sakya, and Kagyu schools, the so-called Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism. They divide the Tantras into four hierarchical categories:

Kriyayoga, action tantra, which emphasizes ritual;

Charyayoga, performance tantra, which emphasizes meditation;

Yogatantra, yoga tantra;

Anuttarayogatantra, highest yoga tantra, which is further divided into "mother", "father" and "non-dual" tantras.

QMRStatues of the three foremost Nayanars with Manikkavacakar – collectively called the Nalvars: (from left) Sambandar, Appar, Sundarar, Manikkavacakar.

Judaism chapter

QMRThe picture of Gehenna as the place of punishment or destruction of the wicked occurs frequently in the Mishnah in Kiddushin 4.14, Avot 1.5; 5.19, 20, Tosefta t. Bereshith 6.15, and Babylonian Talmud b.Rosh Hashanah 16b:7a; b. Bereshith 28b. Gehenna is considered a Purgatory-like place where the wicked go to suffer until they have atoned for their sins. It is stated that the maximum amount of time a sinner can spend in Gehenna is one year. There are also four people who do not get a share in Olam Ha-Ba.[19] Those people are Doeg the Edomite, Ahitophel, Balaam, and Gehazi.

QMRGehazi, Geichazi, or Giezi (Douay-Rheims) (Hebrew: גֵּיחֲזִי; Tiberian: Gêḥăzî; Standard: Geẖazi; "valley of vision") is a figure found in the Books of Kings in the Hebrew Bible. As a servant of Elisha he was in a position of power but he was corrupt, and misused his authority and cheated Naaman the Syrian, a leper. As a punishment, Elisha cursed him, transferring Naaman's leprosy to him and his descendants for ever. In Rabbinic Literature, Gehazi is identified as one of four commoners who forfeited his share in the afterlife because of his wickedness. He is the subject of a poem by Rudyard Kipling.

QMRThe tetragrammaton (from Greek τετραγράμματον, meaning "(consisting) of four letters", and probably pronounced Yahweh[1][2]) is the Hebrew theonym יהוה, commonly transliterated into Latin letters as YHWH. It is one of the names of the national god of the Israelites used in the Hebrew Bible.[3][4][5] The name may be derived from a verb that means "to be", "to exist", "to cause to become", or "to come to pass".[1][6]

The books of the Torah and the rest of the Hebrew Bible (with the exception of Esther and Song of Songs) contain the Hebrew word יהוה. Religiously observant Jews and those who follow conservative Jewish traditions do not pronounce יהוה, either aloud or to themselves in silence, nor do they read aloud transliterated forms such as Yahweh or Yahuveh; instead the word is substituted with a different term, whether used to address or to refer to the God of Israel. Common substitutions for Hebrew forms are hakadosh baruch hu ("The Holy One, Blessed Be He"), Adonai ("The Lord"),[7] or HaShem ("The Name").

The letters, properly read from right to left (in Biblical Hebrew), are:

Hebrew Letter name Pronunciation

י Yod [j]

ה He [h]

ו Waw [w], or placeholder for "O"/"U" vowel (see mater lectionis)

ה He [h] (or often a silent letter at the end of a word)

The name "YHWH" is probably derived from the Hebrew triconsonantal root היה (h-y-h), "to be", become, come to pass", with a third person masculine y- prefix, equivalent to English "he".[6][8][9] It is connected to the passage in Exodus 3:14 in which God gives his name as אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה (Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh), where the verb[which?], translated most basically as "I am that I am", or "I shall be what I shall be", "I shall be what I am"[10] or "I will become what I choose to become",[11] " I Will Become whatsoever I please".[12] יהוה with the vocalization "Yahweh" could theoretically be a hif'il (causative) verb inflection of root HWH, with a meaning something like "he who causes to exist" (the Creator) or "who gives life" (the root idea of the word being "to breathe", and hence, "to live").[13][14] As a qal (basic stem) verb inflection, it could mean "he who is, who exists".[8]

The fourth letter is silent. The forth square is always different.

The most widely accepted pronunciation of the tetragrammaton (YHWH) is Yahweh.[needs IPA] Genebrardus suggested the pronunciation Jahve based on Theodoret's assertion that the Samaritans used the pronunciation Iabe. For most Jews, however, it was forbidden to pronounce, or even write in full, the tetragrammaton.[7]

A. Lukyn Williams proposed the pronunciations of the tetragrammaton to be Yaho or Yahu based on theophoric names in the Hebrew Bible that end in YHW.[7]

The current scholarly consensus is that the vowel diacritic points attached to the written consonants YHWH in the Masoretic orthography of Biblical Hebrew were not intended to represent the vowels of such an authentic and historically correct pronunciation.[citation needed]

Vowel points[edit]

See also: Biblical Hebrew orthography, Hebrew diacritics, Tiberian vocalization and Niqqud

The original consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible was, several centuries later, provided with vowel marks by the Masoretes to assist reading. In places that the consonants of the text to be read (the Qere) differed from the consonants of the written text (the Kethib), they wrote the Qere in the margin as a note showing what was to be read. In such a case the vowels of the Qere were written on the Kethib. For a few frequent words, the marginal note was omitted: that is called Q're perpetuum.

One of the frequent cases was the tetragrammaton, which according to later Jewish practices should not be pronounced but read as "Adonai" ("My Lord"), or, if the previous or next word already was "Adonai" or "Adoni", as "Elohim" ("God"). The combination produces יְהֹוָה and יֱהֹוִה respectively, non-words that would spell "yehovah" and "yehovih" respectively.

The oldest complete or nearly complete manuscripts of the Masoretic Text Hebrew Bible with Tiberian vocalization, such as the Aleppo Codex and the Codex Leningradensis, both of the 10th or 11th century CE, mostly write יְהוָה (yehvah), with no pointing on the first H. It could be because the o diacritic point plays no useful role in distinguishing between Adonai and Elohim and so is redundant, or it could point to the Qere being 'Shema', which is Aramaic for "the Name".

Consonantal

Consonantal semi-vowels[edit]

Transcription of the Divine Name as ΙΑΩ in the 1st-century BCE Septuagint manuscript 4Q120.

In ancient Hebrew, the letter ו, known to modern Hebrew speakers as vav, was a semivowel /w/ (as in English, not as in German) rather than a /v/.[15] The letter is referred to as waw in the academic world, and accordingly יהוה is represented in English academic texts as YHWH.

In unpointed Biblical Hebrew, most vowels are not written and the rest are written only ambiguously, as the vowel letters are also used as consonants (similar to the Latin use of V to indicate both U and V). See matres lectionis for details. For similar reasons, an appearance of the tetragrammaton in ancient Egyptian records of the 13th century BCE sheds no light on the original pronunciation.[16] Therefore, it is, in general, difficult to deduce how a word is pronounced only from its spelling, and the tetragrammaton is a particular example: two of its letters can serve as vowels, and two are vocalic place-holders, which are not pronounced. Thus 1st-century Jewish historian and philosopher Josephus said that the sacred name of God consists of "four vowels".[17]

This difficulty occurs somewhat also in Greek when transcribing Hebrew words because of Greek's lack of a letter for consonant 'y' and (since loss of the digamma) of a letter for "w", forcing the Hebrew consonants yod and waw to be transcribed into Greek as vowels. Also, non-initial 'h' caused difficulty for Greeks and was liable to be omitted; χ (chi) was pronounced as 'k' + 'h' (as in modern Hindi "lakh", i.e., लाख) and could not be used to represent 'h' as in Modern Greek Χάρρι = "Harry", for example.

Jehovah[edit]

Main article: Jehovah

"Jehovah" /dʒɨˈhoʊvə/ is a Latinization of the Hebrew יְהֹוָה, a vocalization of the tetragrammaton.[19]

Most scholars believe that "Jehovah" to be a late (c. 1100 CE) hybrid form derived by combining the Latin letters JHVH with the vowels of Adonai, but there is some evidence that it may already have been in use in Late Antiquity (5th century).[20][21][22] "Jehovah" was popularized in the English-speaking world by William Tyndale and other pioneer English Protestant translations such as the Geneva Bible and the King James Version[23] and is still used in the New World Translation. However, it is no longer used in most mainstream English translations, with Lord or LORD usually used instead, generally indicating that the corresponding Hebrew is YHWH or Yehowah.[24][25]:5

Yehweh[edit]

Main article: YEHWEH

William Gesenius's Hebrew punctuation (i.e., Yehweh)

The Hebrew scholar Wilhelm Gesenius [1786–1842] suggested that the Hebrew punctuation יַהְוֶה, which is transliterated into English as "YEHWEH", might more accurately represent the pronunciation of the tetragrammaton than the Biblical Hebrew punctuation "יְהֹוָה", from which the English name "Jehovah" has been derived. His proposal to read YHWH as "יַהְוֶה" (see image to the left) was based in large part on various Greek transcriptions, such as ιαβε, dating from the first centuries CE but also on the forms of theophoric names. In his Hebrew Dictionary, Gesenius supports "Yehweh" (which would have been pronounced [jahwe], with the final letter being silent) because of the Samaritan pronunciation Ιαβε reported by Theodoret, and that the theophoric name prefixes YHW [jeho] and YH [jo] can be explained from the form "Yahweh".[26] Today, many scholars accept Gesenius's proposal to read YHWH as יַהְוֶה. Gesenius' proposal gradually became accepted as the best scholarly reconstructed vocalized Hebrew spelling of the tetragrammaton.[27]

Theophoric names[edit]

Yeho or "Yehō-" is the prefix form of "YHWH" used in Hebrew theophoric names; the suffix form "Yahū" or "-Yehū" is just as common, which has caused two opinions:

In former times (at least from c.1650 CE), the prefix pronunciation "Yehō-" was sometimes connected with the full pronunciation "Yehova", derived from combining the Masoretic vowel points for "Adonai" with the consonantal tetragrammaton YHWH.

Recently, as "Yahweh" is likely an imperfective verb form, "Yahu" is its corresponding preterite or jussive short form: compare yiŝtahaweh (imperfective), yiŝtáhû (preterit or jussive short form) = "do obeisance".[28]

The first argument 1 is believed by George Wesley Buchanan in Biblical Archaeology Review; Smith's 1863 A Dictionary of the Bible;[29] Section # 2.1 The Analytical Hebrew & Chaldee Lexicon (1848)[30] in its article הוה.

The second argument is supported on grammatical grounds because shortening to "Yahw" would end up as "Yahu" or something similar, and forms like Yo (יוֹ) contracted from Yeho (יְהוֹ) and the suffix "-yah",[13] as well as "Yeho-" or "Yo"[31] can most readily be explained as derivatives of "Yahweh" rather than from "Yehovah".

Scholarly texts of the Hebrew Bible[edit]

In the Hebrew Bible, the tetragrammaton occurs 6,828 times,[1]:142 as can be seen in the Biblia Hebraica and Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia.[33] In addition, on the margins there are notes (Masorah [note 1]) indicating that in 134 places the Jewish Sopherim (scribes) altered the original Hebrew text from YHWH to Adonai[34][note 2][35][36] and 8 places to Elohim,[37] which would add 142 occurrences to the initial number above.[38] The occurrence of the divine name in Zechariah 9:4 in the 8HevXII b (LXXVTS10b) fragment confirms these alterations.[39] According to the Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon, יְהֹוָה (Qr אֲדֹנָי) occurs 6,518 times, and יֱהֹוִה (Qr אֱלֹהִים) occurs 305 times in the Masoretic Text. It first appears in Hebrew in Genesis 2:4.[33][40] The only books it does not appear in are Ecclesiastes, the Book of Esther, and Song of Songs.[1]

In the Book of Esther the Tetragrammaton does not appear, but it is present in four different places as an acrostic in the Hebrew text: the initial letters of four successive words comprise YHWH. These letters were distinguished in at least three ancient Hebrew manuscripts in red.[41][note 3] Another acrostic containing the Tetragrammaton also composed the first four words of Psalm 96:11.[42]

Short form Jah occurs 50 times:[43] 43 times in the Psalms, one in Exodus 15:2; 17:16; Isaiah 12:2; 26:4, and twice in Isaiah 38:11. In the Song of Songs 8:6 as a component expressions šalehebeteja, "the flame of Jah".[44] Jah appears in the abbreviated form Yah in the Greek word Ἀλληλουϊά (hallelujah) in Revelation 19:1–6..

God's name is also found in the Bible as a component in theophoric Hebrew names. Some may have had at the beginning of the form: jô- or jehô- (29 names), and the other at the end: jāhû- or jāh- (127 names). One name is a form of jehô as the second syllable (Elioenaj, hebr. ʼelj(eh)oʻenaj[45]). Onomastic Studies indicate that teoforic names containing the Tetragrammaton were very popular during the monarchy (8th-7th centuries BCE).[note 4] The popular names with the prefix jô-/jehô- diminished, while the suffix jāhû-/jāh- increased.[46] The Septuagint typically translates YHWH as kyrios, that means "Lord".[1]

Below are the number of occurrences of the Tetragrammaton in various books in the Masoretic text.[47]

ĕ is hataf segol; ǝ is the pronounced form of plain shewa.

The o diacritic dot over the letter waw is often omitted because it plays no useful role in distinguishing between the two intended pronunciations Adonai and Elohim (which both happen to have an o vowel in the same position).

Dead Sea Scrolls[edit]

In the Dead Sea Scrolls and other Hebrew and Aramaic texts the tetragrammaton and some other names of God in Judaism (such as El or Elohim) were sometimes written in paleo-Hebrew script, showing that they were treated specially. Most of God's names were pronounced until about the 2nd century BC. Then, as a tradition of non-pronunciation of the names developed, alternatives for the tetragrammaton appeared, such as Adonai, Kurios and Theos.[54] The 4Q120, a Greek fragment of Leviticus (26:2-16) discovered in the Dead Sea scrolls (Qumran) has ιαω ("Iao"), the Greek form of the Hebrew trigrammaton YHW.[55] The historian John the Lydian (6th century) wrote: "The Roman Varo [116–27 BCE] defining him [that is the Jewish god] says that he is called Iao in the Chaldean mysteries" (De Mensibus IV 53). Van Cooten mentions that Iao is one of the "specifically Jewish designations for God" and "the Aramaic papyri from the Jews at Elephantine show that 'Iao' is an original Jewish term".[56][57]

The preserved manuscripts from Qumran show the inconsistent practice of writing the tetragrammaton, mainly in biblical quotations: in some manuscripts is written in palaeo-Hebrew script, square scripts or replaced with four dots or dashes (tetrapuncta).

The members of the Qumran community were aware of the existence of the tetragrammaton, but this was not tantamount to granting consent for its existing use and speaking. This is evidenced not only by special treatment of the tetragrammaton in the text, but by the recommendation recorded in the 'Rule of Association' (VI, 27): "Who will remember the most glorious name, which is above all [...]".[58]

The table below presents all the manuscripts in which the tetragrammaton is written in palaeo-Hebrew script,[note 5] in square scripts, and all the manuscripts in which the copyists have used tetrapuncta.

Copyists used the 'tetrapuncta' apparently to warn against pronouncing the name of God.[59] In the manuscript number 4Q248 is in the form of bars.

The occurrence of the Tetragrammaton in some manuscripts at Qumran[edit]

The date of composition is an estimate according to Peter Muchowski, as found in "Commentaries to the Manuscripts of the Dead Sea" by Emanuel Tov in "Scribal Practices and Approaches, Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert".

Manuscripts in blue have written the Tetragrammaton in tetrapuncta

Manuscripts in green have written the Tetragrammaton in palaeo-Hebrew

Manuscripts in red have written the Tetragrammaton in square characters

The numbers on the horizontal line are the approximate year the manuscripts was produced

Magical papyri[edit]

The spellings of the tetragrammaton occur among the many combinations and permutations of names of powerful agents that occur in Jewish magical papyri found in Egypt.[61] One of these forms is the heptagram ιαωουηε.[62] In the Jewish magical papyri, Iave and Iαβα Yaba occurs frequently.[31]

Yawe is found in an Ethiopic Christian list of magical names of Jesus, purporting to have been taught by him to his disciples.[31]

Septuagint and other Greek translations[edit]

Tetragrammaton written in palaeo-Hebrew script on 8HevXII

The oldest complete Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) versions, from around the 2nd century CE, consistently use Κυριος ("Lord"),[63] or Θεος ("God"),[64][65] where the Hebrew has YHWH, corresponding to substituting Adonay for YHWH in reading the original. The use of Κυριος for translating YHWH was not common in LXX mss before that time.[66] In books written in Greek in this period (e.g., Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), as in the New Testament, Κυριος takes the place of the name of God. However, the oldest fragments had the tetragrammaton in Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew characters,[67] with the exception of P. Ryl. 458 (perhaps the oldest extant Septuagint manuscript) where there are blank spaces, leading some scholars such as C. H. Roberts to believe that it contained letters.[68] According to Paul E. Kahle, the tetragrammaton must have been written in the manuscript where these breaks or blank spaces appear.[69] Another one of these oldest fragments of manuscripts cannot be used in discussions because, in addition to its small text and its fragmentary condition, it does not include any Hebrew Bible verses where the Tetragrammaton appears.

Throughout the Septuagint as now known, the word Κύριος (Kyrios) without the definite article is used to represent the Divine Name, but it is uncertain whether this was the Septuagint's original rendering.[70] Origen (Commentary on Psalms 2.2) and Jerome (Prologus Galeatus) said that in their time the best manuscripts gave not the word Κύριος but the tetragrammaton itself written in an older form of the Hebrew characters.[71] No Jewish manuscript of the Septuagint has been found with Κύριος representing the tetragrammaton, and it has been argued, not altogether convincingly, that the use of the word Κύριος shows that the Septuagint as now known is of Christian character,[72] and even that the composition of the New Testament preceded the change to Κύριος in the Septuagint.[73] The use of Κύριος throughout to represent the tetragrammaton has been called "a distinguishing mark for any Christian LXX manuscript".[74]

In some earlier copies of the Septuagint, the tetragrammaton in either Hebrew or palaeo-Hebrew letters is used. The tetragrammaton occurs in the following texts:

Papyrus Rylands 458 – contains fragments of Deuteronomy. Has blank spaces where the copyist probably had to write the tetragrammaton. It has been dated to 2nd century BCE.

Papyrus Fouad 266b (848) – contains fragments of Deuteronomy, chapters 10 to 33, dated to 1st century BCE.[75] Apparently the first copyist left a blank space and marked with a dot, and the other inscribed letters, but not all scholars agree to this view.

Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3522 – contains chapter 42 of the Book of Job and the tetragrammaton written in palaeohebrew letters. It has been dated to the 1st century BCE.

8HevXII gr – dated to the 1st century CE, includes three fragments published separately.

Se2grXII (LXXIEJ 12) has Tetragrammaton in 1 place

8HevXII a (LXXVTS 10a) in 24 places, whole or in part.

8HevXII b (LXXVTS 10b) in 4 places.

Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101 – contains fragments of the Book of Psalms. It has been dated between year 50 and 150 CE

4QpapLXXLevb – contains fragments of the Book of Leviticus, chapters 1 to 5. In two verses: 3:12; 4:27 the tetragrammaton appears in the form ΙΑΩ. This manuscript is dated to the 1st century BCE.

Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 656 – containing fragments of the Book of Genesis, chapters 14 to 27. A second copyist wrote Kyrios. It is dated to the late 2nd or early 3rd century CE.

Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1007 – this manuscript in vitela form contains Genesis 2 y 3. The Divine Name is witten with a double yodh. It has been assigned palaeographically to the 3rd century.

Papyrus Berlin 17213 – containing fragments of the Book of Genesis, chapter 19. Contains a blank space for the name of God apparently, although Emanuel Tov thinks that it is a free space ending paragraph.[76] It has been dated to 3rd century CE.

Taylor-Schechter 16.320 – tetragrammaton in Hebrew, 550 - 649 CE.

Codex Marchalianus – has the Divine Name on marginal notes in Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ, and is the only another mss. with ΙΑΩ. It is a 6th-century Greek manuscript.

Taylor-Schechter 12.182 – a Hexapla manuscript with tetragrammaton in Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ. It is from 7th-century.

Ambrosiano O 39 sup. – the latest Greek manuscript containing the name of God is Origen's Hexapla, transmitting among other translations the text of the Septuagint. This codex comes from the late 9th century, and is stored in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana.

In some earlier Greek copies of the Bible translated in the 2nd century CE by Symmachus the Ebionite and Aquila of Sinope, the tetragrammaton occurs. The following manuscripts contain the Divine Name:

Papyrus Vindobonensis Greek 39777, the P.Vindob.G.39777 – dated to late 3rd century or beginning 4th century.

AqTaylor, this is a Septuagint manuscript dated after the middle of the 5th century, but not later than the beginning of the 6th century.

AqBurkitt – a palimpsest manuscript of the Septuagint dated late 5th century or early 6th century.

Sidney Jellicoe concluded that "Kahle is right in holding that LXX [Septuagint] texts, written by Jews for Jews, retained the Divine Name in Hebrew Letters (palaeo-Hebrew or Aramaic) or in the Greek-letters imitative form ΠΙΠΙ, and that its replacement by Κύριος was a Christian innovation".[77] Jellicoe draws together evidence from a great many scholars (B. J. Roberts, Baudissin, Kahle and C. H. Roberts) and various segments of the Septuagint to draw the conclusions that the absence of "Adonai" from the text suggests that the insertion of the term Kyrios was a later practice; in the Septuagint Kyrios is used to substitute YHWH; and the tetragrammaton appeared in the original text, but Christian copyists removed it.[citation needed]

Eusebius and Jerome (translator of the Latin Vulgate) used the Hexapla. Both attest to the importance of the sacred Name and that some manuscripts of Septuagint contained the tetragrammaton in Hebrew letters.[citation needed][78] This is further affirmed by The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, which states "Recently discovered texts doubt the idea that the translators of the LXX (Septuagint) have rendered the tetragrammaton JHWH with KYRIOS. The most ancient mss (manuscripts) of the LXX today available have the tetragrammaton written in Hebrew letters in the Greek text. This was a custom preserved by the later Hebrew translator of the Old Testament in the first centuries (after Christ)"[79]

New Testament[edit]

Main article: Tetragrammaton in the New Testament

No Greek manuscript of the New Testament uses the tetragrammaton.[80]:77 In all its quotations of Old Testament texts that have the tetragrammaton in Hebrew the New Testament uses the Greek word Κύριος (Kyrios). However, within the New Testament the name that the tetragrammaton represents underlies the names of some of the people mentioned (such as Zachary and Elijah), and the name appears in the abbreviated form Yah in the Greek word Ἀλληλουϊά (Alleluia) in Revelation 19:1–6.

In 1977, Professor George Howard in the pages of the Journal of Biblical Literature published a thesis of the presence of the Tetragrammaton in the biblical quotations cited by the writers of the New Testament.[81] Gives two sets of evidence:

In some pre-Christian manuscripts of the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible was left Tetragrammaton (Papyrus Fouad 266; fragments of the scroll 8HevXII gr, (LXXVTS 10a, LXXVTS 10b, Se2grXII) containing the Twelve Prophets found in Nahal Hever, 4QLXXLevb) and other Jewish translations of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, represented by translations of Aquila, Theodotion and Symmachus;

Nomina sacra (ΚΣ and ΘΣ) occurring in the early copies of the LXX in place of the Tetragrammaton, apparently created by the Christians of pagan origin. They knew Hebrew and it was difficult to them to save the Tetragrammaton. So they decided to use the shortened ΚΣ (κυριος – Lord) and ΘΣ (θεος – God), conformable them in this way to the original spelling of the Tetragrammaton. It is not known whether and how this practice was influenced by the later trinitarian debates.

Patristic writings[edit]

Petrus Alfonsi's early 12th-century Tetragrammaton-Trinity diagram, rendering the name as "JEVE"

Tetragrammaton at the 5th Chapel of the Palace of Versailles, France. This example has the vowel points of "Elohim".

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) and B.D. Eerdmans:[82][83]:330

Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE) writes[84] Ἰαῶ (Iao);

Irenaeus (d. c. 202) reports[85] that the Gnostics formed a compound Ἰαωθ (Iaoth) with the last syllable of Sabaoth. He also reports[86] that the Valentinian heretics use Ἰαῶ (Iao);

Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 215)[87] writes Ἰαοὺ (Iaou)—see also below;

Origen of Alexandria (d. c. 254), Ἰαώ (Iao);[88]

Porphyry (d. c. 305) according to Eusebius (died 339),[89] Ἰευώ (Ieuo);

Epiphanius (died 404), who was born in Palestine and spent a considerable part of his life there, gives Ἰά (Ia) and Ἰάβε (Iabe) and explains Ἰάβε as meaning He who was and is and always exists.[90]

(Pseudo-)Jerome (4th/5th century),[91] (tetragrammaton) can be read Iaho;

Theodoret (d. c. 457) writes Ἰαώ (Iao);[92] he also reports[93] that the Samaritans say Ἰαβέ or Ἰαβαί (both pronounced at that time /ja'vε/), while the Jews say Ἀϊά (Aia).[31] (The latter is probably not יהוה but אהיה Ehyeh = "I am " or "I will be", Exod. 3:14 which the Jews counted among the names of God.)

James of Edessa (died 708),[94] Jehjeh;

Jerome (died 420)[95] speaks of certain Greek writers who misunderstood the Hebrew letters יהוה (read right-to-left) as the Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ (read left-to-right), thus changing YHWH to pipi.

A window featuring the Hebrew tetragrammaton יְהֹוָה in St. Charles's Church, Vienna.

Peshitta[edit]

The Peshitta (Syriac translation), probably in the 2nd century AD,[96] uses the word "Lord" (ܡܳܪܝܳܐ, pronounced moryo) for the Tetragrammaton.[97]

Vulgate[edit]

The Vulgate (Latin translation) made from the Hebrew in the 4th century AD,[98] uses the word "Lord" (dominus) for the Tetragrammaton.[97]

The Vulgate translation, though made not from the Septuagint but from the Hebrew text, did not depart from the practice used in the Septuagint. Thus, for most of its history, Christianity's translations of the Scriptures have used equivalents of Adonai to represent the tetragrammaton. Only at about the beginning of the 16th century did Christian translations of the Bible appear with transliterations of the tetragrammaton.[23][99]

Usage in religious traditions[edit]

Judaism[edit]

Main article: Genizah

Especially due to the existence of the Mesha Stele, the Jahwist tradition found in Exod. 3:15, and ancient Hebrew and Greek texts, biblical scholars widely hold that the tetragrammaton and other names of God were spoken by the ancient Israelites and their neighbors.[13][100][101]:40

Some time after the destruction of Solomon's Temple, the spoken use of God's name as it was written ceased among the people, even though knowledge of the pronunciation was perpetuated in rabbinic schools.[31] Philo calls it ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy place (that is, for priests in the Temple). In another passage, commenting on Lev. xxiv. 15 seq.: "If any one, I do not say should blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should even dare to utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the penalty of death."[31]

Rabbinic sources suggest that the name of God was pronounced only once a year, by the high priest, on the Day of Atonement.[102] Others, including Maimonides,[103] claim that the name was pronounced daily in the liturgy of the Temple in the priestly benediction of worshippers (Num. vi. 27), after the daily sacrifice; in the synagogues, though, a substitute (probably "Adonai") was used.[31]> According to the Talmud, in the last generations before the fall of Jerusalem, the name was pronounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in the chant of the priests.[31] Since the destruction of Second Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the tetragrammaton has no longer been pronounced in the liturgy. However the pronunciation was still known in Babylonia in the latter part of the 4th century.[31]

Verbal prohibitions[edit]

The vehemence with which the utterance of the name is denounced in the Mishna suggests that use of Yahweh was unacceptable in rabbinical Judaism. "He who pronounces the Name with its own letters has no part in the world to come!"[31] Such is the prohibition of pronouncing the Name as written that it is sometimes called the "Ineffable", "Unutterable" or "Distinctive Name".[104][105][106]

Halakha (Jewish Law) prescribes that whereas the Name written yud-hei-vav-hei, it is only to be pronounced "Adonai"; and the latter name too is regarded as a holy name, and is only to be pronounced in prayer.[107][108] Thus when someone wants to refer in third person to either the written or spoken Name, the term "HaShem" ("the Name") is used;[109][110] and this handle itself can also be used in prayer.[111] The Masoretes added vowel points (niqqud) and cantillation marks to the manuscripts to indicate vowel usage and for use in ritual chanting of readings from the Bible in synagogue services. To יהוה they added the vowels for "Adonai" ("My Lord"), the word to use when the text was read. While "HaShem" is the most common way to reference "the Name", the terms "HaMaqom" (lit. "The Place", i.e. "The Omnipresent") and "Raḥmana" (Aramaic, "Merciful") are used in the mishna and gemara, still used in the phrases "HaMaqom y'naḥem ethḥem" ("may The Omnipresent console you"), the traditional phrase used in the Jewish mourning house and "Raḥmana l'tzlan" ("may the Merciful save us" i.e. "God forbid").

Written prohibitions[edit]

The written tetragrammaton,[112] as well as six other names of God, must be treated with special sanctity. They cannot be disposed of regularly, lest they be desecrated, but are usually put in long term storage or buried in Jewish cemeteries in order to retire them from use.[113] Similarly, it is prohibited to write the tetragrammaton (or these other names) unnecessarily. In order to guard the sanctity of the Name sometimes a letter is substituted by a different letter in writing (e.g. יקוק), or the letters are separated by one or more hyphens.

Some Jews are stringent and extend the above safeguard by also not writing out other names of God in other languages, for example writing "God" in English as "G-d". However this is beyond the letter of the law.[citation needed]

Kabbalah[edit]

See also: Kabbalah and Hasidic philosophy

Kabbalistic tradition holds that the correct pronunciation is known to a select few people in each generation, it is not generally known what this pronunciation is. In late kabbalistic works the tetragrammaton is sometimes referred to as the name of Havayah—הוי'ה, meaning "the Name of Being/Existence". This name also helps when one needs to refer specifically to the written Name; similarly, "Shem Adonoot", meaning "the Name of Lordship" can be used to refer to the spoken name "Adonai" specifically.[citation needed]

Moshe Chaim Luzzatto,[114] says that the tree of the tetragrammaton "unfolds" in accordance with the intrinsic nature of its letters, "in the same order in which they appear in the Name, in the mystery of ten and the mystery of four." Namely, the upper cusp of the Yod is Arich Anpin and the main body of Yod is and Abba; the first Hei is Imma; the Vav is Ze`ir Anpin and the second Hei is Nukvah. It unfolds in this aforementioned order and "in the mystery of the four expansions" that are constituted by the following various spellings of the letters:

ע"ב/`AV : יו"ד ה"י וי"ו ה"י, so called "`AV" according to its gematria value ע"ב=70+2=72.

ס"ג/SaG: יו"ד ה"י וא"ו ה"י, gematria 63.

מ"ה/MaH: יו"ד ה"א וא"ו ה"א, gematria 45.

ב"ן/BaN: יו"ד ה"ה ו"ו ה"ה, gematria 52.

Luzzatto summarizes, "In sum, all that exists is founded on the mystery of this Name and upon the mystery of these letters of which it consists. This means that all the different orders and laws are all drawn after and come under the order of these four letters. This is not one particular pathway but rather the general path, which includes everything that exists in the Sefirot in all their details and which brings everything under its order."[114]

Another parallel is drawn[by whom?] between the four letters of the tetragrammaton and the Four Worlds: the י is associated with Atziluth, the first ה with Beri'ah, the ו with Yetzirah, and final ה with Assiah.

A tetractys of the letters of the Tetragrammaton adds up to 72 by gematria.

There are some[who?] who believe that the tetractys and its mysteries influenced the early kabbalists. A Hebrew tetractys in a similar way has the letters of the tetragrammaton (the four lettered name of God in Hebrew scripture) inscribed on the ten positions of the tetractys, from right to left. It has been argued that the Kabbalistic Tree of Life, with its ten spheres of emanation, is in some way connected to the tetractys, but its form is not that of a triangle. The occult writer Dion Fortune says:

"The point is assigned to Kether;

the line to Chokmah;

the two-dimensional plane to Binah;

consequently the three-dimensional solid naturally falls to Chesed."[115]

(The first three-dimensional solid is the tetrahedron.)

The relationship between geometrical shapes and the first four Sephirot is analogous to the geometrical correlations in tetractys, shown above under Pythagorean Symbol, and unveils the relevance of the Tree of Life with the tetractys.

Samaritans[edit]

The Samaritans shared the taboo of the Jews about the utterance of the name, and there is no evidence that its pronunciation was common Samaritan practice.[31][116] However Sanhedrin 10:1 includes the comment of Rabbi Mana "for example those Kutim who take an oath" would also have no share in the world to come, which suggests that Mana thought some Samaritans used the name in making oaths. (Their priests have preserved a liturgical pronunciation "Yahwe" or "Yahwa" to the present day.)[31] As with Jews, the Aramaic ha-Shema (השמא "the Name") remains the everyday usage of the name among Samaritans, akin to Hebrew "the Name" (Hebrew השם "HaShem").[109]

Christianity[edit]

Tetragrammaton by Francisco Goya: "The Name of God", YHWH in triangle, detail from fresco Adoration of the Name of God, 1772.

The tetragrammaton as represented in stained glass in an 1868 Episcopal Church in Iowa

It is assumed that early Jewish Christians inherited from Jews the practice of reading "Lord" where the tetragrammaton appeared in the Hebrew text, or where a tetragrammaton may have been marked in a Greek text. Gentile Christians, primarily non-Hebrew speaking and using Greek texts, may have read "Lord" as it occurred in the Greek text of the New Testament and their copies of the Greek Old Testament. This practice continued into the Latin Vulgate where "Lord" represented the tetragrammaton in the Latin text. In Petrus Alphonsi's Tetragrammaton-Trinity diagram, the name is written as "Jeve". At the Reformation, the Luther Bible used "Jehova" in the German text of Luther's Old Testament.[117]

Christian translations[edit]

As mentioned above, the Septuagint (Greek translation), the Vulgate (Latin translation), and the Peshitta (Syriac translation)[97] use the word "Lord" (κύριος, kyrios, dominus, and ܡܳܪܝܳܐ, moryo respectively).

Use of the Septuagint by Christians in polemics with Jews led to its abandonment by the latter, making it a specifically Christian text. From it Christians made translations into Coptic, Arabic, Slavonic and other languages used in Oriental Orthodoxy and the Eastern Orthodox Church,[70][118] whose liturgies and doctrinal declarations are largely a cento of texts from the Septuagint, which they consider to be inspired at least as much as the Masoretic Text.[70][119] Within the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Greek text remains the norm for texts in all languages, with particular reference to the wording used in prayers.[120][121]

The Septuagint, with its use of Κύριος to represent the tetragrammaton, was the basis also for Christian translations associated with the West, in particular the Vetus Itala, which survives in some parts of the liturgy of the Latin Church, and the Gothic Bible.

Christian translations of the Bible into English commonly use "LORD" in place of the tetragrammaton in most passages, often in small capitals (or in all caps), so as to distinguish it from other words translated as "Lord".

In the Emphatic Diaglott (1864) a translation of the New Testament by Benjamin Wilson, the name Jehovah appears eighteen times.

The Bible In Basic English (1949/1964) uses "Yahweh" eight times,[122] including Exodus 6:2–3.

The Jerusalem Bible (1966) uses "Yahweh" in 6,823 places in the Old Testament.

The New English Bible (NT 1961, OT 1970) generally uses the word "LORD" but uses "JEHOVAH" several times.[123] For examples of both forms, see Exodus Chapter 3 and footnote to verse 15.

The New Jerusalem Bible (1985) uses "Yahweh" in 6,823 places in the Old Testament.

The Amplified Bible (1954/1987). At Exodus 6:3 the AB says "but by My name the Lord [Yahweh—the redemptive name of God] I did not make Myself known to them."

The Living Bible (1971). "Jehovah" or "Lord".[124]

The Young's Literal Translation (1862/1898) (Version) – "Jehovah" since Genesis 2:4

The Holman Christian Standard Bible (1999/2002) uses "Yahweh" over 50 times, including Exodus 6:2.

The World English Bible (WEB) (1997) [a Public Domain work with no copyright] uses "Yahweh" some 6837 times.

The New Living Translation (1996/2004) uses "Yahweh" ten times,[125] including Exodus 6:2-3. The Preface of the New Living Translation: Second Edition says that in a few cases they have used the name Yahweh (for example 3:15; 6:2–3).

Rotherham's Emphasized Bible (1902) retains "Yahweh" throughout the Old Testament.

The Anchor Bible (in progress) retains "Yahweh" throughout the Old Testament.

The King James Version (1611) – Jehovah appears seven times, i.e. four times as "JEHOVAH", Exodus 6:3; Psalm 83:18; Isaiah 12:2; 26:4, and three times as a part of Hebrew place-names Genesis 22:14; Exodus 17:15; Judges 6:24.

Note: Elsewhere in the KJV, "LORD" is generally used. But in verses such as Genesis 15:2; 28:13; Psalm 71:5; Amos 1:8; 9:5, where this practice would result in "Lord LORD" (Hebrew: Adonay JHVH) or "LORD Lord" (JHVH Adonay) the KJV translates the Hebrew text as 'Lord GOD' or "LORD God". In the New Testament, when quoting Psalm 110:1, the all-caps LORD for the Tetragrammaton appears four times, where the ordinary word "Lord" also appears: Matthew 22:44, Mark 12:36, Luke 20:42 and Acts 2:34.

The American Standard Version (1901) uses "Jehovah" in 6,823 places in the Old Testament.

The New World Translation (1961/1984/2013), published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, uses "Jehovah" in 7,216 places in both the Old Testament and New Testament; 6,979 times in the Old Testament and 237 in the New Testament—including 70 of the 78 times where the New Testament quotes an Old Testament passage containing the Tetragrammaton, where the Tetragrammaton does not appear in any extant Greek manuscript.

the Sacred Scriptures Bethel Edition (1981) used by adherents of the Church of God (Seventh Day) inserts the name Yahweh in the Old and New Testament.

The Divine Name King James Bible (2011) uses "Jehovah" in 6,972 places in the Old Testament.

The Lexham English Bible (2012) uses "Yahweh" throughout the Old Testament.

Green's Literal Translation (1985) uses "Jehovah" in 6,866 places in the Old Testament.

The Recovery Version (1999) uses "Jehovah" in 6,841 places in the Old Testament.

The Darby Bible (1890) by John Nelson Darby renders the Tetragrammaton as Jehovah 6,810 times.

The Bible in Living English (1972) by Steven T. Byington, published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, renders the Tetragrammaton as "Jehovah" throughout the Old Testament over 6,800 times.

The Names of God Bible (2011,2014) by Ann Spangler uses "Yahweh" throughout the Old Testament.

Eastern Orthodoxy[edit]

The Eastern Orthodox Church considers the Septuagint text, which uses Κύριος (Lord), to be the authoritative text of the Old Testament,[126] and in its liturgical books and prayers it uses Κύριος in place of the tetragrammaton in texts derived from the Bible.[127][128]:247–248

Catholicism[edit]

The tetragrammaton on the Tympanum of the Roman Catholic Basilica of St. Louis, King of France in Missouri

In the Catholic Church, the first edition of the official Vatican Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio, editio typica, published in 1979, used the traditional Dominus when rendering the tetragrammaton in the overwhelming majority of places where it appears; however, it also used the form Iahveh for rendering the tetragrammaton in 3 known places:

Exodus 3:15 [129]

Exodus 15:3 [130]

Exodus 17:15.[131]

In the second edition of the Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio, editio typica altera, published in 1986, these few occurrences of the form Iahveh were replaced with Dominus,[132][133][134] in keeping with the long-standing Catholic tradition of avoiding direct usage of the Ineffable Name.

On 29 June 2008, the Holy See reacted to the then still recent practice of pronouncing, within Catholic liturgy, the name of God represented by the tetragrammaton. As examples of such vocalization it mentioned "Yahweh" and "Yehovah". The early Christians, it said, followed the example of the Septuagint in replacing the name of God with "the Lord", a practice with important theological implications for their use of "the Lord" in reference to Jesus, as in Philippians 2:9-11 and other New Testament texts. It therefore directed that, "in liturgical celebrations, in songs and prayers the name of God in the form of the tetragrammaton YHWH is neither to be used or pronounced"; and that translations of Biblical texts for liturgical use are to follow the practice of the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate, replacing the divine name with "the Lord" or, in some contexts, "God".[135] The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops welcomed this instruction, adding that it "provides also an opportunity to offer catechesis for the faithful as an encouragement to show reverence for the Name of God in daily life, emphasizing the power of language as an act of devotion and worship".[136]

QMRThe Shemhamphorasch (alternatively Shem ha-Mephorash or Schemhamphoras, originally Shem HaMephorash (שם המפורש)) is an originally Tannaitic term[1] describing a hidden name of God in Kabbalah (including Christian and Hermetic variants), and in some more mainstream Jewish discourses. It is composed of either 4, 12, 22, 42, or 72 letters (or triads of letters), the last version being the most common.[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]

Contents [hide]

1 12-, 22-, and 42-letter versions

2 The 72-fold name

2.1 Angels of the Shemhamphorash

3 References

4 Further reading

5 External links

12-, 22-, and 42-letter versions[edit]

Maimonides thought the Shem ha-Mephorash was used only for the four letter Tetragrammaton.[1]

A 12-letter variant appears in the Talmud, though it was unknown in later Kabbalah and completely absent from Jewish magic.[5]

A 22-letter variant is first written down in Sefer Raziel HaMalakh,[5][7] without interpretation, as אנקתם פסתמ פספסים דיונסים (likely transliterated as Anaktam Pastam Paspasim Dionsim). Its origins are unknown, with no connection to Hebrew or Aramaic being found, and no agreement on any particular Greek or Zoroastrian origin. There are Geonic precedents for the name, indicating that the name is older than Sefer Raziel.[5]

A 42-letter variant was described by Hai Gaon as אדגיתץ קרעשטן נגדיכש בטרצתג חקדטנע יגלפזק שקוצית. He wrote "Although the consonants of this name are well known, its proper vocalization is not rendered by tradition. Some pronounce its first part Adgitaẓ, and others Adigtaẓ, and the last part is sometimes read Shakvaẓit, and sometimes Shekuẓit, but there is no definite proof." This variation in pronunciation was understood by Joshua Trachtenberg to indicate that this version is quite ancient, the vowels in Hebrew being easily lost over time. It is, by some means, derived from the first 42 letters of the Hebrew Bible.[5] Like the 22-letter name, it is found in Sefer Raziel.[7]

The 72-fold name[edit]

The "72-fold name" is highly important to Sefer Raziel,[5][7] and a key (but often missing) component to the magical practices in The Lesser Key of Solomon.[8] It is derived from Exodus 14:19-21,[2][4][5][6] read boustrophedonically[3][8] to produce 72 names of three letters. This method was expounded with no difficulty by Rashi, apparently widely known throughout the Geonic period.[5] Kabbalist and occultist legends state that the 72-fold name was used by Moses to cross the Red Sea, and that it can grant later holymen the power to control demons, heal the sick, prevent natural disasters, and even kill enemies.[6]

The 72-fold name is mentioned by Roger Bacon, who complained about a book titled Liber semamphoras, more specifically the linguistic corruption that occurred in translating Hebrew to Latin.[9] The angels of the Shemhamphorash factored heavily into the cosmology of Johann Reuchlin[10] influencing Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa[3] and Athanasius Kircher.[10] Thomas Rudd featured the 72 angels in his magic,[2] as a balancing force against the evil spirits of the Ars Goetia[8] or in isolation.[11] Rudd's material on the Shemhamphorash was later copied and expanded by Blaise de Vigenère, whose manuscripts were in turn used by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers in his works for the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.[8]

The fifth is always ultra different -72 letters- the fourth is different

QMRThe four solstices (the Teḳufot of Nisan, Tammuz, Tishrei, and Tevet) are often mentioned as determining the seasons of the year and there are occasional references to the rising-place of the sun ('Er. 56a).

QMRSince the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, the Knesset, in consultation with the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, has established four national holidays or days of remembrance:

Yom HaShoah: Holocaust Remembrance Day

Yom Hazikaron: Memorial Day

Yom Ha'atzmaut: Israel Independence Day

Yom Yerushalayim: Jerusalem Day

The Israeli government also recognizes several ethnic Jewish observances with holiday status.

QMRSeveral explanations are offered as to why these particular species were chosen for the mitzvah. The Midrash[9] notes that the binding of the Four Species symbolizes our desire to unite the four "types" of Jews in service of God. An allusion is made to whether or not the species (or their fruits) have taste and/or smell, which correspond to Torah and good deeds. The symbolism is as follows:

The lulav has taste but no smell, symbolizing those who study Torah but do not possess good deeds.

The hadass has a good smell but no taste, symbolizing those who possess good deeds but do not study Torah.

The aravah has neither taste nor smell, symbolizing those who lack both Torah and good deeds.

The etrog has both a good taste and a good smell, symbolizing those who have both Torah and good deeds.

A second explanation[10] finds the four species alluding to parts of the human body. Each of the species or its leaves is similar in shape to the following organs:

Lulav – the spine

Hadass – the eye

Aravah – the mouth

Etrog – the heart

By binding them together for a mitzvah, the Jew shows their desire to consecrate their entire being to the service of God.

An additional reason for waving the Four Species in all directions alludes to the fact that all these species require much water to grow. The lulav (date palm) grows in watered valleys, hadass and aravah grow near water sources, and the etrog requires more water than other fruit trees. By taking these particular species and waving them in all directions, the Jew symbolically voices a prayer for abundant rainfall for all the vegetation of the earth in the coming year.[11]

QMRThe mitzvah of waving the Four Species derives from the Torah. In Leviticus, it states:

Leviticus 23:40 And you shall take on the first day the fruit of splendid trees, branches of palm trees and boughs of leafy trees and willows of the brook, and you shall rejoice before the LORD your God for seven days. English Standard Version

In Leviticus 23:40 the Hebrew terms for the four plants are:

‘êṣ hāḏār (עֵץ הָדָר), magnificent/beautiful trees

təmārîm (תְּמָרִים), palm trees

‘êṣ ‘āḇōṯ (עֵץ־עָבֹת), thick/leafy trees

‘arḇê-nāḥal (עַרְבֵי נַחַל), willows of the brook/valley

In Talmudic tradition, the four plants are identified as:

etrog (אתרוג) – the fruit of a citron tree

lulav (לולב) – a ripe, green, closed frond from a date palm tree

hadass (הדס) – boughs with leaves from the myrtle tree

aravah (ערבה) – branches with leaves from the willow tree

Other religions chapter

QMRTurkish nazar-talisman to ward off the Evil eye

Nazars have four colors in four concentric circles

QMRFalun Gong or Falun Dafa (literally, "Dharma Wheel Practice" or "Law Wheel Practice") is a Chinese spiritual practice that combines meditation and qigong exercises with a moral philosophy centered on the tenets of Truthfulness, Compassion, and Forbearance (Chinese: 真、善、忍).

In addition to its moral philosophy, Falun Gong consists of four standing exercises and one sitting meditation. The exercises are regarded as secondary to moral elevation, though is still an essential component of Falun Gong cultivation practice.[17][43]

The first exercises, called "Buddha Stretching a Thousand Arms", are intended to facilitate the free flow of energy through the body and open up the meridians. The second exercise, "Falun Standing Stance", involves holding four static poses—each of which resembles holding a wheel—for an extended period. The objective of this exercise is to "enhances wisdom, increases strength, raises a person's level, and strengthens divine powers". The third, "Penetrating the Cosmic Extremes", involves three sets of movements which aim to enable the expulsion of bad energy (e.g. pathogenic or black qi) and the absorption of good energy into the body. Through practice of this exercise, the practitioner aspires to cleanse and purify the body. The fourth exercise, "Falun Cosmic Orbit", seeks to circulate energy freely throughout the body. Unlike the first through fourth exercises, the fifth exercise is performed in the seated lotus position. Called "Reinforcing Supernatural Powers", it is a meditation intended to be maintained as long as possible.[44][45]

The main symbol of the practice is the Falun (Dharma wheel, or Dharmacakra in Sanskrit). In Buddhism, the Dharmacakra represents the completeness of the doctrine. To "turn the wheel of dharma" (Zhuan Falun) means to preach the Buddhist doctrine, and is the title of Falun Gong's main text.[66] Despite the invocation of Buddhist language and symbols, the law wheel as understood in Falun Gong has distinct connotations, and is held to represent the universe.[67] It is conceptualized by an emblem consisting of one large and four small Swastika symbols, representing the Buddha, and four small Taiji (yin-yang) symbols of the Daoist tradition.[24][67]

QMRThere are several different methods to classify traditional Chinese medicinals:

The Four Natures (simplified Chinese: 四气; traditional Chinese: 四氣; pinyin: sìqì)

The Five Flavors (Chinese: 五味; pinyin: wǔwèi)

The meridians (simplified Chinese: 经络; traditional Chinese: 經絡; pinyin: jīngluò)

The specific function.

Four Natures[edit]

The Four Natures are: hot (热), warm (温), cool (凉), cold (寒) or neutral (平), in terms of temperature.[27] Hot and warm herbs are used to treat cold diseases, while cool and cold herbs are used to treat heat diseases.[27]

Five Flavors[edit]

The Five Phases, which correspond to the Five Flavors

The Five Flavors, sometimes also translated as Five Tastes, are: acrid/pungent (辛), sweet (甘), bitter (苦), sour (酸), and salty (咸).[27] Substances may also have more than one flavor, or none (i.e., a bland (淡) flavor).[27] Each of the Five Flavors corresponds to one of the zàng organs, which in turn corresponds to one of the Five Phases:[28] A flavor implies certain properties and therapeutic actions of a substance: saltiness "drains downward and softens hard masses";[27] sweetness is "supplementing, harmonizing, and moistening";[27] pungent substances are thought to induce sweat and act on qi and blood; sourness tends to be astringent (涩) in nature; bitterness "drains heat, purges the bowels, and eliminates dampness".

QMRTraditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv with a fourth prayer, Mussaf added on Shabbat and holidays.

Mussaf (also spelled Musaf) is an additional service that is recited on Shabbat, Yom Tov, Chol Hamoed, and Rosh Chodesh. The service, which is traditionally combined with the Shacharit in synagogues, is considered to be additional to the regular services of Shacharit, Mincha, and Maariv.

During the days of the Holy Temple, additional offerings were offered on these festive days. Mussaf is now recited in lieu of these offerings.

Mussaf refers to both the full service (which includes the Amidah and all Jewish prayer that follow that are normally recited during Shacharit) and the Amidah itself that is recited for Mussaf. The main addition is a fourth recitation of the Amidah specially for these days. It is permissible to recite the Mussaf prayer at any time during the day on these days. Nevertheless, the tradition is that it be recited immediately following Shacharit as a combined service.[

Quadrant Model of Reality

Monday, February 22, 2016

Quadrant Model of Reality Book 9 Religion

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