Quadrant model of Reality Book 19 Science Physics Chemistry Biology Psychology Sociology

Science Chapter

Physics Chapter

QMRThe world's first car-carrying hovercraft was made in 1968, the BHC Mountbatten class (SR.N4) models, each powered by four Bristol Proteus turboshaft engines.

QMRIn special relativity, a four-vector is an object with four in general complex components that transform in a specific way under Lorentz transformations. Specifically, a four-vector is an element of a 4-dimensional vector space considered as a representation space of the standard representation of the Lorentz group, the (½,½) representation. It differs from a Euclidean vector in how its magnitude is determined. The transformations that preserve this magnitude are the Lorentz transformations. They include spatial rotations, boosts (a change by a constant velocity to another inertial reference frame), and temporal and spatial inversions. Four-vectors describe, for instance, position xμ in spacetime modeled as Minkowski space, a particles 4-momentum pμ, the amplitude of the electromagnetic four-potential Aμ(x) at a point x in spacetime, and the elements of the subspace spanned by the gamma matrices inside the Dirac algebra. The Lorentz group may be represented by 4×4 matrices Λ. The action of a Lorentz transformation on a general contravariant four-vector X (like the examples above), regarded as a column vector with Cartesian coordinates with respect to an inertial frame in the entries, is given by X^\prime = \Lambda X, (matrix multiplication) where the components of the primed object refer to the new frame. Related to the examples above that are given as contravariant vectors, there are also the corresponding covariant vectors xμ, pμ and Aμ(x). These transform according to the rule X^\prime = {(\Lambda^{-1})}^\mathrm T X, where T denotes the matrix transpose. This rule is different from the above rule. It corresponds to the dual representation of the standard representation. However, for the Lorentz group the dual of any representation is equivalent to the original representation. Thus the objects with covariant indices are four-vectors as well. For an example of a well-behaved four-component object in special relativity that is not a four-vector, see bispinor. It is similarly defined, the difference being that the transformation rule under Lorentz transformations is given by a representation other than the standard representation. In this case, the rule reads X′ = Π(Λ)X, where Π(Λ) is a 4×4 matrix other than Λ. Similar remarks apply to objects with fewer or more components that are well-behaved under Lorentz transformations. These include scalars, spinors, tensors and spinor-tensors. The article considers four-vectors in the context of special relativity. Although the concept of four-vectors also extends to general relativity, some of the results stated in this article require modification in general relativity.

QMRThe bandoneon (or bandonion, Spanish: bandoneón) is a type of concertina particularly popular in Argentina, Uruguay, and Lithuania. It is an essential instrument in most tango ensembles from the traditional orquesta típica of the 1910s onwards, and in folk music ensembles of Lithuania.

Unlike a piano accordion, but similar to a melodeon or Anglo concertina, a given bandoneon button produces different notes on the push and the pull ("bisonoric"). This means that each keyboard actually has two layouts: one for opening notes, and one for closing notes. Since the right and left hand layouts are also different, a musician must learn four different keyboard layouts to play the instrument.[1]:18 These keyboard layouts are not structured to facilitate playing scale passages of single-notes, but rather to facilitate playing chords as per its original purpose of supporting singers of religious music in small churches with no organ or harmonium, or for clergy requiring a portable instrument (missionaries, traveling evangelists, army & navy chaplains, etc.)

QMRIn the 13th century medieval Europe the English bishop Robert Grosseteste wrote on a wide range of scientific topics discussing light from four different perspectives: an epistemology of light, a metaphysics or cosmogony of light, an etiology or physics of light, and a theology of light,[19] basing it on the works Aristotle and Platonism. Grosseteste's most famous disciple, Roger Bacon, wrote works citing a wide range of recently translated optical and philosophical works, including those of Alhazen, Aristotle, Avicenna, Averroes, Euclid, al-Kindi, Ptolemy, Tideus, and Constantine the African. Bacon was able to use parts of glass spheres as magnifying glasses to demonstrate that light reflects from objects rather than being released from them.

Media attention and critics[edit] Hagee and Biltz's speculations gained mainstream media attention in publications such as USA Today and The Washington Post.[2][3] Earth & Sky reported receiving "a number of inquiries about Blood Moon", prompting a response.[1] According to Christian Today, only a "small group of Christians" saw the eclipse as significant.[8] Writing for Earth & Sky Bruce McClure and Deborah Byrd point out that the referenced verse also says the "sun will be turned into darkness", an apparent reference to a solar eclipse. They note that since the Jewish Calendar is lunar, one sixth of all eclipses will occur during Passover or Sukkot. Furthermore, there have been 62 tetrads since the first century AD, though only eight of them have coincided with both feasts. Thus, the event is not as unusual as Hagee and Biltz imply. Additionally, three of the four eclipses in the tetrad were not even visible in the biblical homeland of Israel, casting further doubt on Hagee and Biltz's interpretation; even then, only the very end of the last eclipse was visible in Israel.[1] Writing for Space.com, Geoff Gaherty said he was saddened that "'prophets of doom' ... view these life-enriching events as portents of disaster" and said the eclipse was "hardly something to be concerned about".[9] In January 2014, Mike Moore, the then General Secretary of Christian Witness to Israel, wrote a lengthy article dismissing the claims of Biltz and Hagee. Moore's view was that no significance can be drawn from the eclipses.[10]

The idea of a "blood moon" serving as an omen of the coming of the end times comes from the Book of Joel, where it is written "the sun will turn into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes."[4] This phrase is again mentioned by Saint Peter during Pentecost, as recorded in Acts,[5] although Peter says that date, not some future date, was the fulfillment of Joel's prophecy. The blood moon also appears in the book of Revelation chapter 6 verses 11 - 13,[6] where verse 12 says " And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon became as blood". Around 2008, Biltz began predicting that the Second Coming of Jesus would occur in the fall of 2015 with the seven years of the great tribulation beginning in the fall of 2008. He said he had "discovered" an astronomical pattern that predicted the next tetrad would coincide with the end times. When the prediction failed, he pulled the article from his website, but continued to teach on the "significance" of the tetrad. Hagee would later seize on Biltz' prediction to write Four Blood Moons, which would become a best seller, spending more than 150 days in Amazon.com's top 150 by April 2014.[3] For the week ending March 30, 2014, it was the ninth best selling paperback, according to Publishers Weekly.[7] By mid-April, Hagee's book had hit No. 4 on the The New York Times best-seller list in the advice category.[3] Hagee's book (and subsequent sermon series at his home congregation, Cornerstone Church) did not proclaim that any specific "end times" event would occur (as did Biltz in his original prophecy), but claimed that every prior tetrad of the last 500 years coincided with events in Jewish and Israeli history that were originally tragic, yet followed by triumph.

QMRThe blood moon prophecy is a series of apocalyptic beliefs promoted by Christian ministers John Hagee and Mark Biltz, which state that a tetrad (a series of four consecutive lunar eclipses—coinciding on Jewish holidays—with six full moons in between, and no intervening partial lunar eclipses) which began with the April 2014 lunar eclipse is a sign of the end times as described in the Bible in Acts 2:20 and Revelation 6:12. The tetrad ended with the lunar eclipse on September 27-28, 2015.

QMREternalism is a philosophical approach to the ontological nature of time, which takes the view that all points in time are equally "real", as opposed to the presentist idea that only the present is real[1] and the growing block universe theory of time in which the past and present are real while the future is not. Modern advocates often take inspiration from the way time is modeled as a dimension in the theory of relativity, giving time a similar ontology to that of space (although the basic idea dates back at least to McTaggart's B-Theory of time, first published in The Unreality of Time in 1908, only three years after the first paper on relativity). This would mean that time is just another dimension, that future events are "already there", and that there is no objective flow of time. It is sometimes referred to as the "block time" or "block universe" theory due to its description of space-time as an unchanging four-dimensional "block",[2] as opposed to the view of the world as a three-dimensional space modulated by the passage of time.

In his discussion with Albert Einstein, Karl Popper argued against determinism: The main topic of our conversation was indeterminism. I tried to persuade him to give up his determinism, which amounted to the view that the world was a four-dimensional Parmenidean block universe in which change was a human illusion, or very nearly so. (He agreed that this had been his view, and while discussing it I called him "Parmenides".) I argued that if men, or other organisms, could experience change and genuine succession in time, then this was real. It could not be explained away by a theory of the successive rising into our consciousness of time slices which in some sense coexist; for this kind of "rising into consciousness" would have precisely the same character as that succession of changes which the theory tries to explain away. I also brought in the somewhat obvious biological arguments: that the evolution of life, and the way organisms behave, especially higher animals, cannot really be understood on the basis of any theory which interprets time as if it were something like another (anisotropic) space coordinate. After all, we do not experience space coordinates. And this is because they are simply nonexistent: we must beware of hypostatizing them; they are constructions which are almost wholly arbitrary. Why should we then experience the time coordinate—to be sure, the one appropriate to our inertial system—not only as real but also as absolute, that is, as unalterable and independent of anything we can do (except changing our state of motion)?

The philosopher Katherin A. Rogers argued that Anselm of Canterbury took an eternalist view of time,[23] although the philosopher Brian Leftow argued against this interpretation,[24] suggesting that Anselm instead advocated for a type of presentism. Rogers responded to this paper, defending her original interpretation.[25] Rogers also discusses this issue in her book "Anselm on Freedom", using the term "four-dimensionalism" rather than "eternalism" for the view that "the present moment is not ontologically privileged", and commenting that "Boethius and Augustine do sometimes sound rather four-dimensionalist, but Anselm is apparently the first consistently and explicitly to embrace the position."[26] Taneli Kukkonen argues in the Oxford Handbook of Medieval Philosophy that "what Augustine's and Anselm's mix of eternalist and presentist, tenseless and tensed language tells is that medieval philosophers saw no need to choose sides" in the manner that modern philosophers do.[27]

Eternalism is a major theme in Kurt Vonnegut’s novel, Slaughterhouse-Five. The Tralfamadorians, an alien species in the novel, have a four-dimensional sight and can therefore see all points in time simultaneously. They explain that since all moments exist simultaneously, everyone is always alive. The hero, Billy Pilgrim, lives his life out of sequence, which, among other things, means that his point of death occurs at a random point in his life rather than at the end of it.

Many of special relativity's now-proven counter-intuitive predictions, such as length contraction and time dilation, are a result of this. Relativity of simultaneity implies eternalism (and hence a B-theory of time), where the present for different observers is a time slice of the four dimensional universe. This is demonstrated in the Rietdijk–Putnam argument and additionally in an advanced form of this argument called the Andromeda paradox, created by mathematical physicist Roger Penrose.[17] It is therefore common (though not universal), for B-theorists to be four-dimensionalists, that is, to believe that objects are extended in time as well as in space and therefore have temporal as well as spatial parts. This is sometimes called a time-slice ontology.[18]

Examples in fiction[edit] Four-dimensionalism and consequently B-theory of time and eternalism, is explored in the film Interstellar. In the film, astronaut Cooper is sent to a region of space called a "tesseract," built by five-dimensional beings. In the tesseract, Cooper is able to perceive time as a spatial dimension. Consequently, Cooper is able to transmit information back to a time in his perceived past. Under the B-theory of time, this is consistent and does not induce a paradox. These theories also appear in the comic book series Watchmen by Alan Moore, and its film adaptation (2009). In one chapter in the comic book series, Doctor Manhattan explains how he perceives time. Since past, present, and future events all occur at the "same time" for him, he speaks about them all in the present tense. For example, he says "Forty years ago, cogs rain on Brooklyn" referring to an event in his youth when his father throws old watch parts out a window. His last line of the series is "Nothing ends, Adrian. Nothing ever ends."

Time is the fourth dimensions. The fourth square is always different

QMRConcerning the mathematics, it should be noted that presently, i.e. in 2014, the Yang–Mills theory is a very active field of research, yielding e.g. invariants of differentiable structures on four-dimensional manifolds via work of Simon Donaldson

QMRAccording to the electroweak theory, at very high energies, the universe has four massless gauge boson fields similar to the photon and a complex scalar Higgs field doublet. However, at low energies, gauge symmetry is spontaneously broken down to the U(1) symmetry of electromagnetism (one of the Higgs fields acquires a vacuum expectation value). This symmetry breaking would produce three massless bosons, but they become integrated by three photon-like fields (through the Higgs mechanism) giving them mass. These three fields become the W+, W− and Z bosons of the weak interaction, while the fourth gauge field, which remains massless, is the photon of electromagnetism.[18]

In 1933, Enrico Fermi proposed the first theory of the weak interaction, known as Fermi's interaction. He suggested that beta decay could be explained by a four-fermion interaction, involving a contact force with no range.[3][4] However, it is better described as a non-contact force field having a finite range, albeit very short.[citation needed] In 1968, Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg unified the electromagnetic force and the weak interaction by showing them to be two aspects of a single force, now termed the electro-weak force.[citation needed] The existence of the W and Z bosons was not directly confirmed until 1983

QMRAlthough Flatland was not ignored when it was published,[7] it did not obtain a great success. In the entry on Edwin Abbott in the Dictionary of National Biography, Flatland is not even mentioned.[2] The book was discovered again after Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity was published, which introduced the concept of a fourth dimension. Flatland was mentioned in a letter entitled "Euclid, Newton and Einstein" published in Nature on February 12, 1920. In this letter Abbott is depicted, in a sense, as a prophet due to his intuition of the importance of time to explain certain phenomena:[8][9] Some thirty or more years ago a little jeu d'esprit was written by Dr. Edwin Abbott entitled Flatland. At the time of its publication it did not attract as much attention as it deserved... If there is motion of our three-dimensional space relative to the fourth dimension, all the changes we experience and assign to the flow of time will be due simply to this movement, the whole of the future as well as the past always existing in the fourth dimension. — from a "Letter to the Editor" by William Garnett. in Nature on February 12, 1920. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography now contains a reference to Flatland.

QMRFourth dimension in literature From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The idea of a fourth dimension has been a factor in the evolution of modern art, but use of concepts relating to higher dimensions has been little discussed by academics in the literary world.[1] From the late 1800s onwards, many writers began to make use of possibilities opened up by the exploration of such concepts as hypercubes and non-Euclidean geometry. While many writers took the fourth dimension to be one of time (as it is commonly considered today), others preferred to think of it in spatial terms, and some associated the new mathematics with wider changes in modern culture.

Early influence[edit] Theoretical physicist James Clerk Maxwell is best known for his work in formulating the equations of electromagnetism. He was also a prize-winning poet,[2] and in his last poem Paradoxical Ode; Maxwell muses on connections between science, religion and nature, touching upon higher-dimensions along the way:[3] Since all the tools for my untying In four-dimensioned space are lying, Where playful fancy intersperses Whole avenues of universes.. Excerpt from Maxwell's Paradoxical Ode of 1878[4] In the Brothers Karamazov, Dostoevsky's last work completed in 1880, the fourth dimension is used to signify that which is ungraspable to someone with earthly (or three-dimensional) concerns.[5] In the book, Ivan Karamazov laments to his younger brother: "..I have a Euclidean earthly mind, and how could I solve problems that are not of this world? And I advise you never to think about it either, my dear Alyosha, especially about God, whether He exists or not. All such questions are utterly inappropriate for a mind created with an idea of only three dimensions."[6] In the 1884 satirical novella Flatland by Edwin Abbott Abbott, the two-dimensional protagonist (a square) is introduced to the concept of the third-dimension by his mentor (a sphere). After initially struggling with the idea, the square starts to speculate upon yet higher dimensions. After envisioning a tesseract, the square asks: "..shall we stay our upward course? In that blessed region of Four Dimensions, shall we linger at the threshold of the Fifth, and not enter therein? Ah, no! Let us rather resolve that our ambition shall soar with our corporal ascent. Then, yielding to our intellectual onset, the gates of the Six Dimension shall fly open; after that a Seventh, and then an Eighth.."[7]

Oscar Wilde's The Canterville Ghost (A Hylo-Idealistic Romance) published in 1887 was Wilde's parody of a "haunted-house" story. The tale uses the higher spatial dimension as a handy plot device allowing a magical exit for the ghost:[8] "There was evidently no time to be lost, so, hastily adopting the Fourth Dimension of Space as a means of escape, he vanished through the wainscoting, and the house became quite quiet."[9] H.G. Wells famously employed the concept of a higher temporal dimension in his 1895 book The Time Machine. Wells had already covered the subject seven years previously in his tale of The Chronic Argonauts. In this 1888 short story, inventor Dr. Nebogipfel asks the Reverend Cook: "Has it never glimmered upon your consciousness that nothing stood between men and a geometry of four dimensions - length, breadth, thickness, and duration - but the inertia of opinion? ..When we take up this new light of a fourth dimension and reexamine our physical science in its illumination.. ..we find ourselves no longer limited by hopeless restriction to a certain beat of time."[10] In Wells’ 1895 short story The Remarkable Case of Davidson's Eyes, the main character sees visions of a ship – only to find out later that the ship in question was on the opposite side of the globe at the time. A doctor tries to explain how this might have happened through higher dimensions, though the narrator struggles with the concept. "..his explanation invokes the Fourth Dimension, and a dissertation on theoretical kinds of space. To talk of there being "a kink in space" seems mere nonsense to me; it may be because I am no mathematician. When I said that nothing would alter the fact that the place is eight thousand miles away, he answered that two points might be a yard away on a sheet of paper, and yet be brought together by bending the paper round. The reader may grasp his argument, but I certainly do not."[11] Joseph Conrad and Ford Madox Ford's 1901 work The Inheritors : An Extravagant Story uses the "fourth dimension" as a metaphor to explain a shift in society away from traditional values towards modern expediency and callous use of political power. The "inheritors" are a breed of materialists, who call themselves "Fourth Dimensionists", tasked with occupying the earth. The narrator tells how, "I heard the nature of the Fourth Dimension – heard that it was invisible to our eyes, but omnipresent.."[12]

In the first volume of In Search of Lost Time (or Remembrance of Things Past) published in 1913, Marcel Proust envisioned the extra dimension as a temporal one. The narrator describes a church at Combray being "..for me something entirely different from the rest of the town; an edifice occupying, so to speak, a four-dimensional space – the name of the fourth being time."[13] Artist Max Weber's Cubist Poems, is a collection of prose first published in 1914. Cubes, cubes, cubes, cubes, High, low and high, and higher, higher, Far, far out, out, far.. Billions of things upon things This for the eye, the eye of being, At the edge of the Hudson, Flowing timeless, endless, On, on, on, on.... Excerpt from The Eye Moment, a Weber poem published in 1914[14] Poet Ezra Pound finishes his 1937 Canto 49 (often known as "the Seven Lakes") with these lines: The fourth; the dimension of stillness. And the power over wild beasts.[15]

Other works[edit] The architect in Robert A. Heinlein's "—And He Built a Crooked House—" constructs a home resembling this tesseract net. Science Fiction author Robert A. Heinlein used ideas derived from multi-dimensional geometry in some of his stories. "—And He Built a Crooked House—" was first published in Astounding Science Fiction magazine in February 1941. In the story, a recently graduated architect constructs an eight-room home for his friend based on an "unfolded tesseract". An earthquake collapses or "folds" the structure, leading to all eight rooms being contained within just one. The stairs appear to form a closed loop, and there seems to be no way of leaving, as all the doors and even the windows lead directly into other rooms.[16] Heinlein's 1963 fantasy novel Glory Road (originally serialized in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction) features a device called a fold box which is bigger on the inside than the outside.[17] In his 1980 novel The Number of the Beast, a "continua device" formulated using "theories on n-dimensional non-euclidean geometry" gives the protagonists the ability to time-travel and to visit fictional universes.[18]

Published in 1962,[19] Madeleine L'Engle's award-winning[20] A Wrinkle in Time revolves around a girl called Meg whose scientist father disappears after working on a mysterious project. In a chapter entitled "The Tesseract", Mrs Whatsit and Mrs Who (both immortals) use the analogy of small insect making a long journey across a length of material in order to explain instantaneous travel across the universe: "Swiftly Mrs Who brought her hands, still holding the skirt, together. 'Now you see.. ..he would be there.. ..that is how we travel.'"[21] Meg declares herself to be a "moron" for not understanding the concept (known in the book as "tessering"). Luckily, her telepathic younger brother clarifies the matter, by telling Meg that the fourth dimension of time and the fifth of the tesseract combine, enabling Euclidean geometry-contravening short-cuts to be taken through space.[21] In Kurt Vonnegut's 1969 work Slaughterhouse-Five, recurring character Kilgore Trout writes a book called Maniacs in the Fourth Dimension which relates how "three-dimensional Earthling doctors" were unable to cure people with mental diseases, "as the causes.. ..were all in the fourth dimension."[22] Trout also explains how "..vampires and werewolves and goblins and angels" reside in this alternative plane, alongside poet William Blake.[22]

QMRal-Jazari's work described fountains and musical automata, in which the flow of water alternated from one large tank to another at hourly or half-hourly intervals. This operation was achieved through his innovative use of hydraulic switching.[3] al-Jazari created a musical automaton, which was a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. Professor Noel Sharkey has argued that it is quite likely that it was an early programmable automata and has produced a possible reconstruction of the mechanism; it has a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.[38]

QMRElectromagnetic and gravitational fields[edit] Sources of electromagnetic fields consist of two types of charge – positive and negative. This contrasts with the sources of the gravitational field, which are masses. Masses are sometimes described as gravitational charges, the important feature of them being that there are only positive masses and no negative masses. Further, gravity differs from electromagnetism in that positive masses attract other positive masses whereas same charges in electromagnetism repel each other. The relative strengths and ranges of the four interactions and other information are tabulated below: Theory Interaction mediator Relative Magnitude Behavior Range Chromodynamics Strong interaction gluon 1038 1 10−15 m Electrodynamics Electromagnetic interaction photon 1036 1/r2 infinite Flavordynamics Weak interaction W and Z bosons 1025 1/r5 to 1/r7 10−16 m Geometrodynamics Gravitation graviton 100 1/r2 infinite

QMRFeedback loop[edit] The behavior of the electromagnetic field can be divided into four different parts of a loop:[citation needed] the electric and magnetic fields are generated by electric charges, the electric and magnetic fields interact with each other, the electric and magnetic fields produce forces on electric charges, the electric charges move in space.

QMRFour material parameters are intrinsic to magnetoelectric coupling of bi-isotropic media. They are the electric (E) and magnetic (H) field strengths, and electric (D) and magnetic (B) flux densities. These parameters are ε, µ, κ and χ or permittivity, permeability, strength of chirality, and the Tellegen parameter respectively. In this type of media, material parameters do not vary with changes along a rotated coordinate system of measurements. In this sense they are invariant or scalar.[4]

QMRFree Four From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Free Four" Cover of the 1972 Italy single Single by Pink Floyd from the album Obscured by Clouds B-side "Stay" "The Gold It's in the..." Released 10 July 1972 Format 7" Recorded February–March 1972 Strawberry Studios, France Genre Progressive rock pop rock Length 4:15 Label Harvest Writer(s) Roger Waters Producer(s) Pink Floyd Pink Floyd singles chronology "One of These Days" (1971) "Free Four" (1972) "Money" (1973) Obscured by Clouds track listing [show]10 tracks "Free Four" is a song by the English rock band Pink Floyd, written by Roger Waters and released on the band's 1972 album Obscured by Clouds.[1][2] Contents [hide] 1 Recording and lyrics 2 Track listing 3 Personnel 4 References 5 External links Recording and lyrics[edit] The song begins with a rock and roll count-in, but in this case Pink Floyd decided to play with words and record, "One, Two, FREE FOUR!" The song deals with reflection of one's life, the "evils" of the record industry, and also makes a reference to Roger Waters' father who was killed in World War 2.[3] The music begins in an upbeat manner, while the lyrics tell a very cynical and somewhat depressing story. "Free Four" was released as a single in the U.S. in 1972 but did not chart.

Chemistry Chapter

QMR Diamonds are pure carbon in a tetrahedron pattern. I discussed that Carbon is the miracle element with four valence electrons like a cross. After the 1797 discovery that diamond was pure carbon,[4] many attempts were made to convert various cheap forms of carbon into diamond.[5] The earliest successes were reported by James Ballantyne Hannay in 1879[6] and by Ferdinand Frédéric Henri Moissan in 1893. Their method involved heating charcoal at up to 3500 °C with iron inside a carbon crucible in a furnace. Whereas Hannay used a flame-heated tube, Moissan applied his newly developed electric arc furnace, in which an electric arc was struck between carbon rods inside blocks of lime.[7] The molten iron was then rapidly cooled by immersion in water. The contraction generated by the cooling supposedly produced the high pressure required to transform graphite into diamond. Moissan published his work in a series of articles in the 1890s.[8 In 1941, an agreement was made between the General Electric (GE), Norton and Carborundum companies to further develop diamond synthesis. They were able to heat carbon to about 3,000 °C (5,430 °F) under a pressure of 3.5 gigapascals (510,000 psi) for a few seconds. Soon thereafter, the Second World War interrupted the project. It was resumed in 1951 at the Schenectady Laboratories of GE, and a high-pressure diamond group was formed with Francis P. Bundy and H.M. Strong. Tracy Hall and others joined this project shortly thereafter.[21] The Schenectady group improved on the anvils designed by Percy Bridgman, who received a Nobel Prize for his work in 1946. Bundy and Strong made the first improvements, then more were made by Hall. The GE team used tungsten carbide anvils within a hydraulic press to squeeze the carbonaceous sample held in a catlinite container, the finished grit being squeezed out of the container into a gasket. The team recorded diamond synthesis on one occasion, but the experiment could not be reproduced because of uncertain synthesis conditions,[22] and the diamond was later shown to have been a natural diamond used as a seed.[23] Manufacturing technologies[edit] There are several methods used to produce synthetic diamond. The original method uses high pressure and high temperature (HPHT) and is still widely used because of its relatively low cost. The process involves large presses that can weigh hundreds of tons to produce a pressure of 5 GPa at 1500 °C. The second method, using chemical vapor deposition (CVD), creates a carbon plasma over a substrate onto which the carbon atoms deposit to form diamond. Other methods include explosive formation (forming detonation nanodiamonds) and sonication of graphite solutions.[43][44][45] High pressure, high temperature[edit] A schematic drawing of a vertical cross section through a press setup. The drawing illustrates how the central unit, held by dies on its sides, is vertically compressed by two anvils Schematic of a belt press In the HPHT method, there are three main press designs used to supply the pressure and temperature necessary to produce synthetic diamond: the belt press, the cubic press and the split-sphere (BARS) press. Diamond seeds are placed at the bottom of the press. The internal part of press is heated above 1400 °C and melts the solvent metal. The molten metal dissolves the high purity carbon source, which is then transported to the small diamond seeds and precipitates, forming a large synthetic diamond.[46] The BARS apparatus is the most compact, efficient, and economical of all the diamond-producing presses. In the center of a BARS device, there is a ceramic cylindrical "synthesis capsule" of about 2 cm3 in size. The cell is placed into a cube of pressure-transmitting material, such as pyrophyllite ceramics, which is pressed by inner anvils made from cemented carbide (e.g., tungsten carbide or VK10 hard alloy).[50] The outer octahedral cavity is pressed by 8 steel outer anvils. After mounting, the whole assembly is locked in a disc-type barrel with a diameter about 1 meter. The barrel is filled with oil, which pressurizes upon heating, and the oil pressure is transferred to the central cell. The synthesis capsule is heated up by a coaxial graphite heater and the temperature is measured with a thermocouple Detonation of explosives[edit] An image resembling a cluster of grape where the cluster consists of nearly spherical particles of 5-nm diameter Electron micrograph (TEM) of detonation nanodiamond Main article: Detonation nanodiamond Diamond nanocrystals (5 nm in diameter) can be formed by detonating certain carbon-containing explosives in a metal chamber. These nanocrystals are called "detonation nanodiamond". During the explosion, the pressure and temperature in the chamber become high enough to convert the carbon of the explosives into diamond. Being immersed in water, the chamber cools rapidly after the explosion, suppressing conversion of newly produced diamond into more stable graphite.[55] In a variation of this technique, a metal tube filled with graphite powder is placed in the detonation chamber. The explosion heats and compresses the graphite to an extent sufficient for its conversion into diamond.[56] The product is always rich in graphite and other non-diamond carbon forms and requires prolonged boiling in hot nitric acid (about 1 day at 250 °C) to dissolve them.[44] The recovered nanodiamond powder is used primarily in polishing applications. It is mainly produced in China, Russia and Belarus and started reaching the market in bulk quantities by the early 2000s.[57]

and are tetrahedrally structured

Diamonds are made of the miracle element carbon

The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as bort, are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 400 million carats (80 tonnes) of synthetic diamonds are produced annually for industrial use which is nearly four times the mass of natural diamonds mined over the same period. The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling (drill bits), grinding (diamond edged cutters), and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds that are gem-quality can find an industrial use. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications (due to its extraordinary hardness). Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see diamond anvil), high-performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows. With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamond, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to build microchips from, or the use of diamond as a heat sink in electronics. Significant research efforts in Japan, Europe, and the United States are under way to capitalize on the potential offered by diamond's unique material properties, combined with increased quality and quantity of supply starting to become available from synthetic diamond manufacturers. Each carbon atom in a diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbons in a tetrahedron. These tetrahedrons together form a 3-dimensional network of six-membered carbon rings (similar to cyclohexane), in the chair conformation, allowing for zero bond angle strain. This stable network of covalent bonds and hexagonal rings, is the reason that diamond is so strong.

QMRDiamond is one well known allotrope of carbon. The hardness and high dispersion of light of diamond make it useful for both industrial applications and jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral. This makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster extremely well. No known naturally occurring substance can cut (or even scratch) a diamond, except another diamond.

QMRCarbocatalysis is a form of catalysis that uses heterogeneous carbon materials for the transformation or synthesis of organic or inorganic substrates. The catalysts are characterized by their high surface areas, surface functionality, and large, aromatic basal planes. Carbocatalysis can be distinguishable from supported catalysis (such as palladium on carbon) in that no metal is present, or if metals are present they are not the active species. As of 2010, the mechanisms of reactivity are not well understood.[citation needed] One of the most common examples of carbocatalysis is the oxidative dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene to styrene discovered in the 1970s.[1] Also in the industrial process of (non-oxidative) dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene, the potassium-promoted iron oxide catalyst is coated with a carbon layer as the active phase. In another early example,[2] a variety of substituted nitrobenzenes were reduced to the corresponding aniline using hydrazine and graphite as the catalyst. The discovery of nanostructured carbon allotropes such as carbon nanotubes,[3] fullerenes,[4] or graphene[5] promoted further developments. Oxidized carbon nanotubes were used to dehydrogenate n-butane to 1-butene,[6] and to selectively oxidize acrolein to acrylic acid.[7] Fullerenes were used in the catalytic reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline in the presence of H2.[8] Graphene oxide was used as a carbocatalyst to facilitate the oxidation of alcohols to the corresponding aldehydes/ketones (shown in the picture), the hydration of alkynes, and the oxidation of alkenes.[9

QMRBuckypaper is a thin sheet made from an aggregate of carbon nanotubes[1] or carbon nanotube grid paper. The nanotubes are approximately 50,000 times thinner than a human hair. Originally, it was fabricated as a way to handle carbon nanotubes, but it is also being studied and developed into applications by several research groups, showing promise as vehicle armor, personal armor, and next-generation electronics and displays. It is made out of the miracle element carbon

QMRFullerites are the solid-state manifestation of fullerenes and related compounds and materials. "Ultrahard fullerite" is a coined term frequently used to describe material produced by high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) processing of fullerite. Such treatment converts fullerite into a nanocrystalline form of diamond which has been reported to exhibit remarkable mechanical properties.[37. It is made out of the miracle element carbon

QMRNanodiamond was convincingly demonstrated to be produced by compression of graphite in 2003 and in the same work found to be much harder than bulk diamond.[2] Later it was also produced by compression of fullerene and confirmed to be the hardest and least compressible known material, with an isothermal bulk modulus of 491 gigapascals (GPa), while a conventional diamond has a modulus of 442–446 GPa; these results were inferred from X-ray diffraction data, which also indicated that ADNRs are 0.3% denser than regular diamond.[3] The same group later described ADNRs as "having a hardness and Young's modulus comparable to that of natural diamond, but with 'superior wear resistance'".[4. It is made out of the miracle element carbon

QMRTop): Trigonometric function sinθ for selected angles θ, π − θ, π + θ, and 2π − θ in the four quadrants. (Bottom) Graph of sine function versus angle. Angles from the top panel are identified

Biology Chapter

QMRGiant set The Giant set, is a form of training that targets one muscle group (e.g. the triceps) with four separate exercises performed in quick succession, often to failure and sometimes with the reduction of weight halfway through a set once muscle fatigue sets in. This form of intense training 'shocks' the muscles and as such, is usually performed by experienced trainers and should be used infrequently

QMRFunctions of abdominal muscles[edit] Abdominal muscles have many important functions, including in breathing, coughing, and sneezing, and maintaining posture and speech in a number of species.[3] The anterior abdominal wall is made up of four muscles—the rectus abdominis muscle, the internal and external obliques, and the transversus abdominis."The two internal muscles, the internal oblique and the transverse abdominis, respond more to increases in chemical or volume-related drive than the two external muscles, the rectus abdominis and external oblique; the basis for this differential sensitivity is unknown

In the abdomens of people with low body fat these bellies can be viewed externally and are commonly referred to as a "four, six, or eight pack," depending on how many are visible; although six is the most common.

QMRFour stages in the development of the neural tube in the human embryo

QMRCupressaceae cones[edit] Juniper "berries", which are used to flavor gin, are actually modified cones. Giant Sequoia cones Members of the cypress family (cypresses, arborvitae, junipers, redwoods, etc.) differ in that the bract and seed scales are fully fused, with the bract visible as no more than a small lump or spine on the scale. The botanical term galbulus (plural galbuli; from the Latin for a cypress cone) is sometimes used instead of strobilus for members of this family. The female cones have one to 20 ovules on each scale. They often have peltate scales, as opposed to the imbricate cones described above, though some have imbricate scales. The cones are usually small, 0.3–6 cm long, and often spherical or nearly so, like those of Nootka Cypress, while others, such as Western Redcedar, are narrow. The scales are arranged either spirally, or in decussate whorls of two (opposite pairs) or three, rarely four. The genera with spiral scale arrangement were often treated in a separate family (Taxodiaceae) in the past. In most of the genera, the cones are woody and the seeds have two narrow wings (one along each side of the seed), but in three genera (Platycladus, Microbiota and Juniperus), the seeds are wingless, and in Juniperus, the cones are fleshy and berry-like.

So the cross is in essence the foundation of the drawing

The cross is so she can gage the dimensions of how to draw the dog

Notice how the drawing instructor, when she draws a chihuahua, begins by drawing a circle with a cross inside of it.

QMRThere are four types of cell wall currently known among the Archaea.

The relative importance of 4-quinolones has increased with the discovery that such structures that also bear a carboxylic acid (-COOH) and other functional groups at particular sites on the ring have very potent bacteriocidal activities, inhibiting of a broad spectrum of Gram negative and Gram positive DNA gyrase and topoisomerase enzymes. Hence, they are very useful in antibacterial therapy. An example of such a 4-quinolone is "cipro" (ciprofloxacin, image at right), where the atoms of quinoline can be traced within this related structure. Ciprofloxacin is a "second-generation" fluoroquinolone antibacterial (see below), introduced by Bayer AG and still in wide use as the second decade of the new millennium begins.

QMRThe 2- and 4-quinolones are a class of bicyclic molecules, organic chemical structures that are related to the heteroaromatic coal tar isolate quinoline

QMRResearchers divide the quinolones into generations based on their antibacterial spectrum.[75][76] The earlier-generation agents are, in general, more narrow-spectrum than the later ones, but no standard is employed to determine which drug belongs to which generation. The only universal standard applied is the assignment of the nonfluorinated drugs found within this class (quinolones) to the 'first-generation' heading. As such, a wide variation exists within the literature dependent upon the methods employed by the authors. The first generation is rarely used today. Nalidixic acid was added to the OEHHA Prop 65 list as a carcinogen on 15 May 1998.[77] A number of the second-, third-, and fourth-generation drugs have been removed from clinical practice due to severe toxicity issues or discontinued by their manufacturers. The drugs most frequently prescribed today consist of Avelox (moxifloxacin), Cipro (ciprofloxacin), Levaquin (levofloxacin), and, to some extent, their generic equivalents. First-generation[edit] cinoxacin (Cinobac) nalidixic acid (NegGram, Wintomylon)[78] oxolinic acid (Uroxin) piromidic acid (Panacid) pipemidic acid (Dolcol) rosoxacin (Eradacil) Second-generation[edit] The second-generation class is sometimes subdivided into "Class 1" and "Class 2".[79] ciprofloxacin (Cipro)[78][80] enoxacin (Enroxil, Penetrex)[78] fleroxacin (Megalone, Roquinol) lomefloxacin (Maxaquin)[78] nadifloxacin (Acuatim, Nadoxin, Nadixa) norfloxacin (Lexinor, Noroxin, Quinabic, Janacin)[78][81] ofloxacin (Floxin, Oxaldin, Tarivid)[78] pefloxacin (Peflacine) rufloxacin (Uroflox) Third-generation[edit] Unlike the first- and second-generations, the third-generation is active against streptococci.[79] balofloxacin (Baloxin) grepafloxacin (Raxar) (removed from clinical use) levofloxacin (Leflox, Cravit, Levaquin, Tavanic) pazufloxacin (Pasil, Pazucross) sparfloxacin (Zagam) temafloxacin (Omniflox) (removed from clinical use)[82] tosufloxacin (Ozex, Tosacin) Fourth-generation[edit] Fourth-generation fluoroquinolones act at DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV.[83] This dual action slows development of resistance. clinafloxacin[80] gatifloxacin (Zigat, Tequin) (Zymar -opth.) (Tequin removed from clinical use)[84] gemifloxacin (Factive) moxifloxacin (Acflox Woodward, Avelox,Vigamox)[78] sitafloxacin (Gracevit) trovafloxacin (Trovan) (removed from clinical use)[78][80] prulifloxacin (Quisnon)

QMRLamb MJ, Jablonka E (2005). Evolution in four dimensions: genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic variation in the history of life.

QMRFigure painting: Four mounted rangers Have just finished painting and basing four 15mm figures, each representing a human firing a bow from a horse-back. Have not done much figure painting in my life, so I'm pleased with the result. The figures are Chariot Miniatures, bought from Magister Militum (product number: FHM2). Obtained roughly 50 figures (all 15mm) from Magister Militum - humans and orcs/goblins. Will paint them and use them primary for Song of Blades and Heroes.

QMRMixed Media Painting - Four Figures - Sepia

QMRCaption:Figures of saints, detail from the Last Judgement, second half of 13th century, fresco by Pietro Cavallini (ca 1240-ca 1330), Basilica of St Cecilia, Rome. Italy, 13th century. One of the saints holds a cross

QMRMustafa Abelseed, Four Figures. Browse Art Painting Mustafa Abelseed Artworks Four Figures.

QMRLouis Le Nain Paintings |Wholesale Oil Painting Reproductions from China Four figures at a table

QMRA Dance to the Music of Time, Poussin, 1600s CE, Baroque, oil on canvas Christian allegorical myth->vanitas painting Four figures=industry/wealth/pleasure/poverty->stages of man's life Homo bulla=man's a bubble (life is short)

QMRThe Hotel del Prado was structurally damaged in the earthquake of 1985. Fortunately, the mural was unscathed. Before the hotel was razed (today a new Hilton Hotel stands on the site) the painting was transported across the street to a small museum which had been built on land that had also been cleared of earthquake damaged structures. The famous painting can now be viewed in the "Museo Mural Diego Rivera". The mural is fifty feet long. Four figures dominate the center of the painting.

QMRFour Musketeers, pastel on sandpaper, (50x50cm)

QMROur friends and sponsors Depositphotos launched a brand new blog “Bird” dedicated to the world of Photography. They asked us to come across their latest content presented both on Russian and English and select the interesting portfolio for our readers. Check the surface and the sides of the Paris basketball court that are painted in the main colours of Malevich’s “Sportsmen” Ill-Studio has collaborated with French fashion brand Pigalle to create a multicoloured basketball court between a row of buildings in the 9th arrondissement of Paris. They took inspiration from a 1930s artwork called Sportsmen by Russian artist Kasimir Malevich – a boldly coloured oil painting that depicts four figures stood side by side.

At 44 minutes he discusses how the pineal gland is in line with the tetrahedron line in the brain

QMR Tammuz carried a pine cone. So did Osiris. It is argued by some that Shivas hair was like a pine cone. The Popes staff has a pine cone. A pine cone is made up of quadrants if you look carefully

QMR In the vatican there is the court of the pine cone

QMR Pine cones kind of look like quadrants and the pine cone was a very important symbol in many religions

QMR The Buddhas hair in art was depicted as braided in quadrants.

Harman said he went to Kauai because that was where the tetrahedron line on Earth was and I didn't even know that when I was there

He points out that it emerges in colloids that the red spot on jupiter is at the tetrahedron mark.

At 10 minutes he is discussing the double tetrahedron Merkaba

I didn't realize it was my pineal gland

Same thing with my friend Daniel Jang who is my friend on Facebook we were driving in the car and he said he felt it

QMRModern microscopes, known as compound microscopes have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability

Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store. It is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and cassava. Carbohydrate has the word carbon in it. Carbon is the miracle element

Each species of plant has a unique type of starch granules in granular size, shape and crystallization pattern. Under the microscope, starch grains stained with iodine illuminated from behind with polarized light show a distinctive Maltese cross effect (also known as extinction cross and birefringence).

Starch, 800x magnified, under polarized light, showing characteristic extinction cross

QMRThe extinction cross is an optical phenomenon that is seen when trying to extinguish a laser beam or non-planar white light using crossed polarizers. Ideally, crossed (90° rotated) polarizers block all light, since light which is polarized along the polarization axis of the first polarizer is perpendicular to the polarization axis of the second. When the beam is not perfectly collimated, however, a characteristic fringing pattern is produced.

QMRCellophane is a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose. Its low permeability to air, oils, greases, bacteria and water makes it useful for food packaging. "Cellophane" is in many countries a registered trade mark of Innovia Films Ltd based in Wigton, Cumbria, United Kingdom. Contents [hide] 1 Production 2 History 3 Present day 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Production[edit] Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield viscose. Cellulose from wood, cotton, hemp or other sources is dissolved in alkali and carbon disulfide to make a solution called viscose, which is then extruded through a slit into a bath of dilute sulfuric acid and sodium sulfate to reconvert the viscose into cellulose. The film is then passed through several more baths, one to remove sulfur, one to bleach the film, and one to add glycerin to prevent the film from becoming brittle. Carbon is a key ingredient. Carbon has four valence electrons and looks like a quadrant

QMRCell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis. A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.

QMRKoch's postulates (/ˈkɔːx/)[2] are four criteria designed to establish a causative relationship between a microbe and a disease. The postulates were formulated by Robert Koch and Friedrich Loeffler in 1884, based on earlier concepts described by Jakob Henle,[3] and refined and published by Koch in 1890. Koch applied the postulates to describe the etiology of cholera and tuberculosis, but they have been controversially generalized to other diseases. These postulates were generated prior to understanding of modern concepts in microbial pathogenesis that cannot be examined using Koch's postulates, including viruses (which are obligate cellular parasites) or asymptomatic carriers. They have largely been supplanted by other criteria such as the Bradford Hill criteria for infectious disease causality in modern public health. Contents [hide] 1 The postulates 2 History 3 Koch’s postulates for the 21st century 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading The postulates[edit] Koch's postulates of disease. Koch's postulates are the following: The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy organisms. The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture. The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism. The microorganism must be reisolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.

QMRRobert Koch is known for developing four basic criteria (known as Koch's Postulates) for demonstrating, in a scientifically sound manner, that a disease is caused by a particular organism. These postulates grew out of his seminal work with anthrax using purified cultures of the pathogen that had been isolated from diseased animals. Koch's postulates were developed in the 19th century as general guidelines to identify pathogens that could be isolated with the techniques of the day.[11] Even in Koch's time, it was recognized that some infectious agents were clearly responsible for disease even though they did not fulfill all of the postulates.[12][13] Attempts to rigidly apply Koch's postulates to the diagnosis of viral diseases in the late 19th century, at a time when viruses could not be seen or isolated in culture, may have impeded the early development of the field of virology.[14][15] Currently, a number of infectious agents are accepted as the cause of disease despite their not fulfilling all of Koch's postulates.[16] Therefore, while Koch's postulates retain historical importance and continue to inform the approach to microbiologic diagnosis, fulfillment of all four postulates is not required to demonstrate causality. Koch's postulates have also influenced scientists who examine microbial pathogenesis from a molecular point of view. In the 1980s, a molecular version of Koch's postulates was developed to guide the identification of microbial genes encoding virulence factors.[17] Koch's postulates: The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy organisms. The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure culture. The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism. The microorganism must be reisolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.

QMRGeochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the "biomass" or "biota" as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The word ecosphere, coined during the 1960s, encompasses both biological and physical components of the planet.[11] The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined biospherics as the science and technology of analogs and models of Earth's biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres.[12] Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres—for example, human-centered biospheres or a native Martian biosphere—as part of the topic of biospherics.[citation needed]

QMRin 2008 published evidence suggesting that about 40% of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders, who were of Middle Eastern origin, while the populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities "showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect"

Mt-DNA of Ashkenazi Jews[edit] A 2006 study by Behar et al.,[55] based on high-resolution analysis of Haplogroup K(mtDNA), suggested that about 40% of the current Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from just four women, or "founder lineages", that were "likely from a Hebrew/Levantine mtDNA pool" originating in the Middle East in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE. Moreover, a maternal line "sister" was found among the Jews of Portugal, North Africa, France, and Italy. They wrote: Both the extent and location of the maternal ancestral deme from which the Ashkenazi Jewry arose remain obscure. Here, using complete sequences of the maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), we show that close to one-half of Ashkenazi Jews, estimated at 8,000,000 people, can be traced back to only four women carrying distinct mtDNAs that are virtually absent in other populations, with the important exception of low frequencies among non-Ashkenazi Jews. We conclude that four founding mtDNAs, likely of Near Eastern ancestry, underwent major expansion(s) in Europe within the past millennium...[13][55]

Mt-DNA of Jews from Tunisia[edit] Behar's study found that 43% of Tunisian Jews are descended from four women along their maternal lines.[62]

QMRA shark tooth is one of the numerous teeth of a shark. A shark tooth contains resistant calcium phosphate materials.[1] Sharks continually shed their teeth; some Carcharhiniformes shed approximately 35,000 teeth in a lifetime, as well as replace them by producing thousands of more.[2] There are four basic types of shark teeth: dense flattened, needle-like, pointed lower with triangular upper, and non-functional. The type of tooth that a shark has depends on its diet and feeding habits.

QMRBecause the sand tiger shark is worldwide in distribution, it has many common names. The term "sand tiger shark" actually refers to four different sand tiger shark species in the family Odontaspididae. Furthermore, the name creates confusion with the tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvier, which is not related to the sand tiger. The grey nurse shark, the name used in Australia and the United Kingdom, is the second-most-used name for the shark, and in India it is known as blue-nurse sand tiger. However, there are unrelated nurse sharks in the family Ginglymostomatidae. The most unambiguous and descriptive English name is probably the South African one, spotted ragged-tooth shark.[2][4] Identification[edit] There are four species of sand tiger sharks[2] The sand tiger shark Carcharias taurus The Indian sand tiger shark Carcharias tricuspidatus. Very little is known about this species which, described before 1900, is probably the same as (a synonym of) the sand tiger C. taurus[2] The small-toothed sand tiger shark Odontaspis ferox. This species has a worldwide distribution, is seldom seen but normally inhabits deeper water than does C. taurus. The large-eyed sand tiger shark Odontaspis noronhai, a deep water shark of the Americas, of which little is known. Diagram indicating the differences between C. taurus and O. ferox The most likely problem when identifying the sand tiger shark is when in the presence of either of the two species of Odontaspis. Firstly, the sand tiger is usually spotted, especially on the hind half of the body. However, there are several other differences that are probably more reliable: The bottom part of the caudal fin (tail fin) of the sand tiger is smaller; The second (i.e. hind) dorsal fin of the sand tiger is almost as large as the first (i.e. front) dorsal fin. The first (i.e. front) dorsal fin of the sand tiger is relatively non-symmetric; The first (i.e. front) dorsal fin of the sand tiger is closer to the pelvic fin than to the pectoral fin (i.e. the first dorsal fin is positioned further backwards in the case of the sand tiger);

QMRTraditional morphology-based or appearance-based systematics have usually given the Hexapoda the rank of superclass,[25]:180 and identified four groups within it: insects (Ectognatha), springtails (Collembola), Protura, and Diplura, the latter three being grouped together as the Entognatha on the basis of internalized mouth parts

QMROf the 24 orders of insects, four dominate in terms of numbers of described species, with at least 3 million species included in Coleoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. A recent study estimated the number of beetles at 0.9–2.1 million with a mean of 1.5 million.[34] Comparison of the estimated number of species in the four most speciose insect orders[citation needed] Described species Average description rate (species per year) Publication effort Coleoptera 300,000–400,000 2308 0.01 Lepidoptera 110,000–120,000 642 0.03 Diptera 90,000–150,000 1048 0.04 Hymenoptera 100,000–125,000 1196 0.02

QMRGenetic evidence indicates that megabats originated during the early Eocene and should be placed within the four major lines of microbats

Powered flight has evolved only four times—birds, bats, pterosaurs, and insects.

QMRA number of animals have evolved aerial locomotion, either by powered flight or by gliding. Flying and gliding animals have evolved separately many times, without any single ancestor. Flight has evolved at least four times, in the insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats.

QMRThe four harmonious animals or four harmonious brothers (Wylie: mthun pa spun bzhi[1] or Wylie: mthun pa rnam bzhi[2]) figure in Buddhist mythology and the Jataka tales[3] that can often be found as subject in Tibetan art. A popular scene often found as wall paintings in Tibetan religious buildings represents an elephant standing under a fruit tree carrying a monkey, a hare and a bird on top of each other. The scene refers to a legend which tells that four animals were trying to find out who was the oldest. The elephant said that the tree was already fully grown when he was young, the monkey that the tree was small when he was young, the hare that he saw the tree as a sapling when he was young and the bird claimed that he had carried the seed from which the tree grew. So the bird was recognized by the other animals as the oldest, and the four animals lived together in harmony, helping each other to enjoy the fruits of the tree. This is the origin of their name. The primary source for the Buddhist legend of the four harmonious brothers is the Vinayavastu (Wylie: 'dul ba'i gzhi), which forms the first section of the Kangyur, the canon of Tibetan Buddhism.[2]

Psychology Chapter

QMRAttachment in adults deals with the theory of attachment in adult relationships including adult romantic relationships. Attachment theory, initially studied in the 1960s and 1970s primarily in the context of children and parents, was extended to adult romantic relationships in the late 1980s. Four main styles of attachment have been identified in adults: secure anxious–preoccupied dismissive–avoidant fearful–avoidant Investigators have explored the organization and the stability of mental working models that underlie these attachment styles. They have also explored how attachment impacts relationship outcomes and how attachment functions in relationship dynamics. Styles[edit] Adults have 4 attachment styles: secure, anxious–preoccupied, dismissive–avoidant, and fearful–avoidant. The secure attachment style in adults corresponds to the secure attachment style in children. The anxious–preoccupied attachment style in adults corresponds to the anxious–ambivalent attachment style in children. However, the dismissive–avoidant attachment style and the fearful–avoidant attachment style, which are distinct in adults, correspond to a single avoidant attachment style in children. The descriptions of adult attachment styles offered below are based on the relationship questionnaire devised by Bartholomew and Horowitz[6] and on a review of studies by Pietromonaco and Barrett.[7] There are several attachment-based treatment approaches that can be used with adults.[8] In addition, there is an approach to treating couples based on attachment theory.[9] Secure[edit] Securely attached people tend to agree with the following statements: "It is relatively easy for me to become emotionally close to others. I am comfortable depending on others and having others depend on me. I don't worry about being alone or others not accepting me." This style of attachment usually results from a history of warm and responsive interactions with relationship partners. Securely attached people tend to have positive views of themselves and their partners. They also tend to have positive views of their relationships. Often they report greater satisfaction and adjustment in their relationships than people with other attachment styles. Securely attached people feel comfortable both with intimacy and with independence. Many seek to balance intimacy and independence in their relationship. Secure attachment and adaptive functioning are promoted by a caregiver who is emotionally available and appropriately responsive to his or her child’s attachment behavior, as well as capable of regulating both his or her positive and negative emotions. [10] Insecure[edit] Anxious–preoccupied[edit] People with anxious-preoccupied attachment type tend to agree with the following statements: "I want to be completely emotionally intimate with others, but I often find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like", and "I am uncomfortable being without close relationships, but I sometimes worry that others don't value me as much as I value them." People with this style of attachment seek high levels of intimacy, approval, and responsiveness from their partners. They sometimes value intimacy to such an extent that they become overly dependent on their partners. Compared to securely attached people, people who are anxious or preoccupied with attachment tend to have less positive views about themselves. They may feel a sense of anxiousness that only recedes when in contact with their partner. They often doubt their worth as a partner and blame themselves for their partners' lack of responsiveness. People who are anxious or preoccupied with attachment may exhibit high levels of emotional expressiveness, worry, and impulsiveness in their relationships. Dismissive–avoidant[edit] People with a dismissive style of avoidant attachment tend to agree with these statements: "I am comfortable without close emotional relationships", "It is very important to me to feel independent and self-sufficient", and "I prefer not to depend on others or have others depend on me." People with this attachment style desire a high level of independence. The desire for independence often appears as an attempt to avoid attachment altogether. They view themselves as self-sufficient and invulnerable to feelings associated with being closely attached to others. They often deny needing close relationships. Some may even view close relationships as relatively unimportant. Not surprisingly, they seek less intimacy with relationship partners, whom they often view less positively than they view themselves. Investigators commonly note the defensive character of this attachment style. People with a dismissive–avoidant attachment style tend to suppress and hide their feelings, and they tend to deal with rejection by distancing themselves from the sources of rejection (e.g. their relationship partners). Fearful–avoidant[edit] People with losses or other trauma, such as sexual abuse in childhood and adolescence may often develop this type of attachment[11] and tend to agree with the following statements: "I am somewhat uncomfortable getting close to others. I want emotionally close relationships, but I find it difficult to trust others completely, or to depend on them. I sometimes worry that I will be hurt if I allow myself to become too close to others." People with this attachment style have mixed feelings about close relationships. On the one hand, they desire to have emotionally close relationships. On the other hand, they tend to feel uncomfortable with emotional closeness. These mixed feelings are combined with sometimes unconscious, negative views about themselves and their partners. They commonly view themselves as unworthy of responsiveness from their partners, and they don't trust the intentions of their partners. Similar to the dismissive–avoidant attachment style, people with a fearful–avoidant attachment style seek less intimacy from partners and frequently suppress and deny their feelings. Because of this, they are much less comfortable expressing affection. Security-based strategy of affect regulation Self-esteem (thoughts about self) Positive Negative Sociability (thoughts about others) Positive Secure Anxious–preoccupied Negative Dismissive–avoidant Fearful–avoidant The secure and dismissive attachment styles are associated with higher self-esteem compared to the anxious and fearful attachment styles. This corresponds to the distinction between positive and negative thoughts about the self in working models. The secure and anxious attachment styles are associated with higher sociability than the dismissive or fearful attachment styles. This corresponds to the distinction between positive and negative thoughts about others in working models. These results suggested working models indeed contain two distinct domains—thoughts about self and thoughts about others—and that each domain can be characterized as generally positive or generally negative.

Why attachment styles change is not well-understood. Waters, Weinfield and Hamilton propose that negative life experiences often cause changes in attachment styles.[32] Their proposal is supported by evidence that people who experience negative life events also tend to experience changes in attachment styles.[28][33][34] Davila, Karney and Bradbury have identified four sets of factors that might cause changes in attachment styles: (a) situational events and circumstances, (b) changes in relational schemas, (c) personality variables, and (d) combinations of personality variables and situational events.[35] They conducted a study to see which set of factors best explained changes in attachment styles. Interestingly, the study found that all four sets of factors cause changes in attachment styles. Changes in attachment styles are complex and depend on multiple factors.

Sociology Chapter

QMRSociety[edit] Parthian waterspout, 1st–2nd century AD. City-states of "some considerable size" existed in Parthia as early as the 1st millennium BC, "and not just from the time of the Achaemenids or Seleucids."[21] However, for the most part, society was rural, and dominated by large landholders with large numbers of serfs, slaves, and other indentured labor at their disposal.[21] Communities with free peasants also existed. By Arsacid times, Parthian society was divided into the four classes (limited to freemen). At the top were the kings and near family members of the king. These were followed by the lesser nobility and the general priesthood, followed by the mercantile class and lower-ranking civil servants, and with farmers and herdsmen at the bottom. Little is known of the Parthian economy, but agriculture must have played the most important role in it. Significant trade first occurs with the establishment of the Silk road in 114 BC, when Hecatompylos became an important junction.

Proxemics is the study of the cultural, behavioral, and sociological aspects of spatial distances between individuals.[65] Every person has a particular space that they keep to themselves when communicating, like a personal bubble. When used as a type of nonverbal signal in communication, proxemics helps to determine the space between individuals while they interact. There are four types of proxemics with different distances depending on the situation and people involved.[66] Intimate distance is used for close encounters like embracing, touching, or whispering. Personal distance is for interactions with close friends and family members. Social distance is for interactions among acquaintances. It is mostly used in workplace or school settings where there is no physical contact. Public distance is for strangers or public speaking.

QMRAccording to Edward T. Hall, the amount of space we maintain between ourselves and the persons with whom we are communicating shows the importance of the science of proxemics. In this process, it is seen how we feel towards the others at that particular time. Within American culture Hall defines four primary distance zones: (i) intimate (touching to eighteen inches) distance, (ii) Personal (eighteen inches to four feet) distance, (iii) Social (four to twelve feet) distance, and (iv) Public (more than twelve feet) distance. Intimate distance is considered appropriate for familiar relationships and indicates closeness and trust. Personal distance is still close but keeps another "at arm's length" the most comfortable distance for most of our interpersonal contact, social distance is used for the kind of communication that occurs in business relationships and, sometimes, in the classroom. Public distance occurs in situations where two-way communication is not desirable or possible [24]

QMRRomantic love definition/operationalization[edit] Singer (1984a,[40] 1984b,[41] 1987[42]) first defined love based on four Greek terms: eros, meaning the search for beauty; philia, the feelings of affection in close friendships, nomos, the submission of and obedience to higher or divine powers, and agape, the bestowal of love and affection for the divine powers. While Singer did believe that love was important to world culture, he did not believe that romantic love played a major role (Singer, 1987[42]). However, Susan Hendrick and Clyde Hendrick at Texas Tech University (1992,[43] 2009[44]) have theorized that romantic love will play an increasingly important cultural role in the future, as it is considered an important part of living a fulfilling life. They also theorized that love in long-term romantic relationships has only been the product of cultural forces which came to fruition within the past 300 years. By cultural forces, they are referring to the increasing prevalence of individualistic ideologies, which are the result of an inward shift of many cultural worldviews.

Firearms safety[edit]

Cooper advocated four basic rules of gun safety:

All guns are always loaded. Even if they are not, treat them as if they are.

Never let the muzzle cover anything you are not willing to destroy. (For those who insist that this particular gun is unloaded, see Rule 1.)

Keep your finger off the trigger till your sights are on the target. This is the Golden Rule. Its violation is directly responsible for about 60 percent of inadvertent discharges.

Identify your target, and what is behind it. Never shoot at anything that you have not positively identified

QMRCombat mindset and the Cooper color code[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2015) The most important means of surviving a lethal confrontation, according to Cooper, is neither the weapon nor the martial skills. The primary tool is the combat mindset, set forth in his book, Principles of Personal Defense.[4] The color code, as originally introduced by Jeff Cooper, had nothing to do with tactical situations or alertness levels, but rather with one's state of mind. As taught by Cooper, it relates to the degree of peril you are willing to do something about and which allows you to move from one level of mindset to another to enable you to properly handle a given situation. Cooper did not claim to have invented anything in particular with the color code, but he was apparently the first to use it as an indication of mental state.[5] The following is from The Carry Book: Minnesota Edition, 2011:[6] White: Unaware and unprepared. If attacked in Condition White, the only thing that may save you is the inadequacy or ineptitude of your attacker. When confronted by something nasty, your reaction will probably be "Oh my God! This can't be happening to me." Yellow: Relaxed alert. No specific threat situation. Your mindset is that "today could be the day I may have to defend myself". You are simply aware that the world is a potentially unfriendly place and that you are prepared to defend yourself, if necessary. You use your eyes and ears, and realize that "I may have to shoot today". You don't have to be armed in this state, but if you are armed you should be in Condition Yellow. You should always be in Yellow whenever you are in unfamiliar surroundings or among people you don't know. You can remain in Yellow for long periods, as long as you are able to "Watch your six." (In aviation 12 o'clock refers to the direction in front of the aircraft's nose. Six o'clock is the blind spot behind the pilot.) In Yellow, you are "taking in" surrounding information in a relaxed but alert manner, like a continuous 360 degree radar sweep. As Cooper put it, "I might have to shoot." Orange: Specific alert. Something is not quite right and has your attention. Your radar has picked up a specific alert. You shift your primary focus to determine if there is a threat (but you do not drop your six). Your mindset shifts to "I may have to shoot that person today", focusing on the specific target which has caused the escalation in alert status. In Condition Orange, you set a mental trigger: "If that person does "X", I will need to stop them". Your pistol usually remains holstered in this state. Staying in Orange can be a bit of a mental strain, but you can stay in it for as long as you need to. If the threat proves to be nothing, you shift back to Condition Yellow. Red: Condition Red is fight. Your mental trigger (established back in Condition Orange) has been tripped. "If 'X' happens I will shoot that person" — 'X' has happened, the fight is on.

He further simplified things in 2005: "In White you are unprepared and unready to take lethal action. If you are attacked in White you will probably die unless your adversary is totally inept. In Yellow you bring yourself to the understanding that your life may be in danger and that you may have to do something about it. In Orange you have determined upon a specific adversary and are prepared to take action which may result in his death, but you are not in a lethal mode. In Red you are in a lethal mode and will shoot if circumstances warrant."[9]

QMR12 34 "Love Gone Wrong" November 4, 2010 Under the influence and with her boyfriend, Christine Paolilla murders her four best friends in a robbery gone wrong in Houston and remained on the loose for years. Even during that time, however, she wasn't exactly free as she was being haunted by her murdered friends. Clark's Harbour resident Penny Boudreau's boyfriend was sick of the bickering between her and her 12-year-old daughter, so he said "either she goes or I go". Upon saying that, he meant that she must go to live with her father, but Penny took things too far and strangled her only child to keep her boyfriend. Jennifer Hyatte fell in love with a prisoner while working as a nurse in Kingston, Tennessee and they got married. After her husband's latest parole hearing, she showed up at the courthouse with a gun and shot a guard to free her husband. On the run, they saw a news story at a hotel, revealing that the guard died on the way to the hospital and that branded Jennifer and George as murderers.

QMRIn 1991, British nurse Beverley Allitt murdered four children and injured five others by injecting them with insulin or potassium, causing cardiac arrest. In 1986, Seattle-based Stella Nickell poisoned her husband and an innocent shopper by planting cyanide-laced pain-relief capsules on drug store shelves. In Australia, on a killing spree that lasted from 1991 until 1997, serial killer Kathleen Folbigg murdered four of her children by suffocating them.

The head of the National Guard, whose troops were responsible for the murders, Gen. Carlos Eugenio Vides Casanova, went on to become Minister of Defense in the government of José Napoleón Duarte.[1] In 1998, the four assassins confessed to abducting, raping and murdering the four churchwomen and claimed that they did so because Aleman had informed them that they had to act on orders from high-level military officers.[6] Some were then released from prison after detailing how Vides and his cousin Col. Oscar Edgardo Casanova Vejar, the local military commander in Zacatecoluca, had planned and orchestrated the executions of the churchwomen.[9] A 16-year legal battle to deport Vides Casanova soon commenced.[10] After their emigration to the U.S. state of Florida, Vides Casanova and his fellow general, José Guillermo García, were sued by the families of the four women in federal civil court. The case is styled Ford v. Garcia. The defense won the case. On 24 February 2012, however, a Federal immigration judge cleared the way for the deportation of Vides Casanova after the General was held liable for various war crimes which occurred under his command.[11] On March 11, 2015, the Board of Immigration Appeals dismissed General Vides Casanova's appeal.[12][13] Vides Casanova was then deported back to El Salvador on April 8, 2015.[10]

QMRJean Donovan (April 10, 1953 – December 2, 1980) was an American lay missionary who was raped and murdered along with three Religious Sisters in El Salvador by a military death squad while volunteering to do charity work during the civil war there.

QMRThe Shafia Family murders took place on June 30, 2009 in Kingston, Ontario. Shafia sisters Zainab, 19, Sahar, 17, and Geeti, 13, along with Rona Amir Mohammed, 50, were found dead inside a car that was discovered underwater in front of the northernmost Kingston Mills lock of the Rideau Canal on the same day.[1] Zainab, Sahar, and Geeti were daughters of Mohammad Shafia, 58 and his wife Tooba Mohammad Yahya, 41. The couple also had a son Hamed, 20. Rona, who was herself infertile, was the first wife of Mohammad Shafia in their polygamous household. On July 23, 2009, Mohammad, Tooba Yahya, and Hamed were arrested on charges of four counts of first degree murder and conspiracy to commit murder[2] under the guise of honour killing.[3] They were found guilty of all four counts by the jury in January 2012. The trial, which took place at the Frontenac County Court House, was believed to be a first in Canada conducted in four languages – English, French, Dari and Spanish.[4] The trial garnered media attention in Canada for several months, and raised the debate over Canadian values, honour crimes, and protection of vulnerable immigrant groups.

QMRThe Bear Brook murders, also referred to as the Allenstown Four, comprise four unidentified murder victims discovered in 1985 and 2000 at Bear Brook State Park in Allenstown, New Hampshire.[1] This case has never been solved. All of the victims were either partially or completely skeletonized when they were found and are believed to have died between 1977 and 1985.[1][2][3] The victims' faces have been reconstructed multiple times, most recently by the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children.[2][4][5]

QMRThe Harok family murder took place in the early morning of 22 May 2013 when four members of the Harok family, Veronika, her husband Martin, and her sons Filip and David were murdered in their home in Brno, Czech Republic′s second largest city.[

QMRThe Farmville murders occurred in Farmville, Virginia in September, 2009 – the quadruple bludgeoning homicide of Mark Neiderbrock, Debra S. Kelley, their daughter Emma Neiderbrock and friend Melanie Wells.

QMRChristine Marie Paolilla (born March 31, 1986) is a convicted American mass murderer who is serving a life sentence for fatally shooting four of her friends in their Clear Lake City, Texas home on July 18, 2003. The killings, which came to be known as the "Clear Lake murders", made national headlines. Paolilla, who was 17 years old at the time of the murders, was accompanied by her then boyfriend, Christopher Snider. She was arrested on July 19, 2006, three years and one day after the murders were committed. Paolilla was convicted in October 2008 and sentenced to life in prison. Snider committed suicide in July 2006 before he was apprehended by police.

Manson has a swastika on his forehead

QMRCharles Milles Manson (born Charles Milles Maddox, November 12, 1934)[2]:136–7 is an American criminal who led what became known as the Manson Family, a quasi-commune that arose in the California desert in the late 1960s. Manson and his followers committed a series of nine murders at four locations over a period of five weeks in the summer of 1969.

QMRThe "Zebra" murders were a string of racially motivated murders that took place in San Francisco, California, from October 1973 to April 1974. A group of male Black Muslims who called themselves the "Death Angels" committed at least 16 murders and 8 attempted murders. However, some authorities believe they may have killed as many as 80 or more victims.[1] Police named the case "Zebra" after the special police radio band they assigned for the investigation. Four black men were convicted of the crimes, mostly against white victims.

QMRShanda Renee Sharer (June 6, 1979 – January 11, 1992) was an American girl who was tortured and burned to death in Madison, Indiana, by four teenage girls. She was 12 years old at the time of her death. The incident attracted international attention due to both the brutality and the young age of the perpetrators. The case was covered on national programs such as Dr. Phil and has inspired a number of episodes on fictional crime shows.[1]

QMRThe 1991 Austin yogurt shop murders refers to the deaths of four teenage girls in a yogurt shop in Austin, Texas, on December 6, 1991, after which the shop was set aflame. The bodies of 13-year-old Amy Ayers (sometimes spelled Ayres), 17-year-old Jennifer Harbison, her 15-year-old sister Sarah, and 17-year-old Eliza Thomas were discovered after the fire was extinguished. The initial investigation spanned nearly eight years. Two men initially confessed to the murders and were convicted, but they were released by 2009 due to lack of evidence. No new charges have been filed and local media coverage remains ongoing. As of 2011, the Austin Police Department has five cold-case detectives working on the case.[1]

QMRCraig Price (also known as the Warwick Slasher,[1] born October 11, 1973) is an American serial killer who committed his crimes in Warwick, Rhode Island. He was arrested in 1989 for four murders committed in his neighborhood: A woman and her two daughters that year, and the murder of another woman two years prior.[2] He had a previous criminal record for petty theft.[2]

Literature[edit] Leo and Tom Wells wrote a non-fiction account of the murder and subsequent trials entitled The Wrong Guys: Murder, False Confessions, and the Norfolk Four (2008).[29][30] Television[edit] The case was also featured in an episode of Forensic Files.[which?] The Norfolk Four story was featured in a Frontline documentary titled "The Confessions" (original air date November 9, 2010) that aired on PBS .[31] The case was the subject of a 2001 episode of The Learning Channel's Medical Detectives.[which

QMRThe Norfolk Four are four men, Derek Tice, Danial Williams, Joseph J. Dick Jr., and Eric C. Wilson, who were convicted in 1999 for the 1997 rape and murder of Michelle Moore-Bosko in Norfolk, Virginia. Their convictions were the source of controversy, as their convictions were largely based on confessions which the men maintain were coerced with threats of receiving the death penalty if they did not plead guilty. Organizations such as the Innocence Project protested the convictions as a "miscarriage of justice", while Moore-Bosko's parents continue to believe that all those convicted were participants in the crime.[1][2] Three of the four men, Tice, Williams, and Dick, were sentenced to one or more life sentences in prison without the possibility of parole due to their having either pleaded guilty to or having been convicted of the murder, while Wilson was convicted of rape and sentenced to 8½ years in prison. Three other men, Geoffrey A. Farris, John E. Danser, and Richard D. Pauley, Jr., were also initially charged with the crime, but their charges were later dropped. A fifth man, Omar Ballard, was also convicted of the crime and was sentenced to 100 years in prison, 59 of which were suspended. He is the only man whose DNA matches that found at the scene, and his confession states that he committed the crime by himself, with none of the other men involved. Forensic evidence is consistent with his story that there were no other participants.[3]

QMRNikko Jenkins is a convicted American spree killer known for committing four murders in Omaha, Nebraska in August 2013. Jenkins is easily identified by his facial tattoos, which he claims to be in the language of the ancient serpent god Apophis,[3] under whose commands he claims to act.[5] Jenkins' murder spree occurred within a month after he had been paroled from serving a ten-year prison sentence for unrelated armed robbery and assault charges.

QMRTsutomu Miyazaki (宮﨑 勤 Miyazaki Tsutomu?, August 21, 1962 – June 17, 2008), also known as The Otaku Murderer or The Little Girl Murderer, was a Japanese serial killer, cannibal and necrophile who abducted and murdered four young girls in Saitama and Tokyo Prefectures from August 1988 to June 1989. His crimes included vampirism and preservation of body parts as trophies.[2][3]

QMRThe Deltona massacre (commonly referred to as the "Xbox Murders") was a residential murder which occurred on August 6, 2004, at a home on Telford Lane in Deltona, Florida, United States. Four men broke into the home and bludgeoned six victims to death. The four attackers,[2] apparently inspired by the movie Wonderland,[3] tortured and killed four men, two women, and a dog inside the home, making it the bloodiest mass murder in Volusia County history.[4] Their motive was revenge on Erin Belanger, who evicted one of the attackers from her grandmother's house, and the recovery of belongings including an Xbox.

QMRThe Wonderland murders, also known as the Four on the Floor Murders[1] or the Laurel Canyon Murders, are four unsolved murders that occurred in Los Angeles on July 1, 1981.[2] It is assumed that six people were targeted to be killed in the known drug house of the Wonderland Gang, five were present, and four of those five died from extensive blunt-force trauma injuries: Billy DeVerell, Ron Launius, Joy Miller, and Barbara Richardson. Launius' wife, Susan Launius, survived the attack. The attack was allegedly masterminded by organized crime figure and nightclub owner Eddie Nash. He, his henchman Gregory DeWitt Diles,[3][4] and porn star John Holmes were at various times arrested, tried, and acquitted for their involvement in the murders.