Religion Chapter
Ryan Merkle QMRIn later myths, the four gods who created the world, Tezcatlipoca, Quetzalcoatl, Huitzilopochtli and Xipe Totec were referred to respectively as the Black, the White, the Blue and the Red Tezcatlipoca. The four Tezcatlipocas were the sons of Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl, lady and lord of the duality, and were the creators of all the other gods, as well as the world and all humanity.
Ryan Merkle Tezcatlipoca (/ˌtɛzˌkætliˈpoʊkə/; Classical Nahuatl: Tezcatlipōca pronounced [teskatɬiˈpoːka][1]) was a central deity in Aztec religion, and his main festival was the Toxcatl ceremony celebrated in the month of May. One of the four sons of Ometeotl, he is associated with a wide range of concepts, including the night sky, the night winds, hurricanes, the north, the earth, obsidian, enmity, discord, rulership, divination, temptation, jaguars, sorcery, beauty, war and strife. His name in the Nahuatl language is often translated as "Smoking Mirror"[2] and alludes to his connection to obsidian, the material from which mirrors were made in Mesoamerica which were used for shamanic rituals and prophecy.[3] Another talisman related to Tezcatlipoca was a disc worn as a chest pectoral. This talisman was carved out of abalone shell and depicted on the chest of both Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca in codex illustrations.
Ryan Merkle QMRMagadha was one of the four main kingdoms of India at the time of Buddha and consisted of several Janapadas
Ryan Merkle QMRIn the tradition of the 1880s Order of the Golden Dawn a watchtower or guardian in ceremonial and derived neopagan magical tradition is a tutelary spirit of one of the four cardinal points or "quarters" (north, east, south, and west). They are also variously associated in many traditions with each the four classical elements (earth, air, fire, and water) and stars (Fomalhaut, Aldebaran, Regulus, and Antares). The Watchtowers are evoked during the ritual of casting a magic circle.
QMRCosmic elements in Babylonia[edit]
In Babylonian mythology, the cosmogony called Enûma Eliš, a text written between the 18th and 16th centuries BC, involves four gods that we might see as personified cosmic elements: sea, earth, sky, wind. In other Babylonian texts these phenomena are considered independent of their association with deities,[3] though they are not treated as the component elements of the universe, as later in Empedocles.
QMRDelusions are categorized into four different groups:
Bizarre delusion: Delusions are deemed bizarre if they are clearly implausible and not understandable to same-culture peers and do not derive from ordinary life experiences.[4] An example named by the DSM-5 is a belief that someone replaced all of one's internal organs with someone else's without leaving a scar.
Non-bizarre delusion: A delusion that, though false, is at least possible, e.g., the affected person mistakenly believes that he is under constant police surveillance.
Mood-congruent delusion: Any delusion with content consistent with either a depressive or manic state, e.g., a depressed person believes that news anchors on television highly disapprove of him, or a person in a manic state might believe she is a powerful deity.
Mood-neutral delusion: A delusion that does not relate to the sufferer's emotional state; for example, a belief that an extra limb is growing out of the back of one's head is neutral to either depression or mania.[5]
QMRIn the tradition of the 1880s Order of the Golden Dawn a watchtower or guardian in ceremonial and derived neopagan magical tradition is a tutelary spirit of one of the four cardinal points or "quarters" (north, east, south, and west). They are also variously associated in many traditions with each the four classical elements (earth, air, fire, and water) and stars (Fomalhaut, Aldebaran, Regulus, and Antares). The Watchtowers are evoked during the ritual of casting a magic circle.
Alternately, "Watchtowers" may refer specifically to the abodes of the Guardians, with the guardians themselves referred to as "Watchers" or simply "Guardians".
In Christian influenced magic traditions, they are understood to be the Archangels Uriel, Raphael, Michael, and Gabriel.
Contents [hide]
1 Types
2 In Enochian tradition
2.1 Western Hermeticism
3 Modern adaptations
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Types[edit]
In archaic Roman religion, small towers were built at the crossroads, and an altar was set before them upon which offerings were given to nature spirits. Guardian spirits known as Lares were associated with these towers and with demarcation in general, as well as seasonal themes related to agriculture.[1] Here we may find a connection between the Lares and the Grigori of Italian Witchcraft. These towers may be the foundation of the "Watchtowers" appearing in the ritual circles of Wiccans and other modern witches.
In Enochian tradition[edit]
In the Enochian system of magic, brought to public attention by Dr. John Dee and Edward Kelly in the 16th century, we find the inclusion of Watchtowers as complex evocational designs. Some people believe that the Watchtowers have their origin in the Enochian magic system revealed to the Elizabethan magician John Dee and his scryer Edward Kelley, which was later developed into a working system of magic by S.L. MacGregor Mathers. According to Dee’s diaries, the two men summoned an angel, which Kelley saw in an obsidian mirror; Dee recorded the revelations which Kelley narrated to him. Among the surviving records of the Angelic Operations is A Book of Supplications and Invocations which "deals with the Invocation of the Angels who preside over the Four Quarters of the Terrestrial sphere."[2]
At the core of the instructions was the Angelic Table: a grid of 25x27 squares, each square containing a letter. The Angelic Table is subdivided into four lesser grids for the four elements and the four directions, bound together by the cross-shaped Tablet of Union. They are used to call upon the aid of angels ruling over the four directions. The names of God and the angels to be used in the invocations are extracted from the tablets.[3] The four tablets are often called the Enochian Tablets because the letters may be written in the Enochian alphabet also revealed to Dee and Kelley by the angel.
Western Hermeticism[edit]
Dee’s work was revived and expounded upon by the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, primarily through the work of S.L. MacGregor Mathers. In the Golden Dawn magical system, the four Angelic/Enochian Tablets became the four Watchtowers.[4] Each Watchtower was attributed to a direction and an element, by the Golden Dawn.
The Great Eastern Quadrangle of Air
The Great Western Quadrangle of Water
The Great Northern Quadrangle of Earth
The Great Southern Quadrangle of Fire
The Tablet of Union was rearranged to form a rectangle attributed to Spirit or Ether. The tablets were brightly colored; squares attributed to the elements were painted in the color of that element, with lettering in complementary colors.
Air - yellow with violet letters
Water - blue with orange letters
Earth - black with green letters
Fire - red with green letters
The use of complementary colors, called flashing colors in the Golden Dawn, means that the Watchtowers belong to the class of talismans called flashing tablets. The flashing colors were supposed to draw energy from the atmosphere.[5] The painted tablets were placed on the walls of the temple during some rituals to symbolize the four quarters. A favorite ritual in the Golden Dawn was the Opening by Watchtower. This is actually a preliminary ritual to purify space and call upon the guardians of the four quarters, similar to casting the magic circle in Wicca. As part of the Opening by Watchtower, the practitioner uses the elemental weapons to summon the angels of the quarters. In the south, for instance, the practitioner uses the Fire Wand to trace an invoking Fire Pentagram, then summons the angels using the three names of God found in the Fire Tablet:
OIP TEAA PEDOCE
In the names and letters of the Great Southern Quadrangle, I invoke ye, ye Angels of the Watch-tower of the South.[6]
There is no evidence in Dee's original writings that either he, Kelly or the angels attributed these quadrangles of the Great Table, to the elements as the Golden Dawn did. There is therefore, no evidence that the name Oip Teaa Pedoce is in fact, a holy name for the God relevant to the element fire. There is no doubt though, that it is certainly a holy name relevant to spirits whose names are found in the Southern Quadrangle of the Great Table or Tablet.
The Watchtowers were among the Golden Dawn concepts introduced into Wicca (modern witchcraft) by its founder Gerald Gardner. The complicated tablets and Enochian names were largely abandoned, but Wicca retained the Watchtowers as "the four cardinal points, regarded as guardians of the Magic Circle".[7] They are usually mentioned during the casting of the circle. In a conservative tradition such as Gardnerian or Alexandrian Wicca the invocation of the Watchtowers begins in the east; the practitioner traces an invoking Earth Pentagram while saying;
Ye Lords of the Watchtowers of the East, ye Lords of Air; I do summon, stir and call you up, to witness our rites and to guard the Circle.[8]
Modern adaptations[edit]
Many Wiccan circle-castings no longer mention the Watchtowers by name. Another important development is experimentation with the attribution of elements to the directions, instead of adhering to the attributions used by the Golden Dawn and Gardnerian Wicca (north/earth, east/air, south/fire, west/water). Many Wiccans perceive themselves as participants in an earth-based religion; they believe their practices should reflect their living experience of the local environment. Both the Golden Dawn and early Wicca were active in Great Britain;[9][10] traditional attributions derived from the British climate may not appeal to or work for practitioners in other climates. A special instance of this problem is the circumstance of Wiccans living in the southern hemisphere, who tend to perceive the north, not the south, as the direction most characterized by fire and heat. Some Neopagans choose to follow the practices of a historical pagan group with whom they identify, or conform to local traditions; either choice may dictate a change of attributions.[11]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Sikhs must believe in The four truths of life: Truth, contentment, contemplation and Naam (in the name of God).
Ryan Merkle QMRKenneth Pargament is noted for his book Psychology of Religion and Coping (1997; see article),[20] as well as for a 2007 book on religion and psychotherapy, and a sustained research program on religious coping. He is professor of psychology at Bowling Green State University (Ohio, USA), and has published more than 100 papers on the subject of religion and spirituality in psychology. Pargament led the design of a questionnaire called the "RCOPE" to measure Religious Coping strategies.[21] Pargament has distinguished between three types of styles for coping with stress:[22] 1) Collaborative, in which people co-operate with God to deal with stressful events; 2) Deferring, in which people leave everything to God; and 3) Self-directed, in which people do not rely on God and try exclusively to solve problems by their own efforts. He also describes four major stances toward religion that have been adopted by psychotherapists in their work with clients, which he calls the religiously rejectionist, exclusivist, constructivist, and pluralist stances.[20][23]
Buddhism Chapter
Ryan Merkle QMRIddhipāda (Pali; Skt. ṛddhipāda) is a compound term composed of "power" or "potency" (iddhi; ṛddhi) and "base," "basis" or "constituent" (pāda).[1] In Buddhism, the "power" referred to by this compound term is a group of spiritual or psychic powers that include teleportation and other forms of bodily transformation. Thus, this compound term is usually translated along the lines of "base of power" or "base of spiritual power."[2] In the Buddhist pursuit of Enlightenment, the associated spiritual powers are secondary to the four "base" mental qualities that achieve such powers. These four base mental qualities are: concentration on intention; concentration on effort; concentration on consciousness; and, concentration on investigation. These four base mental qualities are used to develop wholesome mental states and rid oneself of unwholesome mental states.[3]
In traditional Buddhist literature, this set of four mental qualities is one of the seven sets of qualities lauded by the Buddha as conducive to Enlightenment (bodhipakkhiyādhammā).
Contents [hide]
1 Canonical analysis
1.1 Four components
1.2 Corequisites: concentration and striving
1.3 Associated spiritual powers
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
Canonical analysis[edit]
In the Pali Canon, a major source of information on the iddhipāda is in the Samyutta Nikaya, ch. 51, entitled, "Connected Discourses on the Bases for Spiritual Power" (Iddhipāda-saṃyutta).
Four components[edit]
In the "Neglected" discourse (Viraddha Sutta, SN 51.2), it states:
"Bhikkhus, those who have neglected the four bases for spiritual power have neglected the noble path leading to the complete destruction of suffering. Those who have undertaken the four bases for spiritual power have undertaken the noble path leading to the destruction of suffering."[4]
The four bases of such power are concentration (samādhi) on:
Intention or purpose or desire or zeal (chanda)
Effort or energy or will (viriya)
Consciousness or mind or thoughts (citta)
Investigation or discrimination (vīmaṃsā)[5]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe starting point for much of the action on the field is home plate, which is a five-sided slab of whitened rubber, 17 inches square with two of the corners removed so that one edge is 17 inches long, two adjacent sides are 8½ inches and the remaining two sides are 12 inches and set at an angle to make a point. Adjacent to each of the two parallel 8½-inch sides is a batter's box. The point of home plate where the two 12-inch sides meet at right angles is at one corner of a ninety-foot square. The other three corners of the square, in counterclockwise order from home plate, are called first base, second base, and third base. Three canvas bags fifteen inches (38 cm) square mark the three bases. These three bags along with home plate form the four points at the corners of the infield.
All the bases, including home plate, lie entirely within fair territory. Thus, any batted ball that touches those bases must necessarily be in fair territory. While the first and third base bags are placed so that they lie inside the 90 foot square formed by the bases, the second base bag is placed so that its center (unlike first, third and home) coincides exactly with the "point" of the ninety-foot infield square. Thus, although the "points" of the bases are 90 feet apart, the physical distance between each successive pair of base markers is closer to 88 feet.[2]
The lines from home plate to first and third bases extend to the nearest fence, stand or other obstruction and are called the foul lines. The portion of the playing field between (and including) the foul lines is fair territory; the rest is "foul territory." The area in the vicinity of the square formed by the bases is called the infield; fair territory outside the infield is known as the outfield. Most baseball fields are enclosed with a fence that marks the outer edge of the outfield. The fence is usually set at a distance ranging from 300 feet (91 m) to 420 feet (130 m) from home plate. Most professional and college baseball fields have a right and left foul pole. These poles are at the intersection of the foul lines and the respective ends of the outfield fence and, unless otherwise specified within the ground rules, lie in fair territory. Thus, a batted ball that passes over the outfield wall in flight and touches the foul pole is a fair ball and the batter is awarded a home run.
First base[edit]
Main article: First baseman
Left field foul pole at Citi Field in Flushing, Queens.
First base is the first of four bases that must be touched by a player on the batting team in order to score a run. Unlike when an offensive player reaches second or third base, it is permissible for a batter-runner to overrun first base without being in jeopardy of being put out. After contact is made with the base, the batter-runner may slow down and return to first base at his leisure, so long as he makes no move or attempt to advance to second base. The runner cannot be tagged out if he is touching the base with any part of his body.
The first baseman is the defensive player responsible for the area near first base. A professional first baseman is often a slow runner and tall.[citation needed] A tall first baseman presents a large target to which other fielders can throw, and his height gives him a larger range in reaching and catching errant throws. Players who are left-handed are marginally preferable for first base because: first, it is easier for a left-handed fielder to catch a pick-off throw from the pitcher and tag the baserunner; and, second, it is easier for a left handed thrower to make the throw to second base to start a 3-6-3, 3-6-4, or a 3-6-1 double play.[citation needed] Also, a right-handed first baseman must, when setting himself up to receive a throw from an infielder, execute a half-pivot near the base; this is a move that a left-hander need not make (this advantage is very marginal, however). There are three infield positions that can only effectively be occupied by right-handed players: 2nd base, 3rd base, and shortstop. This is because of the time it takes to pivot and set to throw. It takes a left-handed thrower more time to make that pivot and in the fast-paced major league game, that time is critical. As a result, there are fewer positions a left-handed player can occupy, and if that player is not fast, the outfield may not be a good fit.
In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the first baseman is assigned the number '3'.
Second base[edit]
Main article: Second baseman
Second base is the second of four stations on a baseball diamond which must be touched in succession by a base runner in order to score a run for that player's team. Second base is typically defended by the second baseman and the shortstop. Second base is also known as the keystone sack. A runner on second base is said to be in "scoring position," owing to the high likelihood of reaching home plate and scoring a run from second base on most base hits. Since second is the farthest base from home plate, it is the most common target of base stealing. The runner can not be tagged out if he is touching the base with any part of his body.
Ideally, the second baseman and shortstop possess quick hands and feet and the ability to release the ball rapidly and with accuracy. One will usually cover second base when the other attempts to field the ball. Both players must communicate well to be able to make a double play. Particular agility is required of the second baseman in double play situations, which usually forces the player to throw towards first while his momentum carries him in the opposite direction. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the second baseman is assigned the number 4, and the shortstop 6.
Third base[edit]
Andy Wilkins rounds third base following a home run for the 2010 Arkansas Razorbacks baseball team.
Main article: Third baseman
Third base is the third of four bases a baserunner must touch in a counterclockwise succession in order to score a run. Many batted balls that result in the batter being put out (such as a sacrifice fly) may nevertheless allow a runner to reach home plate and score a run from third base, provided that the third and final out is not recorded before he can do so. A runner on third base is therefore particularly valuable to the batting team when fewer than two outs have been recorded. The runner cannot be tagged out if he is touching the base with any part of his body.
The third baseman is the defensive player whose responsibility is to defend the area nearest to third base. A third baseman ideally possesses quick reaction to batted balls and a strong arm to make the long throw to first base. In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the third baseman is assigned the number 5.
Home plate[edit]
"Home plate" redirects here. For other uses, see Home plate (disambiguation).
Home plate of baseball field
Home plate, formally designated home base in the rules, is the final base that a player must touch to score. Unlike the other bases, home plate is a five-sided slab of whitened rubber that is set at ground level. The use of rubber was developed by Robert Keating, who pitched one game for the 1887 Baltimore Orioles. Previously—and more dangerously—the plate was made of stone, iron, or wood.[3]
The dimensions of home plate are 17" across the front, 8.5" down each side, with a triangular rear of two sides of 12". The rear edges are at 45 degrees to the sides, making a point at the back.[1] The plate is white and surrounded by a black strip 3/4" in width. The plate sits entirely in "fair" territory, with the two rear edges aligned with the right and left field foul lines. The length and angle requirements for home plate mandate that it is not a regular pentagon; it is a 17" by 8.5" rectangle with an isosceles triangle of base 17" and equal sides of 12" attached to the back.
50 to 100 feet (15 to 30 meters) behind home plate is the backstop, which is a wall/fence that will stop wild pitches, passed balls, and foul balls. In enclosed stadiums, the backstop is often composed of a lower part, which is like any other part of the wall, and an upper netting to protect spectators seated behind it; in recreational baseball fields, there is usually a tall chain-link fence, including an angled top section, composing the entire backstop.
QMRIn baseball, the fourth out is a legal out made by the defense after three outs in a half-inning already have been recorded. According to the rules, the third out does not cause the ball to become dead; if the fielders make a subsequent out that prevents a run from scoring, this out will supersede the apparent third out, thus becoming the recorded third out. [1] For statistical purposes, the apparent third out is "undone" and the fourth out's result is recorded instead. With the advent of video replay appeals, a new rationale for making extra out(s) has emerged - insurance against a prior out being undone on appeal. These fourth out situations are not the same as four strikeouts in an inning.
QMRSatipaṭṭhāna is the Pāli word for the Buddhist concept of the establishment or foundations of mindfulness. The corresponding word in Sanskrit (Skt.) is smṛtyupasthāna and in Chinese it is ‘mindfulness-place’ (念處).
Satipaṭṭhāna is a compound word, consisting of sati ("to remember"), and upaṭṭhāna ("attendance", underscoring the mental qualities co-existent with or antecedent to mindfulness) or paṭṭhāna ("setting forth," "starting point," "foundation," underscoring the object used to gain mindfulness).
The fourfold "establishment of mindfulness" (Pāli cattāro satipaṭṭhānā) is set out in the Satipatthana Sutta for attaining and maintaining moment-by-moment mindfulness or retention (Sati) of four domains, "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths."[1] The four domains are:[2]
mindfulness of the body;[3][web 1]
mindfulness of feelings or sensations (vedanā);[4]
mindfulness of mind or consciousness (citta);[5] and
mindfulness of dhammās (the elements of the Buddhist teachings).[6]
The Buddha referred to the fourfold establishment of mindfulness as a "direct" or "one-way path" for purification and the realisation of nirvana.[note 1]
The modern Theravadan Buddhism and the Vipassana or Insight Meditation Movement promote satipatthana as key techniques for achieving mindfulness, promoting "mindfulness" as meaning careful attention instead of the recollection of the dhamma.
QMRIn molecular biology, G-quadruplexes (also known as G4-DNA) are structures formed in nucleic acids by sequences that are rich in guanine. Four guanine bases can associate through Hoogsteen hydrogen bonding to form a square planar structure called a guanine tetrad, and two or more guanine tetrads can stack on top of each other to form a G-quadruplex. The quadruplex structure is further stabilized by the presence of a cation, especially potassium, which sits in a central channel between each pair of tetrads.[1] They can be formed of DNA, RNA, LNA, and PNA, and may be intramolecular, bimolecular, or tetramolecular.[2] Depending on the direction of the strands or parts of a strand that form the tetrads, structures may be described as parallel or antiparallel.
QMRQuaternary is the base-4 numeral system. It uses the digits 0, 1, 2 and 3 to represent any real number.
Four is the largest number within the subitizing range and one of two numbers that is both a square and a highly composite number (the other being 36), making quaternary a convenient choice for a base at this scale. Despite being twice as large, its radix economy is equal to that of binary. However, it fares no better in the localization of prime numbers (the next best being the primorial base six, senary).
Quaternary shares with all fixed-radix numeral systems many properties, such as the ability to represent any real number with a canonical representation (almost unique) and the characteristics of the representations of rational numbers and irrational numbers. See decimal and binary for a discussion of these properties.
QMRRNA is transcribed with only four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil),[14] but these bases and attached sugars can be modified in numerous ways as the RNAs mature. Pseudouridine (Ψ), in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C–N bond to a C–C bond, and ribothymidine (T) are found in various places (the most notable ones being in the TΨC loop of tRNA).[15] Another notable modified base is hypoxanthine, a deaminated adenine base whose nucleoside is called inosine (I). Inosine plays a key role in the wobble hypothesis of the genetic code.[16]
Ryan Merkle Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the catalytic component of the ribosomes. Eukaryotic ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S and 5S rRNA. Three of the rRNA molecules are synthesized in the nucleolus, and one is synthesized elsewhere. In the cytoplasm, ribosomal RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome binds mRNA and carries out protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single mRNA at any time.[27] Nearly all the RNA found in a typical eukaryotic cell is rRNA.
In 2012, researchers said that there are four genetically distinct types of the breast cancer and that in each type, hallmark genetic changes lead to many cancers.[58]
In Buddhism, the four Great Elements (Pali: cattāro mahābhūtāni) are earth, water, fire and air. Mahābhūta is generally synonymous with catudhātu, which is Pāli for the "Four Elements."[7] In early Buddhism, the Four Elements are a basis for understanding that leads one through unbinding of 'Rupa' or materiality to the supreme state of pure 'Emptiness' or Nirvana.
Definitions[edit]
In the Pali canon,[8] the most basic elements are usually identified as four in number but, on occasion, a fifth and, to an even lesser extent, a sixth element may be also be identified.
Four primary elements[edit]
In canonical texts, the four Great Elements refer to elements that are both "external" (that is, outside the body, such as a river) and "internal" (that is, of the body, such as blood). These elements are described as follows:
Earth element (pruṭhavī-dhātu)
Earth element represents the quality of solidity or attractive forces. Any matter where attractive forces are in prominence (solid bodies) are called earth elements. Internal earth elements include head hair, body hair, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bone, organs, intestinal material, etc.[9]
Water (or liquid) element (āpa-dhātu)
Water element represents the quality of Liquidity or relative motion. Any matter where relative motion of particles is in prominence are called water elements. Internal water elements include bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, nasal mucus, urine, etc.[10]
Fire element (teja-dhātu)
Fire element represents the quality of heat or energy. Any matter where energy is in prominence are called fire elements. Internal fire elements include those bodily mechanisms that produce physical warmth, ageing, digestion, etc.
Air (or wind) element (vāyu-dhātu)
Air element represents the quality of expansion or repulsive forces. Any matter where repulsive forces are in prominence are called air elements. Internal air elements includes air associated with the pulmonary system (for example, for breathing), the intestinal system ("winds in the belly and ... bowels"), etc.
Any entity that carry one or more of these qualities (attractive forces, repulsive forces, energy and relative motion) are called matter (rupa). The material world is considered to be nothing but a combination of these qualities arranged in space (akasa). The result of these qualities are the inputs to our five senses, color (warna), smell (ghandda), taste (rasa) and sensation of body (ojha). The matter that we perceive in our mind are just a mental interpretation of these qualities.
Fifth and sixth elements[edit]
In addition to the above four elements of underived matter, two other elements are occasionally found in the Pali Canon:[11]
Space element (ākāsa-dhātu)
Internal space elements includes bodily orifices such as the ears, nostrils, mouth, anus, etc.
See also: Prayer flag § Colour and order
Consciousness element (viññāṇa-dhātu)
Described as "pure and bright" (parisuddhaṃ pariyodātaṃ), used to cognise the three feelings (vedana) of pleasure, pain and neither-pleasure-nor-pain, and the arising and passing of the sense contact (phassa) upon which these feelings are dependent.
Sensory qualities, not substances[edit]
Rūpa (matter) means both materiality and sensibility—it signifies, for example, a tactile object both insofar as that object is tactile and that it can be sensed. Rūpa is never a materiality which can be separated or isolated from cognizance; such a non-empirical category is incongruous in the context of early Buddhism. Rūpa is not a substratum or substance which has sensibility as a property. It functions in early Buddhist thought as perceivable physicality. Matter, or rūpa, is defined in its function; what it does, not what it is.[13] As such, the four great elements are conceptual abstractions drawn from the sensorium. They are sensorial typologies, and are not metaphysically materialistic.[14] They are not meant to give an account of matter as constitutive of external, mind-independent reality.[15]
Soteriological uses[edit]
The Four Elements are used in Buddhist texts to both elucidate the concept of suffering (dukkha) and as an object of meditation. The earliest Buddhist texts explain that the four primary material elements are the sensory qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility; their characterisation as earth, water, fire, and air, respectively, is declared an abstraction – instead of concentrating on the fact of material existence, one observes how a physical thing is sensed, felt, perceived.[16]
Understanding suffering[edit]
The Four Elements pertinence to the Buddhist notion of suffering comes about due to:
The Four Elements are the primary component of "form" (rūpa).
"Form" is first category of the "Five Aggregates" (khandhas).
The Five Aggregates are the ultimate basis for suffering (dukkha) in the "Four Noble Truths."
Schematically, this can be represented in reverse order as:
Four Noble Truths → Suffering → Aggregates → Form → Four Elements
Thus, to deeply understand the Buddha's Four Noble Truths, it is beneficial to have an understanding of the Great Elements.
Meditation object[edit]
In the Mahasatipatthana Sutta ("The Greater Discourse on the Foundations of Mindfulness," DN 22), in listing various bodily meditation techniques, the Buddha instructs:
"...Just as if a skilled butcher or his assistant, having slaughtered a cow, were to sit at a crossroads with the carcass divided into portions, so a monk reviews this very body ... in terms of the elements: 'There are in this body the earth-element, the water-element, the fire-element, the air-element.' So he abides contemplating body in body internally...."[17]
In the Visuddhimagga's well-known list of forty meditation objects (kammaṭṭhāna), the great elements are listed as the first four objects.
B. Alan Wallace compares the Theravada meditative practice of "attending to the emblem of consciousness" to the practice in Mahamudra and Dzogchen of "maintaining the mind upon non-conceptuality", which is also aimed at focusing on the nature of consciousness.[18]
Buddhist sources[edit]
In the Pali canon, the Four Elements are described in detail in the following discourses (sutta):
Mahahatthipadompama Sutta ("The Greater Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant's Footprint," MN 28)[19]
Maharahulovada Sutta ("The Greater Discourse of Advice to Rahula," MN 62)[20]
Dhatuvibhanga Sutta ("The Exposition of the Elements," MN 140)[21]
The Four Elements are also referenced in:
Kevaddha Sutta (DN 11)[22]
Mahasatipatthana Sutta (DN 22)
Satipatthana Sutta (MN 10)
Chabbisodhana Sutta (MN 112)
Bahudhatuka Sutta (MN 115)
Kayagatasati Sutta (MN 119)[23]
Anathapindikovada Sutta (MN 143)[24]
Catudhatu-vaggo (SN ch. 14, subch. IV), several discourses[25]
Saddhammapatirupaka Sutta (SN 16.13)[26]
Bija Sutta (SN 22.54)[27]
Asivisa Sutta (SN 35.197 or 35.238)[28]
Kimsuka Sutta (SN 35.204 or 35.245)[29]
Dutiya-mittamacca Sutta (SN 55.17)[30]
various brief Samyutta Nikaya discourses entitled, "Dhatu Sutta" (SN 18.9,[31] SN 25.9,[32] SN 26.9,[33] SN 27.9[34])
Tittha Sutta (AN 3.61)[35]
Nivesaka Sutta (AN 3.75)
Rahula Sutta (AN 4.177)
In addition, the Visuddhimagga XI.27ff has an extensive discussion of the Four Elements.[36]
Islam Chapter
Hinduism Chapter
Judaism Chapter
Other Religions Chapter
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