Science
Physics Chapter
QMRA general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by buses, often made of groups of wires.
Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
Ryan Merkle QMRParts from four early computers, 1962. From left to right: ENIAC board, EDVAC board, ORDVAC board, and BRLESC-I board, showing the trend toward miniaturization.
Ryan Merkle QMRA bank switching scheme allows the memory to be expanded to a maximum of 4 megabytes (MB). The highest 2 address lines from the Z80 are used to select one of the four 8-bit Page Registers in the Dave chip. The output from the selected register is used as the highest 8 bits of the 22-bit address bus, while the lowest 14 bits come directly from the Z80 address bus.[2] Effectively, the 64 kB address space of the Z80 processor is divided into four 16k sections. Any 16k page from the 4 MB address space can be mapped to any of these sections. The lowest two pages (pages 0 and 1) of the 4 MB address space contain system ROM. The next four pages (2 to 5) are reserved for a ROM cartridge (max 64 kB). The top four pages (pages 252 to 255, totaling 64 kB) are used as video RAM, but can be used for storage of program code and data as well. On the 128k model, the additional 64 kB of ram is mapped on pages 248 to 251. The remaining memory space can be used by external devices and memory modules connected to the expansion bus.
Ryan Merkle QMRIn general, analog computers are limited by non-ideal effects. An analog signal is composed of four basic components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and phase. The real limits of range on these characteristics limit analog computers. Some of these limits include the operational amplifier offset, finite gain, and frequency response, noise floor, non-linearities, temperature coefficient, and parasitic effects within semiconductor devices. For commercially available electronic components, ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are always figures of merit.
Ryan Merkle QMRIn physics, Kaluza–Klein theory (KK theory) is a unified field theory of gravitation and electromagnetism built around the idea of a fifth dimension beyond the usual four of space and time. It is considered to be an important precursor to string theory.
The five-dimensional theory was developed in three steps. The original hypothesis came from Theodor Kaluza, who sent his results to Einstein in 1919,[1] and published them in 1921.[2] Kaluza's theory was a purely classical extension of general relativity to five dimensions. The five-dimensional metric has 15 components. Ten components are identified with the four-dimensional spacetime metric, four components with the electromagnetic vector potential, and one component with an unidentified scalar field sometimes called the "radion" or the "dilaton". Correspondingly, the five-dimensional Einstein equations yield the four-dimensional Einstein field equations, the Maxwell equations for the electromagnetic field, and an equation for the scalar field. Kaluza also introduced the hypothesis known as the "cylinder condition", that no component of the five-dimensional metric depends on the fifth dimension. Without this assumption, the field equations of five-dimensional relativity are enormously more complex.[clarification needed] Standard four-dimensional physics seems to manifest the cylinder condition. Kaluza also set the scalar field equal to a constant, in which case standard general relativity and electrodynamics are recovered identically.
In 1926, Oskar Klein gave Kaluza's classical five-dimensional theory a quantum interpretation,[3][4] to accord with the then-recent discoveries of Heisenberg and Schrödinger. Klein introduced the hypothesis that the fifth dimension was curled up and microscopic, to explain the cylinder condition. Klein also calculated a scale for the fifth dimension based on the quantum of charge.
It wasn't until the 1940s that the classical theory was completed, and the full field equations including the scalar field were obtained by three independent research groups:[5] Thiry,[6][7][8] working in France on his dissertation under Lichnerowicz; Jordan, Ludwig, and Müller in Germany,[9][10][11][12][13] with critical input from Pauli and Fierz; and Scherrer [14][15][16] working alone in Switzerland. Jordan's work led to the scalar-tensor theory of Brans & Dicke;[17] Brans and Dicke were apparently unaware of Thiry or Scherrer. The full Kaluza equations under the cylinder condition are quite complex, and most English-language reviews as well as the English translations of Thiry contain some errors. The complete Kaluza equations were recently evaluated using tensor algebra software.[18]
QMRJonathan Haslam from the University of Cambridge characterizes Realism as "a spectrum of ideas."[1] Regardless of which definition is used, the theories of realism revolve around four central propositions:[2]
That states are the central actors in international politics rather than individuals or international organizations,
That the international political system is anarchic as there is no supranational authority that can enforce rules over the states,
That the actors in the international political system are rational as their actions maximize their own self-interest, and
That all states desire power so that they can ensure their own self-preservation.
Ryan Merkle QMRIn western Christian theology, atonement describes how human beings can be reconciled to God through Christ's sacrificial death.[1] Atonement refers to the forgiving or pardoning of sin in general and original sin in particular through the death and resurrection of Jesus,[2] enabling the reconciliation between God and his creation. Within Christianity there are, historically, three[3] or four[4] main theories for how such atonement might work:
Ransom theory/Christus Victor (which are different, but generally considered together as Patristic or "classical", to use Gustaf Aulen's nomenclature, theories, it being argued that these were the traditional understandings of the early Church Fathers);
Moral influence theory, which Aulen considered to be developed by Peter Abelard (called by him the "idealistic" view);
Satisfaction theory developed by Anselm of Canterbury (called by Aulen the "scholastic" view);
The penal substitution theory (which is a refinement of the Anselmian satisfaction theory developed by the Protestant Reformers, especially John Calvin, and is often treated together with the satisfaction view, giving rise to the "three main types" of atonement theories - classical or patristic, scholastic, and idealistic - spoken of by Aulen).[3]
Other theories include recapitulation theory, the "shared atonement" theory[5] and scapegoat theory.
The English word 'atonement' originally meant "at-one-ment", i.e. being "at one", in harmony, with someone.[6] It is used to describe the saving work that God did through Christ to reconcile the world to himself, and also of the state of a person having been reconciled to God.[2][7] Throughout the centuries, Christians have used different metaphors and given differing explanations of the atonement to express how the atonement might work. Churches and denominations may vary in which metaphor or explanation they consider most accurately fits into their theological perspective; however all Christians emphasize that Jesus is the Saviour of the world and through his death the sins of humanity have been forgiven.[8] The four most well known theories are briefly described below:
One of the earliest explanations for how the atonement works is nowadays often called the moral influence theory. In this view the core of Christianity is positive moral change, and the purpose of everything Jesus did was to lead humans toward that moral change. He is understood to have accomplished this variously through his teachings, example, founding of the Church, and the inspiring power of his martyrdom and resurrection. Some scholars suggest this view was universally taught by the Church Fathers in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD,[9][10][11] along with what is called by Aulen the classical or patristic view, which can be variously interpreted as Ransom or Recapitulation, or under the general heading of "Christus Victor".[12] The moral influence theory also enjoyed popularity during the Middle Ages and is most often associated in that period with Peter Abelard. Since the Reformation it has been advocated by modern philosophers like Immanuel Kant, and many theologians such as Hastings Rashdall and Paul Tillich. It remains the most popular view of atonement among theologically liberal Christians. It also forms the basis for René Girard’s "mimetic desire" theory (not to be confused with meme theory). It would be a mistake, however, to read this theory, or any of the theories, in isolation from the others.
The second explanation, first clearly enunciated by Irenaeus,[13] is the "ransom" or "Christus Victor" theory. "Christus victor" and "ransom" are slightly different from each other: in the ransom metaphor Jesus liberates humanity from slavery to sin and Satan and thus death by giving his own life as a ransom sacrifice (Matthew 20:28). Victory over Satan consists of swapping the life of the perfect (Jesus), for the lives of the imperfect (humans). The "Christus Victor" theory sees Jesus not used as a ransom but rather defeating Satan in a spiritual battle and thus freeing enslaved humanity by defeating the captor. This theory 'continued for a thousand years to influence Christian theology, until it was finally shifted and discarded by Anselm'.[14]
The third metaphor, used by the 11th century theologian Anselm, is called the "satisfaction" theory. In this picture humanity owes a debt not to Satan, but to the sovereign God himself. A sovereign may well be able to forgive an insult or an injury in his private capacity, but because he is a sovereign he cannot if the state has been dishonoured. Anselm argued that the insult given to God is so great that only a perfect sacrifice could satisfy, and that Jesus, being both God and man, was this perfect sacrifice. Therefore, the doctrine would be that Jesus gave himself as a “ransom for many”, to God the Father himself.
The next explanation, which was a development by the Reformers[15][16][17][18] of Anselm's satisfaction theory,[19] is the commonly held Protestant "penal substitution theory," which, instead of considering sin as an affront to God’s honour, sees sin as the breaking of God’s moral law. Placing a particular emphasis on Romans 6:23 (the wages of sin is death), penal substitution sees sinful man as being subject to God’s wrath with the essence of Jesus' saving work being his substitution in the sinner's place, bearing the curse in the place of man (Galatians 3:13).[20] A variation that also falls within this metaphor is Hugo Grotius’ "governmental theory", which sees Jesus receiving a punishment as a public example of the lengths to which God will go to uphold the moral order.
QMRIn criminology, social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self-control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial. It derives from functionalist theories of crime and was developed by Ivan Nye (1958), who proposed that there were four types of control:
Direct: by which punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior, and compliance is rewarded by parents, family, and authority figures.
Internal: by which a youth refrains from delinquency through the conscience or superego.
Indirect: by identification with those who influence behavior, say because his or her delinquent act might cause pain and disappointment to parents and others with whom he or she has close relationships.
Control through needs satisfaction, i.e. if all an individual's needs are met, there is no point in criminal activity.
Ryan Merkle QMRNormative Theory – Four Theories of the Press
Ryan Merkle QMRIn astrology, cardinal signs (also called by older astrologers a moveable sign) are associated with leadership, ambition, great force and dynamic qualities that initiates a change. They can be bossy and opinionated.
The word "cardinal" originates from the Latin word for "hinge," since they each mark the turning point of a temperate season. They were called moveable by traditional astrologers because, as Bonatti says, the "air" changes when the Sun enters each of these signs, bringing a change of season.[1] Sometimes the word cardinal is confused with the word angular. Angular signs are those signs which are located on the astrological angles of any given natal chart. Angular houses may be cardinal, fixed or mutable, depending on the birth time of the chart, but only Aries, Cancer, Libra, and Capricorn are cardinal signs.
The four cardinal signs of the Zodiac are:
Aries (Aries.svg): the Sun's passage through which begins the spring in the northern hemisphere, and autumn in the southern hemisphere.
Cancer (Cancer.svg): which begins the summer in the northern hemisphere, and winter in the southern hemisphere.
Libra (Libra.svg): which begins the autumn in the northern hemisphere, and spring in the southern hemisphere.
Capricorn (Capricorn.svg): which begins the winter in the northern hemisphere, and summer in the southern hemisphere.
Ryan Merkle QMRA four-quadrant gate is a type of boom barrier gate protecting a grade crossing. It has a gate mechanism on both sides of the tracks for both directions of automotive traffic. The exit gates blocking the road leading away from the tracks in this application are equipped with a delay, and begin their descent to their horizontal position several seconds after the entrance gates do, so as to avoid trapping highway vehicles on the crossing. Many people consider four-quadrant gates to be safer than two-quadrant gates because they prevent drivers from illegally driving their vehicles around lowered gates to try to beat a train.
In the UK, such crossings are categorised as 'Manually Controlled Barriers' (MCB) because they are always manually controlled, usually from a signal box. Some are known as MCB-CCTV level crossings, because they are supervised by video link to the signal box from which they are remotely controlled.
The first four-quadrant gate in the United States was installed in 1952.[1] They have become common for new installations and replacements since. Unlike the UK, many are automated by the rail line's signal system. The first quad gate installation in the country with sensors to detect vehicles stopped in the tracks was installed in Groton, Connecticut in 1998.[2] Eight of the eleven remaining grade crossings on the Northeast Corridor now have such setups.[3]
Chemistry Chapter
QMRExtended metal atom chains (EMACs) are molecules that consist of a linear string of directly bonded metal atoms, surrounded by organic ligands. These compounds represent the smallest molecular wires. Although such species have no applications, they are researched for the bottom-up approach to nanoelectronics.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Structure
2 Early development and debate
3 Potential applications
4 See also
5 References
Structure[edit]
An EMAC molecule contains a linear string of transition metals (typically Cr, Co, Ni, or Cu) that are bonded to each other and are surrounded helically by four long organic ligands. The metal chains are capped at the ends by anions, usually halides. The four organic ligands are made of repeating pyridylamido units, which contain nitrogen donor atoms. Each metal atom is six-coordinate, bonded to two other metals along the axis of the molecule (except terminal metals, which are bonded to one metal and one capping anion) and to four nitrogen atoms perpendicular to the axis
Biology Chapter
QMRClassically, the course of untreated typhoid fever is divided into four distinct stages, each lasting about a week. Over the course of these stages, the patient becomes exhausted and emaciated.[13]
In the first week, the body temperature rises slowly, and fever fluctuations are seen with relative bradycardia (Faget sign), malaise, headache, and cough. A bloody nose (epistaxis) is seen in a quarter of cases, and abdominal pain is also possible. A decrease in the number of circulating white blood cells (leukopenia) occurs with eosinopenia and relative lymphocytosis; blood cultures are positive for Salmonella typhi or S. paratyphi. The Widal test is negative in the first week.[citation needed]
In the second week, the person is often too tired to get up, with high fever in plateau around 40 °C (104 °F) and bradycardia (sphygmothermic dissociation or Faget sign), classically with a dicrotic pulse wave. Delirium is frequent, often calm, but sometimes agitated. This delirium gives to typhoid the nickname of "nervous fever". Rose spots appear on the lower chest and abdomen in around a third of patients. Rhonchi are heard in lung bases.
The abdomen is distended and painful in the right lower quadrant, where borborygmi can be heard. Diarrhea can occur in this stage: six to eight stools in a day, green, comparable to pea soup, with a characteristic smell. However, constipation is also frequent. The spleen and liver are enlarged (hepatosplenomegaly) and tender, and liver transaminases are elevated. The Widal test is strongly positive, with antiO and antiH antibodies. Blood cultures are sometimes still positive at this stage.
(The major symptom of this fever is that the fever usually rises in the afternoon up to the first and second week.)
In the third week of typhoid fever, a number of complications can occur:
Intestinal haemorrhage due to bleeding in congested Peyer's patches; this can be very serious, but is usually not fatal.
Intestinal perforation in the distal ileum: this is a very serious complication and is frequently fatal. It may occur without alarming symptoms until septicaemia or diffuse peritonitis sets in.
Encephalitis
Respiratory diseases such as pneumonia and acute bronchitis
Neuropsychiatric symptoms (described as "muttering delirium" or "coma vigil"), with picking at bedclothes or imaginary objects.
Metastatic abscesses, cholecystitis, endocarditis, and osteitis
The fever is still very high and oscillates very little over 24 hours. Dehydration ensues, and the patient is delirious (typhoid state). One-third of affected individuals develop a macular rash on the trunk.
Platelet count goes down slowly and risk of bleeding rises.
By the end of third week, the fever starts subsiding (defervescence). This carries on into the fourth and final week.
QMRThe Four Stages of Cruelty is a series of four printed engravings. They were published by the English artist William Hogarth in 1751. Every print is about a different part of life of Tom Nero, a fictional (not real) character.
The First stage of Cruelty shows Nero, when he is a child, hurting a dog. In the Second stage of cruelty, Nero, who is an adult, beats his horse. Then in Cruelty in perfection, he becomes a robber and murders his pregnant lover. At last, in The reward of cruelty, his body is taken from the gallows after he is execution and is cut up into pieces by surgeons.
William Hogarth, who had been very unhappy at the acts of cruelty that he saw on the streets of London, printed the pictures for moral learning. They were printed on cheap paper for poor people. The pictures are rougher and more violent than Hogarth's other works, which usually have touches of humor. He had felt he needed to do this to make people understand his message. However, the pictures still have the small, careful details that Hogarth is famous for.
QMRPurchasing Management Process[edit]
Purchasing Management Process consists usually of four stages:
Purchasing Planning
Purchasing Tracking
Purchasing Reporting
Negotiate
Ryan Merkle QMRThe major survivals of Buddhist art begin in the period after the Mauryans, from which good quantities of sculpture survives from some key sites such as Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati, some of which remain in situ, with others in museums in India or around the world. Stupas were surrounded by ceremonial fences with four profusely carved toranas or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Badami cave temples are a complex of four cave temples located at Badami, a town in the Bagalkot district in the northern part of Karnataka, India. They are considered an example of Indian rock-cut architecture, especially Badami Chalukya architecture dating from the 6th century. Badami was previously known as Vataapi Badami, the capital of the early Chalukya dynasty, which ruled much of Karnataka from the 6th to the 8th century. Situated on the west bank of an artificial lake ringed by an earthen wall with stone steps, Badami is surrounded on the north and south by forts built in later times.
Geography[edit]
Location in India Location in IndiaBadami caves
Location in India
The Badami cave temples are located in the town of Badami in the north-central part of Karnataka, India. The temples are about 70 miles (110 km) northeast from Hubli-Dharwad, the second largest metropolitan area of the state. The Malaprabha River is 3 miles (4.8 km) away. Badami, also referred to as Vatapi, Vatapipuri and Vatapinagari in historical texts,[1] in the 6th century the capital of Chalukya dynasty, is at the exit point of a ravine between two steep mountain cliffs. Four cave temples have been excavated in the escarpment of the hill to the south-east of the town. The escarpment is above an artificial lake called Agastya Lake that is created by an earthen dam faced with stone steps. To the west end of this cliff, at its lowest point, is the first cave temple dedicated to Shiva, followed by a cave dedicated to Vishnu to its north-east but at a much higher level.[2][3] The largest cave is Cave 3, mostly a Vaishnava cave, which is further to the east on the northern face of the hill. The first three caves are dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses including Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva.[4] The fourth cave, Cave 4, dedicated to Jainism, is a short distance away.[1][5][6]
History[edit]
Epigraphy in Kannada language dating the carving of the Cave 3
The cave temples, numbered 1 to 4 in the order of their creation, identified in the town of Badami, the capital city of the Chalukya kingdom (also known as Early Chalukyas[3]) are dated from the late 6th century onwards. The exact dating is known only for Cave 3, which is a Brahmanical temple dedicated to Vishnu. An inscription found here records the creation of the shrine by Mangalesha in Saka 500 (lunar calendar, 578/579 CE). The inscription, written in the Kannada language,[1][7] has enabled the dating of these rock cave temples to the 6th century.[1][8][9]
The Badami caves complex are part of a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site under the title "Evolution of Temple Architecture – Aihole-Badami-Pattadakal" in the Malaprabha river valley, considered a cradle of temple architecture that formed the model for later Hindu temples in the region.[5][10] The artwork in Caves 1 and 2 exhibit the northern Deccan style of the 6th and 7th century, while those in Cave 3 show simultaneously represent two different ancient Indian artistic traditions – the northern Nagara and the southern Dravida styles.[11][12] Cave 3 also shows icons and reliefs in the Vesara style – a creative fusion of ideas from the two styles, as well as some of the earliest surviving historical examples in Karnataka of yantra-chakra motifs and colored fresco paintings.[13][14][15] The first three caves feature sculptures of Hindu icons and legends focusing on Shiva and Vishnu,[16] while Cave 4 features Jain icons and themes.[17]
Temple caves[edit]
Caves on the cliff above the water tank called Agastya Lake
The Badami cave temples are composed of four caves, all carved out of soft Badami sandstone on a hill cliff, dated to the late 6th to 7th centuries. The plan of four caves (1 to 4) is simple. The entrance is a verandah (mukha mandapa) with stone columns and brackets, a distinctive feature of these caves, leading to a columned mandapa, or main hall (also maha mandapa), and then to the small square shrine (sanctum sanctorum, garbhaghrha) cut deep inside the cave.[18] The cave temples are linked by a stepped path with intermediate terraces overlooking the town and lake. The cave temples are labelled 1–4 in their ascending series though this numbering does not reflect the sequence of excavation.[19]
The cave temples are dated to the 6th to 8th century,[20] with an inscription dated to 579–CE.[21] The inscriptions are in old Kannada script. The architecture includes structures built in the Nagara and Dravidian styles, which is the first and most persistent architectural idiom to be adopted by the early chalukyas.[19] There is also a fifth natural cave temple in Badami, a Buddhist temple, a natural cave that can only be entered by crouching on all fours.
Cave 1[edit]
Entrance to Cave 1
Vishnu Badami Caves
Nataraja or Dancing Shiva in Cave 1
The cave is just about 59 feet (18 m) above ground level on the northwest part of the hill. Access is through a series of steps which depict carvings of dwarfish ganas (with "bovine and equine heads") in different postures.[22] The verandah, with an inner measurement of 70 feet (21 m) by 65 feet (20 m), has four columns all sculpted with reliefs of the god Shiva shown in different dancing positions and incarnations.[23] The guardian dwarapalas at the entrance to the cave measures 6.166 feet (1.879 m) in height.[22]
The cave portrays the Tandava-dancing Shiva, as Nataraja.[23][24][16] The image, 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, has 18 arms, in a form that expresses the dance positions arranged in a geometric pattern, which Alice Boner explains is a time division symbolizing the cosmic wheel.[16] While most of the arms express mudras (symbolic hand gestures),[25] some of the arms hold objects such as drums, a trident, and an axe and some also have serpents coiled around them. Shiva has his son Ganesha and the bull Nandi by his side. Adjoining the Nataraja, one wall depicts the goddess Durga,[22] who is depicted slaying the buffalo-demon Mahishasura. Elsewhere, the two sons of Shiva, Ganesha and Kartikkeya, the god of war and family deity of the Chalukya dynasty, are seen in one of the carved sculptures on the walls of the cave, with Kartikkeya riding a peacock.[22][23]
The cave also has carved sculptures of the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati flanking Harihara, a 7.75-foot (2.36 m) high sculpture of a fused image that is half Shiva and half Vishnu.[24] To the right, toward the end of the wall, is a relief sculpture of Ardhanarishvara, a composite androgynous form of Shiva and his consort Parvati.[24] All the figures are adorned with carved ornaments and surrounded by borders with reliefs of various animals and birds. The lotus design is a common theme. On the ceiling are images of the Vidyadhara couples. Through a cleft in the back wall of the cave is a square sanctuary with more carved images.[23]
Other prominent images in the cave are Nandi, the bull, in the sculptural form of Dharmadeva; the god of justice, Bhringi, a devotee of Shiva; a female decorated goddess holding a flat object in her left hand, all of which are part of Ardhanarishvara described earlier.[26] The roof in the cave has five carved panels with the central panel depicting the serpent Shesha. The head and bust are well formed and project boldly from the centre of the coil. In another compartment a bas-relief 2.5 feet (0.76 m) in diameter has carvings of a male and female; the male is Yaksha carrying a sword and the female is Apsara with a flying veil. The succeeding panel has carvings of two small figures; and the panel at the end is carved with lotuses
Cave 2[edit]
Plan of Badami Cave 2, dedicated to Vishnu[28]
Left: Vishnu as Varaha rescuing Earth as Bhudevi. Right: Frieze at Cave 2 entrance
Cave 2, lying to the west of Cave 3[29] and facing north, was created in late 6th century AD. It is almost same as Cave 1 in terms of its layout and dimensions, but it is dedicated primarily to Vishnu. Cave{nbsp}}2 is reached by climbing 64 steps from the first cave. The cave entrance is the verandah, divided by four square pillars, which has carvings from its middle section to the top where there are yali brackets with sculptures within them. The cave is adorned with reliefs of guardians. Like Cave 1, the carved cave art is a pantheon of Hindu divinities.[8][29]
The largest relief in Cave 2 shows Vishnu as Trivikrama, with one foot on Earth and another directed to the north.[8] Other representations of Vishnu in this cave include Varaha (a boar) where he is shown rescuing Bhudevi (a symbol of the earth) from the depths of the ocean, and Krishna avatars, legends found in Hindu Puranas texts such as the Bhagavata Purana.[16][30] Like other major murti (forms) in this and other Badami caves, the Varaha sculpture is set in a circle, the panel is an upright rectangle, states Alice Boner, whose "height is equal to the octopartite directing circle and sides are aligned to essential geometric ratios, in this case to the second vertical chord of the circle".[16]
The doorway is framed by pilasters carrying an entablature with three blocks embellished with gavaksha ornament.[31] The entrance of the cave also has two armed guardians holding flowers rather than weapons. The end walls of the outer verandah are adorned with sculpted panels: to the right, Trivikrama, and to the left, Varaha rescuing Bhudevi, with a penitent multi-headed snake (Nag) below. The adjacent side walls and ceiling have traces of colored paint, suggesting that the cave used to have fresco paintings.[8] The columns show gods and battle scenes, the churning of the cosmic ocean (Samudra Manthan), Gajalakshmi and figures, Brahma, Vishnu asleep on Shesha, illustrations of the birth of Krishna, Krishna's youth, Krishna with gopis, and cows.[8][29]
The ceiling of Cave 2 shows a wheel with sixteen fish spokes in a square frame along with swastikas and flying couples. The end bays have a flying couple and Vishnu on Garuda.[8] The main hall in the cave is 33.33 feet (10.16 m) wide, 23.583 feet (7.188 m) deep, and 11.33 feet (3.45 m) high and is supported by eight square pillars in two rows. The roof of this hall has panels filled with bas-relief carvings. At the upper reaches of the wall, a frieze runs all along the wall with engravings of episodes from the Krishna or Vishnu legends.[29]
The sculptures of Cave 2, like Cave 1, are of the northern Deccan style of the 6th and 7th century similar to that found in Ellora caves.[11]
Cave 3[edit]
Left: Cave 3 is the largest, and dedicated to Vishnu. Right: Vishnu seated on serpent Sesha
Cave 3 is dedicated to Vishnu, and is both the most intricately carved and the biggest cave. It has well-carved giant figures of Trivikrama, Anantasayana, Paravasudeva, Bhuvaraha, Harihara and Narasimha.[8] The theme on which Cave 3 is carved is primarily Vaishnavite; however, the cave also shows Harihara on its southern wall[32]—half Vishnu and half Shiva shown fused as one, making the cave important to Shaivism studies as well.[7][33]
Cave 3, also facing north, is 60 steps away from Cave 2. This cave temple's verandah, 70 feet (21 m) in length with an interior width of 65 feet (20 m), has been sculpted 48 feet (15 m) deep into the mountain, and an added square shrine at the end extends the cave some 12 feet (3.7 m) further inside.[34] The verandah itself is 7 feet (2.1 m) wide and has four free-standing carved pillars separating it from the hall. The cave is 15 feet (4.6 m) high, supported by six pillars each measuring 2.5 feet (0.76 m) square.[35] Each column and pilaster is carved with wide and deep bases crowned by capitals which are partly hidden by brackets on three sides. Each bracket, except for one bracket, has carvings of human figures standing under foliage in different postures, of male and female mythological characters, and an attendant figure of a dwarf. A moulded cornice in the facia, with a dado of blocks below it (generally 7 feet (2.1 m) long), has about thirty compartments carved with series of two fat dwarves called ganas.[35] The cave shows a Kama scene on one pillar, where a woman and man are in maithuna (erotic) embrace beneath a tree.[36]
Left: Cave 3 Trivikrama. Right: Pillar bracket frieze
Cave 3 also shows fresco paintings on the ceiling, but some of these are faded, broken and unclear. These are among the earliest known and surviving evidence of fresco painting in Indian art.[14] The Hindu god Brahma is seen in one of the murals, while the wedding of Shiva and Parvati, attended by various Hindu deities, is the theme of another.[37] There is a lotus medallion on the floor underneath the mural of the four-armed Brahma. The sculpture is well preserved, and a large number of Vishnu's reliefs including standing Vishnu with 8 arms, Vishnu seated on a hooded serpent called Sesha or Ananta on the eastern side of the verandha, Vishnu as Narasimha (half human-half lion), Varaha fully armed,[16] a boar incarnation of Vishnu in the back wall of the cave, Harihara (a syncretic sculpture of Vishnu and Shiva), and Trivikrama avatars. The back wall also has carvings of Vidhyadaras holding offerings to Varaha, and adjoining this is an inscription dated 579 AD with the name Mangalis inscribed on it. At one end of the pilaster there is a sculpture of the fourth incarnation of Vishnu as Vamana shown with eight arms called Ashtabhuja decorated with various types of weapons. A crescent moon is crafted above his face, the crown of Vishnu decorates his head, and he is flanked by Varaha and two other figures, and below on his right is his attendant Garuda. The images in front of Vamana are three figures of Bali and his wife with Shukra, his councillor.[38][39] Reliefs stand 4 metres (13 ft) tall. The culture and clothing embedded in the sixth century is visible in the art sculpted in this cave.[40] The roof in the verandah has seven panels created by cross beams; each is painted in circular compartments with images of Shiva, Vishnu, Indra, Brahma, Kama and so forth, with smaller images of Dikpalas (cardinal guardians) with geometric mosaics filling the gaps at the corners.[41]
The roof of the front aisle has panels with murals in the center of male and female figurines flying in the clouds; the male figure is yaksha holding a sword and a shield. Decoration of lotus blooms are also seen on the panels. The roof in the hall is divided into nine panels slightly above the level of the ceiling. The central panel here depicts a deva mounted on a ram—conjectured to be Agni. Images of Brahma and Varuna are also painted in the central panels while the floating figures are seen in the remaining panels.[29]
Cave 4[edit]
Left: Tirthankara Parshvanath. Right: Mahavira in Jain Cave 4
The Cave 4, to the east of Cave 3, excavated around 650 AD, is located higher than other caves. It is dedicated to revered figures of Jainism and was constructed last among all the caves. It also features detailed carvings and diverse range of motifs.[17][42] The cave has five bayed entrance with four square columns with brackets and capitals, and to the back of this verandah is a hall with two standalone and two joined pillars. The first aisle is a verandah 31 feet (9.4 m) in length, 6.5 feet (2.0 m) wide and extends to 16 feet (4.9 m) deep. From the hall, steps lead to the sanctum sanctorum, which is 25.5 feet (7.8 m) wide extending to a depth of 6 feet (1.8 m). On the back part of this, Mahavira is represented, sitting on lion throne,[43][42] flanked by bas-reliefs of attendants with chauri (fans), sardulas and makara's heads. The end walls have Parshvanath (about 7.5 feet (2.3 m) tall) (right) with his head decorated to represent protection and reverence by a multi-headed cobra,[42] Indrabhuti Gautama covered by four snakes and Bahubali are seen; Bahubali is present to the left of Gautama shown with his lower legs surrounded by snakes along with his daughters Brahmi and Sundari. [44][42] The sanctum, which is adorned by the image of Mahavira, has pedestal which contains an old Kannada inscription of the 12th century A.D. which registers the death of one Jakkave. Many Jaina Tirthankara images have been engraved in the inner pillars and walls. In addition, there are some idols of Yakshas, Yakshis, Padmavati and other Tirthankaras. Some scholars also assign the cave to the
QMRDrapery- The art of drapery has progressed over time. At one point both men and women wore dhotis but around the 14th century that changed and women’s fashion became more intricate thus creating the sari. The drapery involved distinguishes the wearer’s taste, occupation, and social status. The fabrics chosen range from cotton and synthetic fabrics all the way to silk. The fabric chosen depends on what occasion the wearer is going to use the item of clothing for. The draping of the sari comes in four different families: Marvari, Dravidian, Tribal, and Nivi. The family that the wearer chooses depends on the wearer’s personal taste. The way an item of clothing is draped tells a lot about the wearer such as expression of creativity, progression of fashion, and where the user comes from
QMRCommon Symbols[edit]
Extra Limbs-Extra limbs are seen on many of the Hindu deities in paintings and sculptures. The extra limbs show how much power the god is capable of because of their ability to perform many tasks at once. Such as the goddess Sarasvati always has a minimum of four arms. Two of the arms will be playing a vina, representing the tuning of her knowledge, prayer beads in another hand and a scripture in another, both of these items are used to represent her devotion to her spirituality. Since she is the goddess of learning and art we see that she is very capable and very powerful in her area of expertise.[9]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe foremost artists of the Muromachi period are the priest-painters Shūbun and Sesshū. Shūbun, a monk at the Kyoto temple of Shokoku-ji, created in the painting Reading in a Bamboo Grove (1446) a realistic landscape with deep recession into space. Sesshū, unlike most artists of the period, was able to journey to China and study Chinese painting at its source. Landscape of the Four Seasons (Sansui Chokan; c. 1486) is one of Sesshu's most accomplished works, depicting a continuing landscape through the four seasons.
Ryan Merkle QMRTwo examples of traditional Filipino dances are Tinikling and Binasuan and many more. Filipinos have unique folk dances like tinikling where assistants take two long bamboo sticks rapidly and in rhythm, clap sticks for dancers to artistically and daringly try to avoid getting their feet caught between them. Also in the southern part of the Philippines, there is another dance called singkil using long bamboo poles found in tinikling; however, it is primarily a dance showing off lavish Muslim royalty. In this dance, there are four bamboo sticks arranged in a tic-tac-toe pattern in which the dancers exploit every position of these clashing sticks. Dancers can be found trying to avoid all 4 bamboo sticks all together in the middle. They can also try to dance an entire rotation around the middle avoiding all sticks. Usually these stick dances performed in teamwork fashion not solo. The Singkil dance is identifiable with the use of umbrellas and silk clothing.[4]
Ryan Merkle QMRMāori visual art consists primarily of four forms: carving, tattooing (ta moko), weaving and painting. It was rare for any of these to be purely decorative; traditional Māori art was highly spiritual and in a pre-literate society conveyed information about spiritual matters, ancestry, and other culturally important topics. The creation of art was governed by the rules of tapu. Styles varied from region to region: the style now sometimes seen as 'typical' in fact originates from Te Arawa, who maintained a strong continuity in their artistic traditions thanks partly to early engagement with the tourist industry. Most traditional Māori art was highly stylised and featured motifs such as the spiral, the chevron and the koru. The colours black, white and red dominated.
Ryan Merkle QMRTemples and temple pyramids, the latter often containing burials in their base or fill, with sanctuaries on top. The outstanding example are the many clustered dynastic burial temples of Tikal's North Acropolis. The chief Post-Classic temple pyramids of Chichen Itzá and Mayapán evince a radial four-staircase structure.
Ryan Merkle 'E-groups' consisting of a square platform with a low four-stepped pyramid on the west side and an elongated structure, or, alternatively, three small structures, on the eastern side;
'Twin pyramid complexes', with identical four-stepped pyramids on the east and west sides of a small plaza; a building with nine doorways on the south side; and a small enclosure on the north side housing a sculpted stela with its altar and commemorating the king's performance of a k'atun-ending ceremony
Ryan Merkle Altars, rounded or rectangular, sometimes resting on three or four boulder-like legs. They may be wholly or partly figurative (e.g., Copan turtle altar) or have a relief image on top, sometimes consisting of a single Ahau day sign (Caracol, Tonina)
Ryan Merkle Several solutions for dividing up and ordering the stuccoed surfaces of buildings were applied, serialization being one them. The Early Classic walls of the 'Temple of the Night Sun' in El Zotz consist of a series of subtly varied deity mask panels, whereas the frieze of a Balamku palace, also from the Early Classic, originally had a series of four rulers enthroned above the open ophidian mouths of four different animals (a toad among them) associated with symbolic mountains. Conversely, friezes may be centered on a single ruler again sitting on a symbolic (maize) mountain, such as a frieze from Holmul, with two feathered serpents emanating from below the ruler's seat, and another one from Xultun, on which the ruler carries a large ceremonial bar with emerging jaguar-like figures.[20] An Early-Classic temple frieze from Placeres, Quintana Roo, has the large mask panel of a young lord or deity in the middle, with two lateral 'Grandfather' deities extending their arms.
Ryan Merkle QMRSouth American group, which has now diverged into a range of forms that are closely related, but usually classified as four species: llamas, alpacas, guanacos, and vicuñas.
Species Weight Length Height (standing at shoulders)
Eurasian lynx males 18 to 30 kilograms (40 to 66 lb) 81 to 129 centimetres (32 to 51 in) 70 centimetres (28 in)[5]
females 18 kilograms (40 lb)
Canada lynx 8 to 11 kilograms (18 to 24 lb) 80 to 105 centimetres (31 to 41 in) 48 to 56 centimetres (19 to 22 in)[6]
Iberian lynx males 12.9 kilograms (28 lb) 85 to 110 centimetres (33 to 43 in) 60 to 70 centimetres (24 to 28 in)[7][8][9]
females 9.4 kilograms (21 lb)
Bobcat males 7.3 to 14 kilograms (16 to 31 lb)[10] 71 to 100 centimetres (28 to 39 in)[10] 51 to 61 centimetres (20 to 24 in)[11]
Ryan Merkle QMRThere are four primary vital signs: body temperature, blood pressure, pulse (heart rate), and breathing rate (respiratory rate), often notated as BT, BP, HR, and RR.
QMRThere are four primary vital signs which are standard in most medical settings:
Body temperature
Heart Rate or Pulse
Respiratory rate
Blood pressure
The equipment needed is a thermometer, a sphygmomanometer, and a watch. Though a pulse can be taken by hand, a stethoscope may be required for a patient with a very weak pulse.
Temperature[edit]
Temperature recording gives an indication of core body temperature which is normally tightly controlled (thermoregulation) as it affects the rate of chemical reactions.
Temperature can be recorded in order to establish a baseline for the individual's normal body temperature for the site and measuring conditions. The main reason for checking body temperature is to solicit any signs of systemic infection or inflammation in the presence of a fever (temp > 38.5 °C/101.3 °F or sustained temp > 38 °C/100.4 °F), or elevated significantly above the individual's normal temperature. Other causes of elevated temperature include hyperthermia.
Temperature depression (hypothermia) also needs to be evaluated. It is also noteworthy to review the trend of the patient's temperature. A patient with a fever of 38 °C does not necessarily indicate an ominous sign if his previous temperature has been higher. Body temperature is maintained through a balance of the heat produced by the body and the heat lost from the body.
Temperature is commonly considered to be a vital sign most notably in a hospital setting. EMTs (Emergency Medical Technicians), in particular, are taught to measure the vital signs of: respiration, pulse, skin, pupils, and blood pressure as "the 5 vital signs" in a non-hospital setting.[9]
Pulse[edit]
Main article: Pulse
The pulse or heart rate is the rate at which the heart beats while pumping blood through the arteries. Its rate is usually measured either at the wrist or the ankle and is recorded as beats per minute. The pulse commonly taken is from the radial artery at the wrist. Sometimes the pulse cannot be taken at the wrist and is taken at the elbow (brachial artery), at the neck against the carotid artery (carotid pulse), behind the knee (popliteal artery), or in the foot dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial arteries. The pulse rate can also be measured by listening directly to the heartbeat using a stethoscope. The pulse varies with age. A newborn or infant can have a heart rate of about 130–150 beats per minute. A toddler's heart will beat about 100–120 times per minute, an older child's heartbeat is around 60–100 beats per minute, adolescents around 80–100 beats per minute, and adults' pulse rate is anywhere between 50 and 80 beats per minute.
Respiratory rate[edit]
Main article: Respiratory rate
Varies with age, but the normal reference range for an adult is 16–20 breaths/minute (RCP 2012). The value of respiratory rate as an indicator of potential respiratory dysfunction has been investigated but findings suggest it is of limited value. Respiratory rate is clear indicator of acidotic states, as the main function of respiration is removal of CO2 leaving bicarbonate base in circulation.
Blood pressure[edit]
Main article: Blood pressure § Measurement
The blood pressure is recorded as two readings: a high systolic pressure, which occurs during the maximal contraction of the heart, and the lower diastolic or resting pressure. A normal blood pressure would be 120 being the systolic over 80, the diastolic. Usually the blood pressure is read from the left arm unless there is some damage to the arm. The difference between the systolic and diastolic pressure is called the pulse pressure. The measurement of these pressures is now usually done with an aneroid or electronic sphygmomanometer. The classic measurement device is a mercury sphygmomanometer, using a column of mercury measured off in millimeters. In the United States and UK, the common form is millimeters of mercury, whilst elsewhere SI units of pressure are used. There is no natural 'normal' value for blood pressure, but rather a range of values that on increasing are associated with increased risks. The guideline acceptable reading also takes into account other co-factors for disease. Therefore, elevated blood pressure (hypertension) is variously defined when the systolic number is persistently over 140–160 mmHg. Low blood pressure is hypotension. Blood pressures are also taken at other portions of the extremities. These pressures are called segmental blood pressures and are used to evaluate blockage or arterial occlusion in a limb (see Ankle brachial pressure index).
Ryan Merkle QMRA lynx (/ˈlɪŋks/;[2] plural lynx or lynxes[3]) is any of the four species within the Lynx genus of medium-sized wild cats. The name "lynx" originated in Middle English via Latin from the Greek word "λύγξ",[2] derived from the Indo-European root "leuk-", meaning "light, brightness",[4] in reference to the luminescence of its reflective eyes.[4]
Ryan Merkle QMRFour species (P. billbrayi, P. billcollinsi, P. falciparum and P. reichenowi) form a clade within the subgenus Lavernia.
Ryan Merkle QMRPica is the genus of two to four species of birds in the family Corvidae in both the New World and the Old. They have long tails and have predominantly black and white markings. One species ranges widely from Europe through Asia, one occurs in western North America and the third is restricted to California. They are usually considered closely related to the blue and green magpies of Asia, but recent research suggests their closest relatives are instead the Eurasian crows.[1]
Ryan Merkle QMRCockroaches are insects of the order Blattodea, which also includes termites. About 30 cockroach species out of 4,600 are associated with human habitats. Four species are well known as pests.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe steamer ducks are a genus (Tachyeres) of ducks in the family Anatidae. All of the four species occur at the southern cone of South America in Chile and Argentina, and all except the flying steamer duck are flightless; even this one species capable of flight rarely takes to the air.[1] The genus name Tachyeres, "having fast oars" or "fast rower", comes from Ancient Greek ταχυ- "fast" + ἐρέσσω "I row (as with oars)".[citation needed] The common name "steamer ducks" arose because, when swimming fast, they flap their wings into the water as well as using their feet, creating an effect like a paddle steamer.[citation needed][2] They can be aggressive and are capable of chasing off predators like petrels.
They are usually placed in the shelduck subfamily Tadorninae. However, mtDNA sequence analyses of the cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 genes indicate that Tachyeres rather belongs in a distinct clade of aberrant South American dabbling ducks, which also includes the Brazilian, the crested, and the bronze-winged ducks.[3]
There are four species:[1]
Flying steamer duck (Tachyeres patachonicus)
Fuegian steamer duck (Tachyeres pteneres)
Chubut steamer duck (Tachyeres leucocephalus)
Falkland steamer duck (Tachyeres brachypterus)
The Chubut steamer duck was only described in 1981.[1]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe even-toed ungulates (order Artiodactyla) are ungulates (hoofed animals) whose weight is borne approximately equally by the third and fourth toes, rather than primarily by the third toe as are odd-toed ungulates (perissodactyls), such as horses.
QMRBoa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus
Ryan Merkle QMRThe temporal bone consists of four parts[1][2]— the squamous, mastoid, petrous and tympanic parts. The squamous part is the largest and most superiorly positioned relative to the rest of the bone. The zygomatic process is a long, arched process projecting from the lower region of the squamous part and it articulates with the zygomatic bone. Posteroinferior to the squamous is the mastoid part. Fused with the squamous and mastoid parts and between the sphenoid and occipital bones lies the petrous part, which is shaped like a pyramid. The tympanic part is relatively small and lies inferior to the squamous part, anterior to the mastoid part, and superior to the styloid process. The styloid, from the Greek stylos, is a thorn shaped pillar directed inferiorly and anteromedially between the parotid gland and internal jugular vein.[3] An elongated or deviated styloid process can result from calcification of the stylohyoid ligament in a condition known as Eagle syndrome.
Ryan Merkle QMRPeter Brian Gabriel (born 13 February 1950) is an English singer-songwriter, musician and humanitarian activist who rose to fame as the original lead singer and flautist of the progressive rock band Genesis.[1] After leaving Genesis in 1975,[7][8] Gabriel went on to a successful solo career, with "Solsbury Hill" his first single. His 1986 album, So, is his most commercially successful, and is certified triple platinum in the UK and five times platinum in the U.S.[9][10] The album's biggest hit, "Sledgehammer", won a record nine MTV Awards at the 1987 MTV Video Music Awards, and it remains the most played music video in the history of MTV.[11]
Gabriel did not title his first four solo albums, which were all labelled Peter Gabriel using the same typeface, but which featured different cover designs (by Hipgnosis); in all of these designs, Gabriel's face is wholly or partially obscured in some way. The albums are usually differentiated by number in order of release (I, II, III, IV), or by sleeve design, with the first three solo albums often referred to as Car, Scratch and Melt respectively, in reference to their cover artwork. His fourth solo album, also called Peter Gabriel, was titled Security in the U.S. at the behest of Geffen Records.
QMRGenetic history[edit]
Citrus fruits clustered by genetic similarity (PCA of SNP diversity). Citrus micrantha (top right) is a papeda.
-
Hybrids are expected to plot between their parents. ML: ‘Mexican’ lime; A: ‘Alemow’; V: ‘Volkamer’ lemon; M: ‘Meyer’ lemon; L: Regular and ‘Sweet’ lemons; B: Bergamot; H: Haploid clementine; C: Clementines; S: Sour oranges; O: Sweet oranges; G: Grapefruits.
Interbreeding seems possible between all citrus plants, and between citrus plants and some plants which may or may not be categorized as citrus. The ability of citrus hybrids to self-pollinate and to reproduce sexually also helps create new varieties.
The four core ancestral citrus taxa are citron (C. medica), pummelo (C. maxima), mandarine (C. reticulata), and papeda (C. micrantha).[8]
These taxa all interbreed freely, despite being quite genetically distinct. They probably arose through allopatric speciation, with citrons evolving in northern Indochina, pummelos in the Malay Archipelago, and mandarines in Vietnam, southern China, and Japan.[8]
The hybrids of these four taxa include familiar citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines.[1][9][10] In many cases, these crops are propagated asexually, and lose their characteristic traits if bred. However, some of these hybrids have interbred with one another and with the original taxa, making the citrus family tree a complicated network.
There are also groups that interbreed with the four core taxa, but which have not historically be categorized as citrus. The trifoliate orange and kumquats do not naturally interbreed with the four undisputed citrus taxa, due to different flowering times,[11] but hybrids (such as the citrange and calamondin) exist. Australian limes and Clymenia are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea, so they did not naturally interbreed with the four core taxa; but they have been crossbred with mandarins and calamondins by modern breeders.
Humans have deliberately bred new citrus fruits, by propagating wild-found seedlings (e.g. clementines), creating and/or selecting mutations of hybrids, (e.g. Meyer lemon), and crossing different varieties (e.g. 'Australian Sunrise', a finger lime and calamondin cross).
Genetic analysis is starting to make sense of this complex phylogeny.[12] Two citrus fruits have had their full genomes sequenced (sweet orange and clementines). Many different phylogenies for the non-hybrid citrus have been proposed,[12][13][13] and taxonomic terminology is not yet settled.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Belgian Shepherd (also known as the Belgian Sheepdog or Chien de Berger Belge) is a breed of medium-to-large-sized herding dog. It originated in Belgium and is similar to other sheep herding dogs from that region, including the Dutch Shepherd Dog, the German Shepherd Dog, the Briard, and others. Four types have been identified by various registries as separate breeds or varieties: Groenendael, Laekenois, Tervuren, and Malinois.
Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Breed creation and recognition
1.2 Breeds versus varieties controversy
2 Appearance
2.1 Structure
2.2 Groenendael
2.3 Tervuren
3 Temperament
4 Health
4.1 Mortality
4.2 Morbidity
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Breed creation and recognition[edit]
The Laekenois variant
The Malinois variant
In the late 1800s, a group of concerned dog fanciers under the guidance of Professor A. Reul of the Cureghem Veterinary Medical School gathered foundation stock from the areas around Tervuren, Groenendael, Malines, and Laeken in Belgium. Official breed creation occurred around 1891, when the Club du Chien de Berger Belge (Belgian Shepherd Dog Club) was formed in Brussels. The first breed standard was written in 1892, but official recognition did not happen until 1901, when the Royal Saint-Hubert Society Stud Book began registering Belgian Shepherd Dogs.[1]
By 1910, fanciers managed to eliminate the most glaring faults and standardize type and temperament. There has been continued debate about acceptable colours and coat types. Structure, temperament and working ability have never been debated in regards to the standard.
Breeds versus varieties controversy[edit]
In Belgium (the country of origin) all four types are considered to be varieties of a single breed, differentiated by hair colour and texture.[1]:8 In some non-FCI countries and other regions, they are considered separate breeds. For instance, the American Kennel Club (AKC) recognizes only the Groenendael under the name "Belgian Sheepdog",[2] but also recognizes the Tervuren and the Malinois as individual breeds (Belgian Tervuren and Belgian Malinois respectively).[3][4] The Laekenois can be registered as part of the AKC Foundation Stock Service and should eventually be recognised fully by the AKC.[5] In years gone past, the Groenendael and Tervuren were one breed with coat variations until the Belgian Sheepdog Club of America decided to petition the AKC to separate the two.[6]
The New Zealand Kennel Club recognises all four as separate breeds.[7] The Australian National Kennel Council, Canadian Kennel Club, Kennel Union of South Africa, United Kennel Club and the Kennel Club (UK) follow the FCI classification scheme and recognise all four as varieties of the same breed.[8][9][10][11][12
Ryan Merkle QMRBlack tea is a type of tea that is more oxidized than oolong, green and white teas. Black tea is generally stronger in flavor than the less oxidized teas. All four types are made from leaves of the shrub (or small tree) Camellia sinensis. Two principal varieties of the species are used – the small-leaved Chinese variety plant (C. sinensis subsp. sinensis), used for most other types of teas, and the large-leaved Assamese plant (C. sinensis subsp. assamica), which was traditionally mainly used for black tea, although in recent years some green and white have been produced.
Ryan Merkle Black tea is usually graded on one of four scales of quality. Whole leaf teas are highest quality followed by broken leaves, fannings, and dusts. Whole leaf teas are produced with little or no alteration to the tea leaf. This results in a finished product with a coarser texture than that of bagged teas. Whole leaf teas are widely considered the most valuable, especially if they contain leaf tips. Broken leaves are commonly sold as medium grade loose teas. Smaller broken varieties may be included in tea bags. Fannings are usually small particles of tea left over from the production of larger tea varieties, but are occasionally manufactured specifically for use in bagged teas. Dusts are the finest particles of tea left over from production of the above varieties, and are often used for tea bags with very fast, very harsh brews. Fannings and dust are useful in bagged teas because the greater surface area of the many particles allows for a fast, complete diffusion of the tea into the water. Fannings and dusts usually have a darker colour, lack of sweetness, and stronger flavor when brewed.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe four-eyed fishes are a genus, Anableps, of fishes in the family Anablepidae. They have eyes raised above the top of the head and divided in two different parts, so that they can see below and above the water surface at the same time. Like their relatives, the onesided livebearers, four-eyed fishes only mate on one side, right-"handed" males with left-"handed" females and vice versa. These fish inhabit freshwater and brackishwater and are only rarely coastal marine. They originate from lowlands in southern Mexico to Honduras and northern South America.[1]
Ryan Merkle Eyes[edit]
Four-eyed fish have only two eyes, but the eyes are specially adapted for their surface-dwelling lifestyle. The eyes are positioned on the top of the head, and the fish floats at the water surface with only the lower half of each eye underwater. The two halves are divided by a band of tissue and the eye has two pupils, connected by part of the iris. The upper half of the eye is adapted for vision in air, the lower half for vision in water.[1] The lens of the eye also changes in thickness top to bottom to account for the difference in the refractive indices of air versus water.
Ryan Merkle QMRThere are four major categories of rice worldwide: Indica, japonica, aromatic and glutinous.[1]
QMRFour Times of the Day is a series of four paintings by English artist William Hogarth. Completed in 1736, they were reproduced as a series of four engravings published in 1738. They are humorous depictions of life in the streets of London, the vagaries of fashion, and the interactions between the rich and poor. Unlike many of Hogarth's other series, such as A Harlot's Progress, A Rake's Progress, Industry and Idleness, and The Four Stages of Cruelty, it does not depict the story of an individual, but instead focuses on the society of the city. Hogarth intended the series to be humorous rather than instructional; the pictures do not offer a judgment on whether the rich or poor are more deserving of the viewer's sympathies: while the upper and middle classes tend to provide the focus for each scene, there are fewer of the moral comparisons seen in some of his other works.
The four pictures depict scenes of daily life in various locations in London as the day progresses. Morning shows a prudish spinster making her way to church in Covent Garden past the revellers of the previous night; Noon shows two cultures on opposite sides of the street in St Giles; Evening depicts a dyer's family returning hot and bothered from a trip to Sadler's Wells; and Night shows disreputable goings-on around a drunken freemason staggering home near Charing Cross.
Background[edit]
Four Times of the Day was the first set of prints that Hogarth published after his two great successes, A Harlot's Progress (1732) and A Rake's Progress (1735). It was among the first of his prints to be published after the Engraving Copyright Act 1734 (which Hogarth had helped push through Parliament); A Rake's Progress had taken early advantage of the protection afforded by the new law. Unlike Harlot and Rake, the four prints in Times of the Day do not form a consecutive narrative, and none of the characters appears in more than one scene. Hogarth conceived of the series as "representing in a humorous manner, morning, noon, evening and night".[1]
Hogarth took his inspiration for the series from the classical satires of Horace and Juvenal, via their Augustan counterparts, particularly John Gay's "Trivia" and Jonathan Swift's "A Description of a City Shower" and "A Description of the Morning".[2] He took his artistic models from other series of the "Times of Day", "The Seasons" and "Ages of Man", such as those by Nicolas Poussin and Nicholas Lancret, and from pastoral scenes, but executed them with a twist by transferring them to the city. He also drew on the Flemish "Times of Day" style known as points du jour, in which the gods floated above pastoral scenes of idealised shepherds and shepherdesses,[3] but in Hogarth's works the gods were recast as his central characters: the churchgoing lady, a frosty Aurora in Morning; the pie-girl, a pretty London Venus in Noon; the pregnant woman, a sweaty Diana in Evening; and the freemason, a drunken Pluto in Night.[1]
William Hogarth
Self portrait (1758)
Hogarth designed the series for an original commission by Jonathan Tyers in 1736 in which he requested a number of paintings to decorate supper boxes at Vauxhall Gardens.[4] Hogarth is believed to have suggested to Tyers that the supper boxes at Gardens be decorated with paintings as part of their refurbishment; among the works featured when the renovation was completed was Hogarth's picture of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. The originals of Four Times of the Day were sold to other collectors, but the scenes were reproduced at Vauxhall by Francis Hayman, and two of them, Evening and Night, hung at the pleasure gardens until at least 1782.[5]
The engravings are mirror images of the paintings (since the engraved plates are copied from the paintings the image is reversed when printed), which leads to problems ascertaining the times shown on the clocks in some of the scenes. The images are sometimes seen as parodies of middle class life in London at the time, but the moral judgements are not as harsh as in some of Hogarth's other works and the lower classes do not escape ridicule either. Often the theme is one of over-orderliness versus chaos.[6] The four plates depict four times of day, but they also move through the seasons: Morning is set in winter, Noon in spring, and Evening in summer. However, Night—sometimes misidentified as being in September—takes place on Oak Apple Day in May rather than in the autumn.[7]
Evening was engraved by Bernard Baron, a French engraver who was living in London,[8] and, although the designs are Hogarth's it is not known whether he engraved any of the four plates himself. The prints, along with a fifth picture, Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn from 1738, were sold by subscription for one guinea (£155.00 in 2016), half payable on ordering and half on delivery. After subscription the price rose to five shillings per print (£37.00 in 2016), making the five print set four shillings dearer overall.[9] Although Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn was not directly connected to the other prints, it seems that Hogarth always envisaged selling the five prints together, adding the Strolling Actresses as a complementary theme just as he had added Southwark Fair to the subscription for The Rake's Progress. Whereas the characters in Four Times play their roles without being conscious of acting, the company of Strolling Actresses are fully aware of the differences between the reality of their lives and the roles they are set to play. Representations of Aurora and Diana also appear in both.[1][4]
Hogarth advertised the prints for sale in May 1737, again in January 1738, and finally announced the plates were ready on 26 April 1738.[4] The paintings were sold individually at an auction on 25 January 1745, along with the original paintings for A Harlot's Progress, A Rake's Progress and Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn.[10] Sir William Heathcote purchased Morning and Night for 20 guineas and £20 6s respectively (£ 3,100 and £ 3,000 in 2016), and the Duke of Ancaster bought Noon for £38 17s (£ 5,700 in 2016) and Evening for £39 18s (£ 5,900 in 2016). A further preliminary sketch for Morning with some differences to the final painting was sold in a later auction for £21 (£ 3,100 in 2016).[11
Series[edit]
Morning[edit]
Morning (Painting I)
Morning (Plate I)
In Morning, a lady makes her way to church, shielding herself with her fan from the shocking view of two men pawing at the market girls. The scene is the west side of the piazza at Covent Garden, indicated by a part of the Palladian portico of Inigo Jones's Church of St Paul visible behind Tom King's Coffee House, a notorious venue celebrated in pamphlets of the time. Henry Fielding mentions the coffee house in both The Covent Garden Tragedy and Pasquin. At the time Hogarth produced this picture, the coffee house was being run by Tom's widow, Moll King, but its reputation had not diminished. Moll opened the doors once those of the taverns had shut, allowing the revellers to continue enjoying themselves from midnight until dawn.[12] The Mansion House with columned portico visible in the centre of the picture, No. 43 King Street, is attributed to architect Thomas Archer (later 1st Baron Archer) and occupied by him at the date of Hogarth's works.[13] It was situated on the north side of the piazza, while the coffee house was on the south side, as depicted in Hogarth's original painting. In the picture, it is early morning and some revellers are ending their evening: a fight has broken out in the coffee house and, in the melée, a wig flies out of the door. Meanwhile, stallholders set out their fruit and vegetables for the day's market. Two children who should be making their way to school have stopped, entranced by the activity of the market, in a direct reference to Swift's A Description of the Morning in which children "lag with satchels in their hands".[2] Above the clock is Father Time and below it the inscription Sic transit gloria mundi.[a] The smoke rising from the chimney of the coffee house connects these portents to the scene below.
Hogarth replicates all the features of the pastoral scene in an urban landscape. The shepherds and shepherdesses become the beggars and whores, the sun overhead is replaced by the clock on the church, the snow-capped mountains become the snowy rooftops. Even the setting of Covent Garden with piles of fruit and vegetables echoes the country scene. In the centre of the picture the icy goddess of the dawn in the form of the prim churchgoer is followed by her shivering red-nosed pageboy, mirroring Hesperus, the dawn bearer. The woman is the only one who seems unaffected by the cold, suggesting it may be her element. Although outwardly shocked, the dress of the woman, which is too fashionable for a woman of her age and in the painting is shown to be a striking acid yellow, may suggest she has other thoughts on her mind.[4] She is commonly described as a spinster, and considered to be a hypocrite, ostentatiously attending church and carrying a fashionable ermine muff while displaying no charity to her freezing footboy or the half-seen beggar before her. The figure of the spinster is said to be based on a relative of Hogarth, who, recognising herself in the picture, cut him out of her will. Fielding later used the woman as the model for his character of Bridget Allworthy in Tom Jones.[12]
The spinster is assaulted by St. Francis in Battle of the Pictures.
A trail of peculiar footprints shows the path trodden by the woman on her pattens to avoid putting her good shoes in the snow and filth of the street.[14] A small object hangs at her side, interpreted variously as a nutcracker or a pair of scissors in the form of a skeleton or a miniature portrait, hinting, perhaps, at a romantic disappointment. Although clearly a portrait in the painting, the object is indistinct in the prints from the engraving. Other parts of the scene are clearer in the print, however: in the background, a quack is selling his cureall medicine, and while in the painting the advertising board is little more than a transparent outline, in the print, Dr. Rock's name can be discerned inscribed on the board below the royal crest which suggests his medicine is produced by royal appointment. The salesman may be Rock himself.[15] Hogarth's opinion of Rock is made clear in the penultimate plate of A Harlot's Progress where he is seen arguing over treatments with Dr Misaubin while Moll Hackabout dies unattended in the corner.
Hogarth revisited Morning in his bidding ticket, Battle of the Pictures, for the auction of his works, held in 1745. In this, his own paintings are pictured being attacked by ranks of Old Masters; Morning is stabbed by a work featuring St. Francis as Hogarth contrasts the false piety of the prudish spinster with the genuine piety of the Catholic saint.[16][b]
Noon[edit]
Noon (Painting II)
Noon (Plate II)
The scene takes place in Hog Lane, part of the slum district of St Giles with the church of St Giles in the Fields in the background. Hogarth would feature St Giles again as the background of Gin Lane and First Stage of Cruelty. The picture shows Huguenots leaving the French Church in what is now Soho. The Huguenot refugees had arrived in the 1680s and established themselves as tradesmen and artisans, particularly in the silk trade; and the French Church was their first place of worship. Hogarth contrasts their fussiness and high fashion with the slovenliness of the group on the other side of the road; the rotting corpse of a cat that has been stoned to death lying in the gutter that divides the street is the only thing the two sides have in common.[c] The older members of the congregation wear traditional dress, while the younger members wear the fashions of the day. The children are dressed up as adults: the boy in the foreground struts around in his finery while the boy with his back to the viewer has his hair in a net, bagged up in the "French" style.[17]
The crying boy in Hogarth's work is based on this infant in the foreground of Poussin's first rendition of the Rape of the Sabine Women.
At the far right, a black man fondles the breasts of a woman, distracting her from her work,[18] her pie-dish "tottering like her virtue".[19] Confusion over whether the law permitted slavery in England, and pressure from abolitionists, meant that by the mid-eighteenth century there was a sizeable population of free black Londoners; but the status of this man is not clear.[20] The black man, the girl and bawling boy fill the roles of Mars, Venus and Cupid which would have appeared in the pastoral scenes that Hogarth is aping. In front of the couple, a boy has set down his pie to rest, but the plate has broken, spilling the pie onto the ground where it is being rapidly consumed by an urchin. The boy's features are modelled on those of a child in the foreground of Poussin's first version of the Rape of the Sabine Women (now held in the Metropolitan Museum of Art),[21] but the boy crying over his lost pie was apparently sketched by Hogarth after he witnessed the scene one day while he was being shaved.
The composition of the scene juxtaposes the prim and proper Huguenot man and his immaculately dressed wife and son with these three, as they form their own "family group" across the other side of the gutter.[4] The head of John the Baptist on a platter is the advertisement for the pie shop, proclaiming "Good eating". Below this sign are the embracing couple, extending the metaphor of good eating beyond a mere plate of food, and still further down the street girl greedily scoops up the pie, carrying the theme to the foot of the picture. I. R. F. Gordon sees the vertical line of toppling plates from the top window downwards as a symbol of the disorder on this side of the street.[1] The man reduced to a head on the sign, in what is assumed to be the woman's fantasy, is mirrored by the "Good Woman" pictured on the board behind who has only a body, her nagging head removed to create the man's ideal of a "good woman".[22] In the top window of the "Good Woman", a woman throws a plate with a leg of meat into the street as she argues, providing a stark contrast to the "good" woman pictured on the sign below.[23] Ronald Paulson sees the kite hanging from the church as part of a trinity of signs; the kite indicating the purpose of the church, an ascent into heaven, just as the other signs for "Good Eating" and the "Good Woman" indicate the predilections of those on that side of the street;[22] but he also notes it as another nod to the pastoral tradition: here instead of soaring above the fields it hangs impotently on the church wall.[4]
The time is unclear. Allan Cunningham states it is half past eleven,[24] and suggests that Hogarth uses the early hour to highlight the debauchery occurring opposite the church, yet the print shows the hands at a time that could equally be half past twelve,[25] and the painting shows a thin golden hand pointing to ten past twelve.
In this scene more than any of the others Hogarth's sympathies seem to be with the lower classes and more specifically with the English. Although there is disorder on the English side of the street, there is an abundance of "good eating" and the characters are rosy-cheeked and well-nourished. Even the street girl can eat her fill. The pinch-faced Huguenots, on the other hand, have their customs and dress treated as mercilessly as any characters in the series.[17] A national enmity towards the French, even French refugees, may explain why the English are depicted somewhat more flatteringly here than they are by figures in the accompanying scenes. Hogarth mocked continental fashions again in Marriage à-la-mode (1743–1745) and made a more direct attack on the French in The Gate of Calais which he painted immediately upon returning to England in 1748 after he was arrested as a spy while sketching in Calais.[1]
Evening[edit]
Evening (Painting III)
Evening (Plate III)
Unlike the other three images, Evening takes place slightly outside the built-up area of the city, with views of rolling hills and wide evening skies. The cow being milked in the background indicates it is around 5 o'clock. While in Morning winter cold pervades the scene, Evening is oppressed by the heat of the summer. A pregnant woman and her husband attempt to escape from the claustrophobic city by journeying out to the fashionable Sadler's Wells (the stone entrance to Sadler's Wells Theatre is shown to the left). By the time Hogarth produced this series the theatre had lost any vestiges of fashionability and was satirised as having an audience consisting of tradesmen and their pretentious wives. Ned Ward described the clientele in 1699 as:[26]
Butchers and bailiffs, and such sort of fellows,
mixed with a vermin train'd up for the gallows,
As Bullocks and files, housebreakers and padders,
With prize-fighters, sweetners, and such sort of traders,
Informers, thief-takers, deer stealers, and bullies.
The husband, whose stained hands reveal he is a dyer by trade, looks harried as he carries his exhausted youngest daughter. In earlier impressions (and the painting), his hands are blue, to show his occupation, while his wife's face is coloured with red ink. The placement of the cow's horns behind his head represents him as a cuckold and suggests the children are not his. Behind the couple, their children replay the scene: the father's cane protrudes between the son's legs, doubling as a hobby horse, while the daughter is clearly in charge, demanding that he hand over his gingerbread. A limited number of proofs missing the girl and artist's signature were printed;[27] Hogarth added the mocking girl to explain the boy's tears.[9]
The heat is made tangible by the flustered appearance of the woman as she fans herself (the fan itself displays a classical scene—perhaps Venus, Adonis and Cupid);[28] the sluggish pregnant dog that looks longingly towards the water; and the vigorous vine growing on the side of the tavern. As is often the case in Hogarth's work, the dog's expression reflects that of its master.[29] The family rush home, past the New River and a tavern with a sign showing Sir Hugh Myddleton, who bankrupted himself financing the construction of the river to bring running water into London in 1613 (a wooden pipe lies by the side of the watercourse). Through the open window other refugees from the city can be seen sheltering from the oppressive heat in the bar. While they appear more jolly than the dyer and his family, Hogarth pokes fun at these people escaping to the country for fresh air only to reproduce the smoky air and crowded conditions of the city by huddling in the busy tavern with their pipes.[30]
Night[edit]
Night (Painting IV)
Night (Plate IV)
The final picture in the series, Night, shows disorderly activities under cover of night in the Charing Cross Road, identified by Hubert Le Sueur's equestrian statue of Charles I of England and the two pubs;[31] this part of the road is now known as Whitehall. In the background the passing cartload of furniture suggests tenants escaping from their landlord in a "moonlight flit". In the painting the moon is full, but in the print it appears as a crescent.
The night is 29 May, Oak Apple Day, a public holiday which celebrated the Restoration of the monarchy, demonstrated by the oak boughs above the barber's sign and on some of the subjects' hats, which recall the royal oak tree in which Charles II hid after losing the Battle of Worcester in 1651.
Charing Cross was a central staging post for coaches, but the congested narrow road was a frequent scene of accidents; here, a bonfire has caused the Salisbury Flying Coach to overturn. Festive bonfires were usual but risky: a house fire lights the sky in the distance. A link-boy blows on the flame of his torch,[4] street-urchins are playing with the fire, and one of their fireworks is falling in at the coach window.
On one side of the road is a barber surgeon whose sign advertises Shaving, bleeding, and teeth drawn with a touch. Ecce signum! Inside the shop, the barber, who may be drunk,[32] haphazardly shaves a customer, holding his nose like that of a pig, while spots of blood darken the cloth under his chin. The surgeons and barbers had been a single profession since 1540 and would not finally separate until 1745, when the surgeons broke away to form the Company of Surgeons.[33] Bowls on the windowsill contain blood from the day's patients.
Underneath the windowshelf, a homeless family have made a bed for themselves.
In the foreground, a drunken freemason, identified by his apron and set square medallion as the Worshipful Master of a lodge, is being helped home by his Tyler, as the contents of a chamber pot are emptied onto his head from a window. In some of the prints, a woman standing back from the window looks down on him, suggesting that his soaking is not accidental. The freemason is traditionally identified as Sir Thomas de Veil, who was a member of Hogarth's first Lodge, Henry Fielding's predecessor as the Bow Street magistrate, and the model for Fielding's character Justice Squeezum in The Coffee-House Politician (1730). He was unpopular for his stiff sentencing of gin-sellers, which was deemed to be hypocritical as he was known to be an enthusiastic drinker. He is supported by his Tyler, a servant equipped with sword and candle-snuffer, who may be Brother Montgomerie, the Grand Tyler.[34]
All around are pubs and brothels. The Earl of Cardigan tavern is on one side of the street, and opposite is the Rummer, whose sign shows a rummer (a short wide-brimmed glass) with a bunch of grapes on the pole. Masonic lodges met in both taverns during the 1730s, and the Lodge at the Rummer and Grapes in nearby Channel Row was the smartest of the four founders of the Grand Lodge. The publican is adulterating a hogshead of wine, a practice recalled in the poetry of Matthew Prior who lived with his uncle Samuel Prior, the Landlord successively of both the Rummer and Grapes and the Rummer".[31]
My uncle, rest his soul, when living,
Might have contriv'd me ways of thriving;
Taught me with cider to replenish
My vats, or ebbing tide of Rhenish.
On either side of the street are signs for The Bagnio and The New Bagnio. Ostensibly a Turkish bath, bagnio had come to mean a disorderly house.[35]
The 6th Earl of Salisbury scandalised society by driving and upsetting a stagecoach.[36] John Ireland suggests that the overturned "Salisbury Flying Coach" below the "Earl of Cardigan" sign was a gentle mockery of the Grand Master 4th Earl of Cardigan, George Brudenell, later Duke of Montagu, who was also renowned for his reckless carriage driving,;[37] and it also mirrors the ending of Gay's "Trivia" in which the coach is overturned and wrecked at night.[2]
Reception[edit]
Four Times of the Day was the first series of prints that Hogarth had issued since the success of the Harlot and Rake (and would be the only set he would issue until Marriage à-la-mode in 1745), so it was eagerly anticipated. On hearing of its imminent issue, George Faulkner wrote from Dublin that he would take 50 sets.[38] The series lacks the moral lessons that are found in the earlier series and revisited in Marriage à-la-mode, and its lack of teeth meant it failed to achieve the same success, though it has found an enduring niche as a snapshot of the society of Hogarth's time. At the auction of 1745, the paintings of Four Times of the Day raised more than those of the Rake; and Night, which is generally regarded as the worst of the series, fetched the highest single total. Cunningham commented sarcastically: "Such was the reward then, to which the patrons of genius thought these works entitled".[39] While Horace Walpole praised the accompanying print, Strolling Actresses Dressing in a Barn, as being the finest of Hogarth's works, he had little to say of Four Times of the Day other than that it did not find itself wanting in comparison with Hogarth's other works.[40]
Morning and Night are now in the National Trust Bearsted Collection at Upton House, Warwickshire. The collection was assembled by Walter Samuel, 2nd Viscount Bearsted and gifted to the Trust, along with the house, in 1948. Noon and Evening remain in the Ancaster Collection at Grimsthorpe Castle, Lincolnshire.[41]
QMRThere are thousands of Capsicum cultivars grown worldwide.[1]
There are four or five major species of cultivated Capsicum, and within those species are several "taxonomic varieties". The species and varieties include many economically important cultivars with different shapes, colours, and flavours that are grown for different purposes. Some confusion has resulted from the legal term "plant variety", which is used interchangeably with "cultivar" (not with "taxonomic variety").
Major species and their taxonomic varieties:[2]
Capsicum annuum, which includes bell peppers, cayenne, paprika and jalapeños
Capsicum annuum var. glabriusculum
Capsicum baccatum, which includes ají amarillo, ají limon and criolla sella
Capsicum baccatum var. pendulum
Capsicum baccatum var. praetermissum, which includes cumari
Capsicum chinense, which includes habanero, sometimes included within C. annuum[3]
Capsicum pubescens, which includes rocoto
Capsicum frutescens is sometimes distinguished as a species separate from C. annuum,[4] while other botanists consider it and C. annuum to be conspecific.[5]
Due to the large and changing number of cultivars, and the variation of cultivar namings in different regions, this list should not be considered complete or final.
QMR"There are four types of rice traded globally: indica, japonica, aromatic, and glutinous."
QMRThe technique for total rehabilitation of the edentulous patient or for patients with badly broken down teeth, decayed teeth or compromised teeth due to gum disease, known as the All-on-4 treatment concept, is a prosthodontics procedure.[1][2] The All-on-4 or simply All on 4 or All on Four concept was developed, institutionalized and systematically analyzed in the 1990s through studies funded by Nobel Biocare in collaboration with a Portuguese dentist Paulo Maló.[3][4] It consists of the rehabilitation of the edentulous maxilla and mandible with fixed prosthesis by placing four implants in the anterior maxilla, where bone density is higher. The four implants support a fixed prosthesis with 12 to 14 teeth and it is placed immediately on the day of surgery. All-on-4 is a registered trademark of Nobel Biocare.[5][6][7][8]
Psychology Chapter
QMrExistential psychotherapy is a philosophical method of therapy that operates on the belief that inner conflict within a person is due to that individual's confrontation with the givens of existence.[1] These givens, as noted by Irvin D. Yalom, are: the inevitability of death, freedom and its attendant responsibility, existential isolation, and finally meaninglessness. These four givens, also referred to as ultimate concerns, form the body of existential psychotherapy and compose the framework in which a therapist conceptualizes a client's problem in order to develop a method of treatment. In the British School of Existential therapy (Cooper, 2003), these givens are seen as predictable tensions and paradoxes of the four dimensions of human existence, the physical, social, personal and spiritual realms (Umwelt, Mitwelt, Eigenwelt and Überwelt). The Viennese School of Existential therapy (Längle, 2003b) describes four fundamental existential dimensions as a structural model of therapy. Their accomplishment (therapeutically endorsed by the method of Personal Existential Analysis) leads to personal existential fulfillment.
Ryan Merkle QMRMax Scheler (1874-1928) developed a philosophical anthropology on the basis of a material ethic of values ("Materielle Wertethik") such opposing Immanuel Kant's ethics of duty ("Pflichtethik"). He described a hierarchical system of values that further developed phenomenological philosophy. He described the human psyche as of four layers in analogy of the layers of the organic nature, but in the human being it is opposed by the principle of the human spirit. - Scheler's philosophy formes the basis of Viktor Frankl's Logotherapy and Existential Analysis.
Four worlds[edit]
Existential thinkers seek to avoid restrictive models that categorize or label people. Instead they look for the universals that can be observed cross-culturally.[citation needed] There is no existential personality theory which divides humanity into types or reduces people to part components. Instead, there is a description of the different levels of experience and existence with which people are inevitably confronted. The way in which a person is in the world at a particular stage can be charted on this general map of human existence (Binswanger, 1963; Yalom, 1980; van Deurzen, 1984).
In line with the view taken by van Deurzen,[5] one can distinguish four basic dimensions of human existence: the physical, the social, the psychological, and the spiritual. On each of these dimensions, people encounter the world and shape their attitude out of their particular take on their experience. Their orientation towards the world defines their reality. The four dimensions are obviously interwoven and provide a complex four-dimensional force field for their existence. Individuals are stretched between a positive pole of what they aspire to on each dimension and a negative pole of what they fear.
Physical dimension On the physical dimension (Umwelt), individuals relate to their environment and to the givens of the natural world around them. This includes their attitude to the body they have, to the concrete surroundings they find themselves in, to the climate and the weather, to objects and material possessions, to the bodies of other people, their own bodily needs, to health and illness and to their own mortality. The struggle on this dimension is, in general terms, between the search for domination over the elements and natural law (as in technology, or in sports) and the need to accept the limitations of natural boundaries (as in ecology or old age). While people generally aim for security on this dimension (through health and wealth), much of life brings a gradual disillusionment and realization that such security can only be temporary. Recognizing limitations can bring great release of tension.
Social dimension On the social dimension (Mitwelt), individuals relate to others as they interact with the public world around them. This dimension includes their response to the culture they live in, as well as to the class and race they belong to (and also those they do not belong to). Attitudes here range from love to hate and from cooperation to competition. The dynamic contradictions can be understood in terms of acceptance versus rejection or belonging versus isolation. Some people prefer to withdraw from the world of others as much as possible. Others blindly chase public acceptance by going along with the rules and fashions of the moment. Otherwise they try to rise above these by becoming trendsetters themselves. By acquiring fame or other forms of power, individuals can attain dominance over others temporarily. Sooner or later, however, everyone is confronted with both failure and aloneness.
Psychological dimension On the psychological dimension (Eigenwelt), individuals relate to themselves and in this way create a personal world. This dimension includes views about their own character, their past experience, and their future possibilities. Contradictions here are often experienced in terms of personal strengths and weaknesses. People search for a sense of identity, a feeling of being substantial and having a self. But inevitably many events will confront them with evidence to the contrary and plunge them into a state of confusion or disintegration. Activity and passivity are an important polarity here. Self-affirmation and resolution go with the former and surrender and yielding with the latter. Facing the final dissolution of self that comes with personal loss and the facing of death might bring anxiety and confusion to many who have not yet given up their sense of self-importance.
Spiritual dimension On the spiritual dimension (Überwelt) (van Deurzen, 1984), individuals relate to the unknown and thus create a sense of an ideal world, an ideology, and a philosophical outlook. It is here that they find meaning by putting all the pieces of the puzzle together for themselves. For some people, this is done by adhering to a religion or other prescriptive world view; for others, it is about discovering or attributing meaning in a more secular or personal way. The contradictions that must be faced on this dimension are often related to the tension between purpose and absurdity, hope and despair. People create their values in search of something that matters enough to live or die for, something that may even have ultimate and universal validity. Usually the aim is the conquest of a soul, or something that will substantially surpass mortality (as for instance in having contributed something valuable to humankind). Facing the void and the possibility of nothingness are the indispensable counterparts of this quest for the eternal.
A structuring into the first three of these dimensions was proposed by Binswanger on the basis of Heidegger's description of Umwelt and Mitwelt and his further notion of Eigenwelt. The fourth dimension was added by van Deurzen on the basis of Heidegger's description of a spiritual world (Überwelt) in Heidegger's later work.[5][6]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential-humanistic, and systems or family therapy
QMRTypes of crowds[edit]
There is limited research into the types of crowd and crowd membership and there is no consensus as to the classification of types of crowds. Two recent scholars, Momboisse (1967)[12] and Berlonghi (1995)[13] focused upon purpose of existence to differentiate among crowds. Momboisse developed a system of four types: casual, conventional, expressive, and aggressive. Berlonghi classified crowds as spectator, demonstrator, or escaping, to correlate to the purpose for gathering.
Another approach to classifying crowds is sociologist Herbert Blumer's system of emotional intensity. He distinguishes four types of crowds: casual, conventional, expressive, and acting. His system is dynamic in nature. That is, a crowd changes its level of emotional intensity over time, and therefore, can be classed in any one of the four types.
QMRBuddhism and psychology overlap in theory and in practice. Since the beginning of the 20th century, four strands of interplay have evolved:
descriptive phenomenology: Western and Buddhist scholars have found in Buddhist teachings a detailed introspective phenomenological psychology (particularly in the Abhidhamma which outlines various traits, emotions and personality types).
psychotherapeutic meaning: humanistic psychotherapists have found in Buddhism's non-dualistic approach and enlightenment experiences (such as in Zen kensho) the potential for transformation, healing and finding existential meaning. In 1993 Oliver Kress published a theory explaining this connection by introducing the process of initiation.[1]
clinical utility: some contemporary mental-health practitioners increasingly find ancient Buddhist practices (such as the development of mindfulness) of empirically proven therapeutic value.[citation needed]
popular psychology and spirituality: psychology has been popularized[by whom?], and has become blended with spirituality in some forms of modern spirituality. Buddhist notions form an important ingredient of this modern mix.
David Brazier[edit]
See also: Four Noble Truths § David Brazier: existence is imperfect
David Brazier is a psychotherapist who combines psychotherapy and Buddhism. Brazier points to various possible translations of the Pali terms of the Four Noble Truths, which give a new insight into these truths. The traditional translations of samudhaya and nirodha are "origin" and "cessation". Coupled with the translation of dukkha as "suffering", this gives rise to a causal explanation of suffering, and the impression that suffering can be totally terminated. The translation given by David Brazier[13] gives a different interpretation to the Four Noble Truths.
Dukkha: existence is imperfect, it's like a wheel that's not straight into the axis;
Samudhaya: simultaneously with the experience of dukkha there arises tanha, thirst: the dissatisfaction with what is and the yearning that life should be different from what it is. We keep imprisoned in this yearning when we don't see reality as it is, namely imperfect and ever-changing;
Nirodha: we can confine this yearning (that reality is different from what it is), and perceive reality as it is, whereby our suffering from the imperfectness becomes confined;
Marga: this confinement is possible by following the Eightfold Path.
In this translation, samudhaya means that the uneasiness that's inherent to life arises together with the craving that life's event would be different. The translation of nirodha as confinement means that this craving is a natural reaction, which cannot be totally escaped or ceased, but can be limited, which gives us freedom.[13]
Mark Epstein[edit]
See also: Four Noble Truths § Mark Epstein: the inevitability of humiliation in our lives
Mark Epstein relates the Four Noble Truths to primary narcissism as described by Donald Winnicott in his theory on the True self and false self.[14][15] The first truth highlights the inevitability of humiliation in our lives of our narcissistic self-esteem. The second truth speaks of the primal thirst that makes such humiliation inevitable. The third truth promises release by developing a realistic self-image, and the fourth truth spells out the means of accomplishing that.[16][17]
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)[edit]
ACT did not explicitly emerge from Buddhism, but its concepts often parallel ideas from Buddhist and mystical traditions.[26][27] ACT has been defined by its originators as a method that "uses acceptance and mindfulness processes, and commitment and behavioral activation processes to produce psychological flexibility.".[28]
Mindfulness in ACT is defined to be a combination of four aspects of the psychological flexibility model, which is ACT's applied theory:
Acceptance (openness to and engagement with present experience);
Cognitive defusion (attending to the ongoing process of thought instead of automatically interacting with events as structured by prediction, judgment, and interpretation);
Contact with the present moment (attention to the present external and internal world in a manner that is flexible, fluid, and voluntary);
A transcendent sense of self or "self as context" (an interconnected sense of consciousness that maintains contact with the "I/Here/Nowness" of awareness and its interconnection with "You/There/Then").[28]
These four aspects of mindfulness in ACT are argued to stem from Relational Frame Theory, the research program on language and cognition that underlies ACT at the basic level. For example, "self as context" is argued to emerge from deictic verbal relations such as I/You, or Here/There, which RFT laboratories have shown to help establish perspective taking skills and interconnection with others.[29][30]
Most ACT self-help books (e.g.,[31]) and many tested ACT protocols teach formal contemplative practice skills, but by this definition of mindfulness, such defusion skills as word repetition (taking a difficult thought, distilling it to a single word, and saying it repeatedly out loud for 30 seconds) are also viewed as mindfulness methods.
Ryan Merkle QMRDrawing from positive psychology constructs and empirical research, four psychological resources were determined to best meet the POB scientific criteria: Hope, Efficacy, Resilience, and Optimism and were termed by Luthans and colleagues as psychological Capital or PsyCap [4][5][6] In combination, the four constructs making up PsyCap were empirically determined to be a second-order, core construct that had a stronger relationship with satisfaction and performance than each of the components by itself.[7] The four components are defined as follows:
Hope – Is defined as a positive motivational state where two basic elements - successful feeling of agency (or goal oriented determination) and pathways (or proactively planning to achieve those goals) interact.
Self efficacy – Is defined as people's confidence in their ability to achieve a specific goal in a specific situation.
Optimism – was defined by Seligman by Attribution theory (Fritz Heider, 1958). An Optimistic person is defined as one that makes "Internal" or "dispositional", fixed and global attributions for positive events and "External" or "situational", not fixed and specific attributions to negative events. Optimism in Psycap is thought as a realistic construct that regards what an employee can or cannot do, as such, optimism reinforces efficacy and hope.
Resilience – Is defined in Positive Psychology as a positive way of coping with adversity or distress. In organizational aspect, it is defined as an ability to recuperate from stress, conflict, failure, change or increase in responsibility.
Ryan Merkle QMRToday, most sports sociologists identify with at least one of four essential theories that define the relationship between sports and society, namely structural functionalism, conflict theory, critical theory, and symbolic interactionism.
QMrDurkheim's concept[edit]
Durkheim (1858–1917) claimed that deviance was in fact a normal and necessary part of social organization.[1] When he studied deviance he stated four important functions of deviance.
"Deviance affirms cultural values and norms. Any definition of virtue rests on an opposing idea of vice: There can be no good without evil and no justice without crime".[2]
Deviance defines moral boundaries, people learn right from wrong by defining people as deviant.
A serious form of deviance forces people to come together and react in the same way against it.
Deviance pushes society's moral boundaries which, in turn leads to social change.
QMRThe four roles of criminal psychologists[edit]
In 1981, one of the fathers of UK's criminal psychology – Professor Lionel Haward – described four ways that psychologist may perform upon being professionally involved in criminal proceedings. These are the following:
Clinical: In this situation the psychologist is involved in assessment of individual in order to provide a clinical judgment. The psychologist can use assessment tools, interview or psychometric tool in order to aid in his/her assessment. These assessments can help police or other competitive organs determine how to process the individual in question. For example, help finding out whether he/she is capable to stand trial or whether the individual has mental illness which means, that he/she is unable to understand the proceedings.
Experimental: In this case the task of psychologist is to perform a research in order to inform a case. This can involve executing experimental tests for the purposes of illustrating a point or providing further information to courts. This may involve false memory, eyewitness credibility experiments and such. For example, this way questions similar to “how likely would a witness see an object in 100 meters?” will be answered.
Actuarial: This role involves usage of statistics in order to inform a case. For example, a psychologist may be asked to provide probability of an event occurring. Therefore, the courts may ask how likely a person will reoffend if a sentence is declined.
Advisory: Here a psychologist may advice police about how to proceed with the investigation. For example, which is the best way to interview the individual, how best cross-examine a vulnerable or another expert witness, how an offender will act after committing the offence.[5]
Ryan Merkle QMREducational psychology dates back to the time of Aristotle and Plato. Plato and Aristotle researched individual differences in the field of education, training of the body and the cultivation of psycho-motor skills, the formation of good character, the possibilities and limits of moral education. Some other educational topics they spoke about were the effects of music, poetry, and the other arts on the development of individual, role of teacher, and the relations between teacher and student.[4] Plato saw knowledge as an innate ability, which evolves through experience and understanding of the world. Such a statement has evolved into a continuing argument of nature vs. nurture in understanding conditioning and learning today. Aristotle observed the phenomenon of "association." His four laws of association included succession, contiguity, similarity, and contrast. His studies examined recall and facilitated learning processes [5]
QMRThe 4 I’s culture cycle[edit]
The 4 I's cultural model was developed by Hazel Rose Markus and Alana Conner in their book Clash! 8 Cultural Conflicts That Make Us Who We Are. In it, they refer to the mutually constitutive nature of culture and individual as a "culture cycle." The culture cycle consists of four layers (Individuals, Interactions, Institutions, Ideas) of cultural influence that help to explain the interaction between self and culture.[19]
Individuals[edit]
The first “I” concerns how an individual thinks about and expresses itself. Studies show that in the United States, individuals are more likely think of him or herself as “independent,” “equal,” and “individualistic.” Individuals have characteristics that are consistent across time and situation. When asked to describe themselves, Americans are likely to use adjectives to describe their personalities like, “energetic,” “friendly,” or “hard-working.” In Japan, studies show that individuals are more likely to think of themselves as “obligated to society,” “interdependent,” and “considerate.” The self is adaptable to the situation. Japanese individuals are therefore more likely to describe themselves in relation to others, such as “I try not to upset anyone,” or “I am a father, a son, and a brother.”[28]
Interactions[edit]
Interactions with other people and products reinforce cultural behaviors on a daily basis. Stories, songs, architecture, and advertisements are all methods of interaction that guide individuals in a culture to promote certain values and teach them how to behave.[19] For example, in Japan, no-smoking signs emphasize the impact that smoke has on others by illustrating the path of smoke as it affects surrounding people. In the US, no-smoking signs focus on individual action by simply saying “No Smoking.” These signs reflect underlying cultural norms and values, and when people see them they are encouraged to behave in accordance with the greater cultural values.
Institutions[edit]
The next layer of culture is made up of the institutions in which everyday interactions take place. These determine and enforce the rules for a society and include legal, government, economic, scientific, philosophical, and religious bodies. Institutions encourage certain practices and products while discouraging others. In Japanese kindergartens, children learn about important cultural values such as teamwork, group harmony, and cooperation. During “birthday month celebration,” for example, the class celebrates all the children who have birthdays that month. This institutional practice underscores the importance of a group over an individual. In US kindergartens, children learn their personal value when they celebrate their birthdays one by one, enforcing the cultural value of uniqueness and individualism. Everyday institutional practices such as classroom birthday celebrations propagate prominent cultural themes.[19]
Ryan Merkle Empathy Across Cultures[edit]
These differences in values across cultures suggests that understanding and expressing empathy may be manifested differently throughout varying cultures. Duan and Hill[38] first discussed empathy in subcategories of intellectual empathy: taking on someone’s thoughts/perspective, also known as cognitive empathy[39] and emotional empathy: taking on someone’s feeling/experience. Duan, Wei, and Wang [40] furthered this idea to include empathy in terms of being either dispositional (capacity for noticing/understanding empathy) or experiential (specific to a certain context or situation, observing the person and empathizing). This created four types of empathy to further examine: 1) dispositional intellectual empathy; 2) dispositional empathic emotion; 3) experienced intellectual empathy; and 4) experienced empathic emotion. These four branches allowed researchers to examine empathic proclivities among individuals of different cultures. While individualism was not shown to correlate with either types of dispositional empathy, collectivism was shown to have a direct correlation with both types of dispositional empathy, possibly suggesting that by having less focus on the self, there is more capacity towards noticing the needs of others. More so, individualism predicted experienced intellectual empathy, and collectivism predicted experienced empathic emotion. These results are congruent with the values of collectivistic and individualistic societies. The self-centered identity and egoistic motives prevalent in individualistic cultures, perhaps acts as a hindrance in being open to (fully) experiencing empathy.
Ryan Merkle Another barrier to intercultural empathy is that there is often a power dynamic between different cultures. Bridging an oppressed culture with their (upper-echelon) oppressor is a goal of intercultural empathy. One approach to this barrier is to attempt to acknowledge one’s personal oppression.[47] While this may be minimal in comparison to other people’s oppression, it will still help with realizing that other people have been oppressed.[47] The goal of bridging the gap should focus on building an alliance by finding the core commonalities of the human experience; this shows empathy to be a relational experience, not an independent one. Through this, the goal is that intercultural empathy can lend toward broader intercultural understanding across cultures and societies. Four important facets of cultural empathy are:[43]
• Taking the perspective of someone from a different culture
• Understanding the verbal/behavioral expression that occurs during ethnocultural empathy
• Being cognizant of how different cultures are treated by larger entities such as the job market and the media
• Accepting differences in cultural choices regarding language, clothing preference, food choice, etc.
These four aspects may be especially helpful for practicing cultural competence in a clinical setting. Given that most psychological practices were founded on the parochial ideals of Euro-American psychologists, cultural competence was not considered much of a necessity until said psychologists increasingly began seeing clients with different ethnic backgrounds.[44] Many of the problems that contribute to therapy not being beneficial for people of color include: therapy having an individual focus, an emphasis on expressiveness, and an emphasis on openness.[48] For more on intercultural competence see Intercultural Competence.
Ryan Merkle QMRIn Combatting Cult Mind Control Hassan describes his personal experiences with the Unification Church, as well as his theory of the four components of mind control. The sociologist Eileen Barker, who has studied the Unification Church, has commented on the book.[12] She expressed several concerns but nevertheless recommended the book. The book has been reviewed in the American Journal of Psychiatry,[13] and in the The Lancet,[14] and has been favorably reviewed by Philip Zimbardo[15] and Margaret Singer.[16]
Ryan Merkle QMR4TRK Mind is the third studio album by American rapper/producer Exile. It was released on October 4, 2011, on Soulspazm. The album features guest appearances by Alphabet Four and Blu.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Four Level Interchange (officially the Bill Keene Memorial Interchange) was the first stack interchange in the world.[1] Completed in 1949 and fully opened in 1953 at the northern edge of Downtown Los Angeles, California, United States, it connects U.S. Route 101 (Hollywood Freeway and Santa Ana Freeway) to State Route 110 (Harbor Freeway and Arroyo Seco Parkway).
Ryan Merkle QMRKirkpatrick's four levels are designed as a sequence of ways to evaluate training programs. Many practitioners believe that as you proceed through each of the levels, the evaluation becomes more difficult and requires more time. Clomedia.com Editor suggests "it is best to look at the levels as a categorization scheme (i.e., their original purpose) in order to guide your staff in what levels to apply to the evaluation task".[1] In practice, then, it is common for trainers to get stuck in Levels 1 and 2 and never proceed to Levels 3 and 4, where the most useful data exist. Today, Kirkpatrick-certified facilitators stress "starting with the end in mind," essentially beginning with Level 4 and moving backward in order to better establish the desired outcome before ever planning the training program. When done strategically, reaching these levels does not have to be any more expensive or time consuming, but will still help to ensure on-the-job performance of learned behaviors and skills.
The four levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation model are as follows:
Reaction - what participants thought and felt about the training (satisfaction; "smile sheets")
Learning - the resulting increase in knowledge and/or skills, and change in attitudes. This evaluation occurs during the training in the form of either a knowledge demonstration or test.
Behavior - transfer of knowledge, skills, and/or attitudes from classroom to the job (change in job behavior due to training program). This evaluation occurs 3–6 months post training while the trainee is performing the job. Evaluation usually occurs through observation.
Results - the final results that occurred because of attendance and participation in a training program (can be monetary, performance-based, etc.)
Several authors have suggested an addition of a fifth level of evaluation. JJ Phillips has argued for the addition of a Return on Investment (ROI) level, which is essentially about comparing the fourth level of the standard model to the overall costs of training.[2] Roger Kaufman has argued that ROI is essentially a Level 4 type of evaluation because it is still internal to the organization and that a fifth level of evaluation should focus on the impact of the organization on external clients and society.[3][4][5]
QMRDavid Wilkinson described four modes of leadership in his 2006 book, The Ambiguity Advantage.
Contents [hide]
1 Mode vs style
2 Modes, problem solving, and decision making
3 Modes
4 Democratic leadership
5 References
6 Further reading
Mode vs style[edit]
In situational leadership theory, styles of leadership refer to behaviors that a leader should engage with[clarification needed] in different situations. By comparison, modes are different systems or levels of thinking, logic, and development from which people, and particularly leaders, view the world. Individuals either stay in one mode all of their life or move from one mode to another, in order, as they mature and develop. There is evidence[clarification needed] that different people start naturally in different modes depending on their degree of maturity.
Modes, problem solving, and decision making[edit]
The four modes of leadership reflect differing views of the world and therefore different ways of seeing and solving problems, based on the work of Ronald A. Heifetz:
Technical problems
Cooperative problems
Adaptive problems
Generative problems (added by Wilkinson in 2006)
Modes[edit]
There are four validated[who?] modes. Each mode describes a levels of ability to deal with increasing degrees of ambiguity and complexity.
Mode One – Technical Leadership. These leaders usually deal with ambiguity by denial or creating their own certainty. They are also more dictatorial and are very risk averse by nature.
Mode Two – Cooperative Leadership. The aim of mode two leaders is to disambiguate uncertainty and to build teams around them to mitigate risk.
Mode Three – Collaborative Leadership. Mode three leaders have a tendency towards consensual methods of leadership. They prefer to work towards aligning team members values and getting agreement. Their approach to ambiguity is for the group to examine it.
Mode Four – Generative Leadership. These leaders use ambiguity to find opportunity. They tend to be inveterate learners and innovators.
As of 2008, two additional modes[clarification needed] are being researched.[who?]
Democratic leadership[edit]
Philosopher Eric Thomas Weber suggests a new mode of leadership, which he calls "democratic leadership." This mode of leadership abandons the assumption that "leadership is a special or unique class of persons." Rather, leadership is viewed as a process "and one in which all citizens can engage." [1] Weber combines the radical democracy of John Dewey and the Virtue ethics of Plato to explicate this new way to conceptualize leadership.
The fifth is questionable
QMRAgile Leadership is associated with mode four leaders (Modes of Leadership) who have the ability (and agility) to operate in any mode (system of thinking) and most importantly see from the perspectives of the other modes. It is this ability to think in a number of different ways that gives such leaders their agility. This is also introduced within the concepts of Agile Business Management[1] as the primary management model for adaptive and agile organisations.
Ryan Merkle QMRMeyer, J. C. (2000). "Humour as a double-edged sword: Four functions of humour in communication." Communication Theory, 10, 310–331.
Jump up ^
QMRThe Stages of Creative Visualization[edit]
According to the computational theory of imagery,[71][72][73] which is derived from experimental psychology, the process of Creative Visualization comprises four stages:[74][75][76][77][78][79][80]
Stage 1 is 'Image Generation'. This involves generating mental imagery, from memory, from fantasy, or a combination of both.[81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91]
Stage 2 is 'Image Maintenance'. This involves the intentional sustaining or maintaining of imagery, without which a mental image is subject to rapid decay, and does not remain for sufficient duration to proceed to the next stages.[92]
Stage 3 is 'Image Inspection'. In this stage, once generated and maintained, a mental image is inspected and explored, elaborated in detail, and interpreted in relation to the participant.[93] This often involves a scanning process, by which the participant directs attention across and around an image, simulating shifts in perceptual perspective.[94][95][96][97][98][99]
Stage 4 is 'Image Transformation'. In this stage, the participant transforms, modifies, or alters the content of generated mental imagery, in such a way as to substitute images that provoke negative feelings, are indicative of suffering and exacerbate psychological pain, or that reaffirm disability or debilitation, for those that elicit positive emotion, and are suggestive of autonomy, ability to cope, and an increased degree of mental aptitude and physical ability.[100][101][102][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111]
Ryan Merkle QMRFourplay is a contemporary American jazz quartet. The original members of the group were Bob James (keyboards), Lee Ritenour (guitars), Nathan East (bass), and Harvey Mason (drums).[1] In 1997, Lee Ritenour left the group and Fourplay chose Larry Carlton as his replacement. In 2010, Larry Carlton left Fourplay and was replaced by Chuck Loeb.[2]
Ryan Merkle QMRPiaget's theory stops at the formal operational stage, but other researchers have observed the thinking of adults is more nuanced than formal operational thought. This fifth stage has been named post formal thought or operation.[72][73] Post formal stages have been proposed. Michael Commons presented evidence for four post formal stages: systematic, meta-systematic, paradigmatic, and cross-paradigmatic (Commons & Richards, 2003, p. 206-208; Oliver, 2004, p. 31).[74][75][76] There are many theorists, however, who have criticized "post formal thinking," because the concept lacks both theoretical and empirical verification. The term "integrative thinking" has been suggested for use instead.[77][78][79][80][81]
Sociology Chapter
Ryan Merkle In the early afternoon of Saturday, December 22, 1984, four African American men from the Bronx—Barry Allen, Troy Canty, Darrell Cabey (all 19) and James Ramseur (18)—boarded a downtown 2 train (Broadway – Seventh Avenue Line express) carrying screwdrivers, apparently on a mission to steal money from video arcade machines in Manhattan.[20] When the train arrived at the 14th Street station in Manhattan, 15 to 20 other passengers remained with them in R22 subway car 7657,[21][22] the seventh car of the ten-car train.[23][24]
Ryan Merkle QMRIn 1946, a mob of white men shot and killed two young African-American couples near Moore's Ford Bridge in Walton County, Georgia 60 miles east of Atlanta. This lynching of four young sharecroppers, one a World War II veteran, shocked the nation. The attack was a key factor in President Harry S. Truman's making civil rights a priority of his administration. Although the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) investigated the crime, they were unable to prosecute. It was the last documented lynching of so many people in one incident.[65]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Four Hitokiri of the Bakumatsu (幕末四大人斬り Bakumatsu Shidai Hitokiri?) was a term given to four samurai during the Bakumatsu era in Japanese history. The four men were Kawakami Gensai, Kirino Toshiaki (also known as Nakamura Hanjirō), Tanaka Shinbei, and Okada Izō. They opposed the Tokugawa shogunate (and later, supported the Meiji Emperor). These four samurai were warrior elite and widely considered undefeatable by normal people. The word hitokiri literally means "manslayer" or "man cutter," as the kanji 人 means person, while 斬 can alternatively mean slay or cut.
Ryan Merkle QMR"The Big Four" was the name popularly given to the famous and influential businessmen, philanthropists and railroad tycoons who built the Central Pacific Railroad, (C.P.R.R.), which formed the western portion through the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains of the First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States, built from the mid-continent at the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean during the middle and late 1860s.[1] Composed of Leland Stanford, (1824–1893), Collis Potter Huntington, (1821–1900), Mark Hopkins, (1813–1878), and Charles Crocker, (1822–1888), the four themselves however, personally preferred to be known as "The Associates."[2]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Cambridge Spy Ring were a ring of spies recruited in part by Soviet scout Arnold Deutsch in the United Kingdom, who passed information to the Soviet Union during World War II and was active at least into the early 1950s. Four members of the ring were originally identified: Kim Philby (cryptonym: Stanley), Donald Duart Maclean (cryptonym: Homer), Guy Burgess (cryptonym: Hicks) and Anthony Blunt (cryptonym: Johnson). Once jointly known as the Cambridge Four and later as the Cambridge Five, the number increased as more evidence came to light.
Ryan Merkle QMRMaurice Clemmons (February 6, 1972 – December 1, 2009) was an American who was responsible for the November 29, 2009, murder of four police officers in Parkland, Washington.[1] After evading police for two days following the shooting, Clemmons was shot and killed by a police officer in Seattle.
Prior to his involvement in the shooting, Clemmons had at least five felony convictions in Arkansas and at least eight felony charges in Washington.[2] His first incarceration began in 1989, at age 17. Facing sentences totaling 108 years in prison, the burglary sentences were reduced in 2000 by Governor of Arkansas Mike Huckabee to 47 years, which made him immediately eligible for parole. The Arkansas Parole Board unanimously moved to release him in 2000. Clemmons was subsequently arrested on other charges and was jailed several times. In the months prior to the Parkland shooting, he was in jail on charges of assaulting a police officer and raping a child. One week prior to the Parkland shooting, he was released from jail after posting a $150,000 bail bond.
Clemmons' murder of four police officers represents the largest number of law enforcement officers killed by one man in a single incident in U.S. history.
Ryan Merkle QMROn Sunday, November 29, 2009, four Lakewood, Washington police officers were murdered at the former Forza Coffee Co. coffee shop, which was located at 11401 Steele Street South in the Parkland unincorporated area of Pierce County, Washington. One gunman, later identified as Maurice Clemmons, entered the coffee shop, fired at the officers as they sat working on their laptop computers preparing for their shifts, and then fled the scene.[1][2] After a two-day manhunt that spanned several cities in the Puget Sound region, the gunman was shot and killed by a Seattle Police Department officer in south Seattle after refusing orders to stop.[3]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe shooting of Amadou Diallo occurred on February 4, 1999, when Amadou Diallo, a 22-year-old immigrant from Guinea, was shot and killed by four New York City Police Department plain-clothed officers: Sean Carroll, Richard Murphy, Edward McMellon and Kenneth Boss. The officers fired a combined total of 41 shots, 19 of which struck Diallo, outside his apartment at 1157 Wheeler Avenue in the Soundview section of The Bronx. The four were part of the now-defunct Street Crimes Unit. All four officers were charged with second-degree murder and acquitted at trial in Albany, New York.[1]
Ryan Merkle QMRAlfa Romeo Automobiles S.p.A. (Italian pronunciation: [ˈalfa roˈmɛːo]) is an Italian car manufacturer. It has a cross in its logo
Ryan Merkle QMRThe Groveland Four (or the Groveland Boys) were four young African-American men: Ernest Thomas, Charles Greenlee, Samuel Shepherd and Walter Irvin, who were accused of raping a 17-year-old white woman in Lake County, Florida, USA, in 1948. Thomas was killed as a suspect by a posse after leaving the area; Greenlee, Shepherd and Irvin were beaten while in jail to coerce confessions, but Irvin refused to confess falsely. The three survivors were each convicted at trial by an all-white jury; Greenlee was sentenced to life because he was only 16 at the time of the event; the other two were sentenced to death. A retrial was ordered by the United States Supreme Court after hearing their appeals, led by Thurgood Marshall of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund.
Ryan Merkle QMRChannon Gail Christian, 21, and Hugh Christopher Newsom, Jr., 23, were an unmarried couple from Knoxville, Tennessee. They were kidnapped the evening of January 6, 2007 when Christian's vehicle was carjacked, and taken to a rental house, where they were raped, tortured, and murdered.[1][2] Five people were arrested and charged in the case. The grand jury indicted four of the suspects on counts of capital murder, robbery, kidnapping, rape, and theft, while a fifth was indicted on federal charges of carjacking.
Of the four charged at the state level, three (Letalvis D. Cobbins, Lemaricus Davidson, and George Thomas) had multiple prior felony convictions. After a jury trial, Lemaricus Davidson was convicted and sentenced to death by lethal injection. Letalvis Cobbins and George Thomas were convicted and sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. Vanessa Coleman was convicted and sentenced to 35 years in prison for facilitating the crimes, and Eric Dewayne Boyd was convicted and sentenced to 18 years in federal prison for being an accessory after the fact to carjacking.[3]
Ryan Merkle QMRThe attack on Reginald Denny was an incident in the 1992 Los Angeles riots in which Denny, a white construction truck driver, was beaten nearly to death by a group of black assailants who came to be known as the "L.A. Four". The attack was captured on video by a news helicopter, and broadcast live on US national television.
Ryan Merkle QMROn March 3, 1991, video tape captured Rodney King, a black man, being repeatedly beaten by a group of LAPD officers. At their criminal trial more than a year later, on April 29, 1992, all four police officers were acquitted when the jury could not reach a verdict. The result sparked outrage about racism across the country, especially in South Central Los Angeles and South East Los Angeles where large groups of blacks took to the streets, many shouting "Black justice!" and "No justice, no peace!" Some of these protests and other large gatherings devolved into mob violence and destruction, in what became known as the 1992 Los Angeles riots.
Ryan Merkle The "L.A. Four Plus"[edit]
The "L.A. Four" was a nickname given to the first four men charged with the attack on Denny: Damian Williams, Henry Watson, Antoine Miller and Gary Williams. Two additional men, Anthony Brown and Lance Parker, were also charged with the attack on Denny but not until after the "L.A. Four" nickname had spread. The six were redubbed the "L.A. Four Plus".[2]
QMR1860 presidential election[edit]
The divisions became fully exposed with the 1860 presidential election. The electorate split four ways. The Southern Democrats endorsed slavery, while the Republicans denounced it. The Northern Democrats said democracy required the people to decide on slavery locally, state by state and territory by territory. The Constitutional Union Party said the survival of the Union was at stake and everything else should be compromised.
Ryan Merkle Four generations of a slave family photographed during the Civil War, Smith's Plantation, Beaufort, South Carolina, 1862
QMRRetaking of the prison and retaliation[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2014)
As the demands were not met, negotiations broke down, and the mood among the inmates deteriorated. It appeared as though Gov. Rockefeller remained opposed to the inmates' demands, and they became restless. Defensive trenches had been dug, metal gates had been electrified, crude battlements were fashioned out of metal tables and dirt, gasoline was put in position to be lit in the event of conflict and the "Times Square" prison command center was fortified. The inmates brought four corrections officers to the top of the command center and threatened to slit their throats. Reporters in helicopters circling the prison reported that the hostages in D yard were also being prepared for killing. Gov. Rockefeller had ordered that the prison be retaken that day if negotiations failed. Situation commander Oswald, seeing the danger to the hostages, ordered that the prison be retaken by force. Of the decision, he later said "On a much smaller scale, I think I have some feeling now of how Truman must have felt when he decided to drop the A-bomb."[11]
At 9:46 a.m. on Monday, September 13, 1971, tear gas was dropped into the yard and New York State Police troopers and soldiers from the New York National Guard[12] opened fire non-stop for two minutes into the smoke. Among the weapons used by the troopers were shotguns, which led to the wounding and killing of hostages and inmates who were not resisting.[13] Former prison officers were allowed to participate, a decision later called "inexcusable" by the commission established by Rockefeller to study the riot and the aftermath.[10] By the time the facility was retaken, nine hostages and 29 inmates had been killed. A tenth hostage died on October 9, 1972, of gunshot wounds received during the assault.[14]
The final death toll from the riot also included the officer fatally injured at the start of the riot and four inmates who were subject to vigilante killings. Nine hostages died from gunfire by state troopers and soldiers.[4][15] The New York State Special Commission on Attica wrote, "With the exception of Indian massacres in the late 19th century, the State Police assault which ended the four-day prison uprising was the bloodiest one-day encounter between Americans since the Civil War."[15][16]
QMRZombies
There are two confirmed Zombies storylines in Call of Duty: Black Ops III at the time of its reveal. The first story, "Shadows of Evil", focuses on a new group of characters: Nero Blackstone (Jeff Goldblum), Jessica Rose (Heather Graham), Jack Vincent (Neal McDonough) and Floyd Campbell (Ron Perlman), who reside in the fictional Morg City. Treyarch describes the new characters as "troubled individuals" with "a long and sordid history of past misdeeds". The four characters are thrown into a twisted version of the city, overrun by zombies, and are guided by a mysterious, unreliable figure called the Shadowman (Robert Picardo).[7]
"Shadows of Evil" acts as a prologue that leads into the core storyline, starting with "The Giant", which focuses on the alternate versions of the original characters: Tank Dempsey (Steven Blum), Nikolai Belinski (Fred Tatasciore), Takeo Masaki (Tom Kane) and Edward Richtofen (Nolan North), who were introduced in the Black Ops II map "Origins". Their story continues from where "Origins" left off, as they attempt to rewrite the other timelines' history. Other characters include the leader of Group 935, Doctor Ludvig Maxis (also voiced by Tatasciore), and his daughter Samantha.[8]
Story
In the year 1942, in Morg City, resides four individuals: Jessica Rose, Jack Vincent, Floyd Campbell and Nero Blackstone, all of whom have done heinous misdeeds in the past. Jessica, who intends to pursue a career in motion pictures, had an affair with a film producer, but then it was discovered by a photographer of the press, resulting in her inviting the photographer over to kill him. Vincent, who has been a crooked cop for a long period in his career, attempts to stop the mayor of the city from tracking him down, by silencing all his associates who could rat him out. Campbell, a boxer who hasn't fought for eighteen months, sought to get a shot at the champion title by defeating the number one contender, Tony King, by any means necessary, leading him to wearing brass knuckles beneath his gloves in their fight. Nero, a formerly successful magician, was caught up in large amounts of debts, accumulated by his wife, prompting him to set up an accident in order to kill his wife and recover her insurance money to pay off all the debts.
At one point, as all four of them gather under the Black Lace burlesque club, they are somehow put to sleep. They then wake up in separate areas of Morg City, each with a "Mark of the Beast" symbol branded on their left hands. They also find the city infested with zombies, and thus are forced to band together to survive. They then discover the voice of the Shadowman, a mysterious figure who offers to help them find redemption. After giving them a powerful artifact called the Summoning Key, he then guides them to performing sacrificial rituals, using close associates of the characters: Jessica's film producer, Vincent's police partner, Campbell's promoter, and Nero's lawyer. Each ritual would result in the death of the respective sacrifice, turning them into Gateworms, which are later used to open a gateway. Afterwards, the Shadowman reveals himself as a servant of the Apothicon, an ancient force of evil that once attempted to unleash the undead upon an excavation site in France. He then disappears, leaving the characters helpless. Above the skies of Morg City, a gigantic tentacle monster now overshadows the city. The four then set out to perform more rituals, summoning the Keepers, another ancient race that exists to prevent the Apothicon from roaming the universe. They eventually attract the attention of the Shadowman, who attempts to thwart their plans. However, they trap him within a sacrificial ritual, which kills him, allowing them to summon a giant Gateworm. The four then work together once more to destroy the giant Gateworm, sending a large energy beam upwards into the sky and destroying the tentacle monster. As they go to retrieve the Summoning Key from the Keepers, the German scientist Edward Richtofen appears out of a portal and grabs the key, thanking them for their effort, before leaving through said portal.
Following their battle against the undead outbreak in Northern France, Richtofen studied on the concept of alternate timelines, learning of the existence of different worlds and many incarnations of himself. He took an interest in protecting a timeline, where Samantha and Eddie (another alternate version of Richtofen) are innocent children playing with zombie toys. He set out to change the future, by traveling to other timelines and killing all of his incarnations. The three Allied soldiers: Tank Dempsey, Nikolai Belinski, and Takeo Masaki, attempt to stop him from disrupting the established continuity of the timelines, but fail repeatedly. After several attempts, they arrive in another timeline, where the German won the first World War, in the Der Riese facility, only moments after Samantha and her father, Doctor Ludvig Maxis, were teleported away by this timeline's Richtofen. Dempsey, Nikolai and Takeo attempt to convince this Richtofen to awaken their other selves, but are interrupted by the Origins timeline's Richtofen, who appears out of the teleporter and kills his other self. The four then band together to fend off the zombie horde once more. As the fight goes on, the characters find themselves affected by Element 115, and their personalities begin to mix with those of their original counterparts: Dempsey becomes more aggressive and loud-mouthed, Nikolai talks about drinking more often, Takeo constantly speaks in ancient Japanese proverbs, while Richtofen shows signs of schizophrenia. Eventually, the group activates a beacon within the facility, allowing Dr. Maxis from another dimension to locate them.
Afterwards, the four travel to a Group 935 base in Austria, the Griffin Castle, where massive deposits of Element 115 had just only been discovered. They arrive there in search of another of Germany's war machine, Der Eisendrache (German for Iron Dragon).
QMRUnstable isotopes are in a continual struggle to become more stable; the ultimate goal is becoming one of the 200 or so stable isotopes in the universe. Stable isotopes have ratios of neutrons to protons in their nucleus that start out at 1 in stable helium-4 and smoothly rise to ~1.5 for lead (there is no complete stability for anything heavier than lead-208). The elements heavier than that have to shed weight to achieve stability, most usually as alpha decay. The other common method for isotopes of the proper weight but high neutron to proton ratio (n/p) is beta decay, in which the nuclide changes elemental identity while keeping the same weight and lowering its n/p ratio. Also there is an inverse beta decay, which assists isotopes too light in neutrons to approach the ideal; however, since fission almost always produces products which are neutron heavy, positron emission is relatively rare compared to beta emission. There are many relatively short beta decay chains, at least two (a heavy, beta decay and a light, positron decay) for every discrete weight up to around 207 and some beyond, but for the higher weight elements (often referred to as "transuranics", but actually used for all isotopes heavier than lead) there are only four pathways in which all are represented. This fact is made inevitable by the two decay methods possible: alpha radiation, which reduces the weight by 4 AMUs, and beta, which does not change the weight at all (just the atomic number and the p/n ratio). The four paths are termed 4n, 4n + 1, 4n + 2, and 4n + 3; the remainder of the atomic weight divided by four gives the chain the isotope will use to decay. There are other decay modes, but they invariably occur at a lower probability than alpha or beta decay.
Three of those chains have a long-lived isotope near the top; they are bottlenecks in the process through which the chain flows very slowly, and keep the chain below them "alive" with flow. The three materials are uranium-238 (half-life=4.5 billion years), uranium-235 (half-life=700 million years) and thorium-232 (half-life=14 billion years). The fourth chain has no such long lasting bottleneck isotope, so almost all of the isotopes in that chain have long since decayed down to very near the stability at the bottom. Near the end of that chain is bismuth-209, which was long thought to be stable. Recently, however, Bi-209 was found to be unstable with a half-life of 19 billion billion years; it is the last step before stable thallium-205. In the far past, around the time that the solar system formed, there were more kinds of unstable high-weight isotopes available, and the four chains were longer with isotopes that have since decayed away. Today we have manufactured extinct isotopes, which again take their places: plutonium-239, the nuclear bomb fuel, as the major example has a half-life of "only" 24,500 years, and decays by alpha emission into uranium-235.
Ryan Merkle QMRThis is a list of supermarket chains in the United Kingdom. Grocery sales in the UK are dominated by Tesco, Asda, Sainsbury's and Morrisons. These "big four" had a combined market share of 73.2 percent of the UK grocery market in the 12 weeks ending 4 January 2015,[1] a decline from 74.1 percent in 2007.[2] Discounters Aldi and Lidl have seen a combined rise in market share from 4.8 percent to 8.3 percent over that time, while upscale grocer Waitrose's share rose from 3.9 to 5.1 percent.
Ryan Merkle QMRThe chain of survival refers to a series of actions that, when put into motion, reduce the mortality associated with cardiac arrest.[1][2] Like any chain, the chain of survival is only as strong as its weakest link.[1][2] The four interdependent links in the chain of survival are early access, early CPR, early defibrillation, and early advanced cardiac life support
Ryan Merkle QMRFour Square is a chain of supermarkets in New Zealand that was founded by John Heaton Barker.[1]
Ryan Merkle QMRFour-Pillars Hotels is a hotel chain operating in the United Kingdom. The group has six hotels, situated in Oxford, the Cotswolds and the Thames Valley, operating in the three and four star sector. In 2014 the company was acquired by American Starwood Capital Group for around £90 million.[1]
Ryan Merkle QMR Alice in Chains is an American rock band formed in Seattle, Washington, in 1987 by guitarist and songwriter Jerry Cantrell and original lead vocalist Layne Staley. The initial lineup was rounded out by drummer Sean Kinney and bassist Mike Starr, who was replaced in 1993 by Mike Inez.
They have four members
QMRA heavy-chain antibody is an antibody which consists only of two heavy chains and lacks the two light chains usually found in antibodies.
In common antibodies, the antigen binding region consists of the variable domains of the heavy and light chains (VH and VL). Heavy-chain antibodies can bind antigens despite having only VH domains. This observation has led to the development of a new type of antibody fragments with potential use as drugs, so-called single-domain antibodies.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Discovery
2 In cartilaginous fishes
3 In camelids
4 References
5 External links
Discovery[edit]
In 1989 a group of biologists led by Raymond Hamers at the Free University Brussels investigated the immune system of dromedaries. In addition to the expected four-chain antibodies, they identified simpler antibodies consisting only of two heavy chains. This discovery was published in Nature in 1993.[2] In 1995 a research team at the University of Miami found a different type of heavy-chain antibodies in sharks.[3]
Ryan Merkle QMRTwo shootings of Oakland, California police officers took place on Saturday, March 21, 2009, when four officers were killed by a convicted felon wanted on a no-bail warrant for a parole violation. Lovelle Mixon initially shot and killed two Oakland police officers during a traffic stop, then killed two more when SWAT team officers attempted to apprehend him two hours later. Mixon staged an ambush of the SWAT officers from his hiding place and was killed in a barrage of gunfire as the officers returned fire.[1]
Ryan Merkle QMRIn general, analog computers are extraordinarily fast, since they can solve most mathematically complex equations at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is generally an appreciable fraction of the speed of light. On the other hand, the precision of analog computers is not good; they are limited to three, or at most, four digits of precision.
Digital computers can be built to take the solution of equations to almost unlimited precision, but quite slowly compared to analog computers. Generally, complex mathematical equations are approximated using iterative methods which take huge numbers of iterations, depending on how good the initial "guess" at the final value is and how much precision is desired. (This initial guess is known as the numerical "seed".) For many real-time operations in the 20th century, such digital calculations were too slow to be of much use (e.g., for very high frequency phased array radars or for weather calculations), but the precision of an analog computer is insufficient.
Hybrid computers can be used to obtain a very good but relatively imprecise 'seed' value, using an analog computer front-end, which is then fed into a digital computer iterative process to achieve the final desired degree of precision. With a three or four digit, highly accurate numerical seed, the total digital computation time to reach the desired precision is dramatically reduced, since many fewer iterations are required. One of the main technical problems to be overcome in hybrid computers is minimizing digital-computer noise in analog computing elements and grounding systems.
Ryan Merkle QMRAfter the liberation, France was swept for a short period with a wave of executions of Collaborationists. Collaborationists were brought to the Vélodrome d'hiver, Fresnes prison or the Drancy internment camp. Women who were suspected of having romantic liaisons with Germans, or more often[citation needed] of being prostitutes who had entertained German customers, were publicly humiliated by having their heads shaved. Those who had engaged in the black market were also stigmatized as "war profiteers" (profiteurs de guerre), and popularly called "BOF" (Beurre Oeuf Fromage, or Butter Eggs Cheese, because of the products sold at outrageous prices during the Occupation). However, the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF, 1944–46) quickly reestablished order, and brought Collaborationists before the courts. Many convicted Collaborationists were then given amnesty under the Fourth Republic (1946–54).
Four different periods are distinguished by historians:
the first phase of popular convictions (épuration sauvage – wild purge): executions without judgments and shaving of women's heads. Estimations by police prefects made in 1948 and 1952 counted as many as 6,000 executions before the Liberation, and 4,000 afterward.
the second phase (épuration légale or legal purge), which began with Charles de Gaulle's 26 and 27 June 1944 purge ordonnances (de Gaulle's first ordonnance instituting purge Commissions was enacted on 18 August 1943) : judgments of Collaborationists by the Commissions d'épuration, who condemned approximately 120,000 persons (e.g.! Charles Maurras, leader of the royalist Action Française, was thus condemned to a life sentence on 25 January 1945), including 1,500 death sentences (Joseph Darnand, head of the Milice, and Pierre Laval, head of the French state, were executed after trial on 4 October 1945, Robert Brasillach, executed on 6 February 1945, etc.)—many of those who survived this phase were later given amnesty.
the third phase, more lenient towards Collaborationists (the trial of Philippe Pétain or of writer Louis-Ferdinand Céline).
finally came the period for amnesty and graces (e.g.,. Jean-Pierre Esteva, Xavier Vallat, creator of the General Commission for Jewish Affairs, René Bousquet, head of French police, etc.)
QMRIn his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract.
Ryan Merkle QMRJohn Deely, Four Ages of Understanding: The First Postmodern Survey of Philosophy from Ancient Times to the Turn of the Twenty-First Century (Toronto: U. of Toronto, 2001).
Ryan Merkle QMRWestern political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato.[3] Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories: timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's Republic,[3] which was followed by Aristotle's Nichomachean Ethics and Politics.[4] Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics, including the Roman statesman Cicero.[5]Stoicism from Zeno
Ryan Merkle QMRLars Levi Læstadius (1800–1861): Botanist who started a revival movement within Lutheranism called Laestadianism. This movement is among the strictest forms of Lutheranism. As a botanist he has the author citation Laest and discovered four species
Ryan Merkle QMRLévi-Strauss, Lacan, Barthes, and Foucault were the so-called "Gang of Four" of structuralism.[9] All but Lévi-Strauss became prominent post-structuralists. The works of Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault and Julia Kristeva are also counted as prominent examples of post-structuralism.
Ryan Merkle QMRKryptos is a sculpture by the American artist Jim Sanborn that is located on the grounds of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in Langley, Virginia. Since its dedication on November 3, 1990, there has been much speculation about the meaning of the encrypted messages it bears. Of the four messages, three have been solved, while the fourth remains as one of the most famous unsolved codes in the world. The sculpture continues to be of interest to cryptanalysts, both amateur and professional, who are attempting to decipher the final section. The sculptor has given two clues to this section.
The fourth is always different
Description[edit]
The main sculpture is located in the northwest corner of the New Headquarters Building courtyard, outside of the Agency cafeteria. The sculpture comprises four large copper plates with other elements made of red and green granite, white quartz, and petrified wood.
The name Kryptos comes from the Greek word for "hidden", and the theme of the sculpture is "intelligence gathering." The most prominent feature is a large vertical s-shaped copper screen resembling a scroll, or piece of paper emerging from a computer printer, half of which consists of encrypted text. The characters are all found within the 26 letters of the standard Latin alphabet, along with question marks, and are cut out of the copper. The main sculpture contains four separate enigmatic messages, three of which have been deciphered.[1]
In addition to the main part of the sculpture, Jim Sanborn also placed other pieces at the CIA grounds, such as several large granite slabs with sandwiched copper sheets outside the entrance to the New Headquarters Building. Many morse code messages are found on these copper sheets, and one of the slabs has an engraving of a compass rose pointing to a lodestone. Other elements of Sanborn's installation include a landscaped area, a duck pond, a reflecting pool, and other pieces of stone.
The cost of the sculpture was $250,000.[2]
Ryan Merkle Sanborn worked with a retiring CIA employee named Ed Scheidt, Chairman of the CIA Cryptographic Center, to come up with the cryptographic systems used on the sculpture. Sanborn has revealed that the sculpture contains a riddle within a riddle, which will be solvable only after the four encrypted passages have been deciphered. He has given conflicting information about the sculpture's answer, saying at one time that he gave the complete solution to the then-CIA director William H. Webster during the dedication ceremony; but later, he also said that he had not given Webster the entire solution. He did, however, confirm that within the part of the plaintext of the second message which reads "Who knows the exact location? Only WW.", "WW" was intended to refer to William Webster. Sanborn also confirmed that should he die before the entire sculpture becomes deciphered, there will be someone able to confirm the solution.[5]
Ryan Merkle When commenting in 2006 about his error in section 2, Sanborn said that the answers to the first three sections contain clues to the fourth section.[17] In November 2010, Sanborn released a clue, publicly stating that "NYPVTT", the 64th-69th letters in part four, become "BERLIN" after decryption.[18][19] Sanborn gave The New York Times another clue in November 2014: the letters "MZFPK", the 70th-74th letters in part four, become "CLOCK" after decryption.[20] This may be a direct reference to the Berlin Clock. Sanborn further stated that in order to solve section 4, "You'd better delve into that particular clock," but added, "There are several really interesting clocks in Berlin."[21]
Ryan Merkle QMRIn January 1975, Bandō visited a Kyoto restaurant with friends and ordered four portions of fugu kimo, the liver of the fugu fish, a dish whose sale was prohibited by local ordinances at the time.[2] Claiming that he could survive the fish's poison, he ate the livers and died[3] after returning to his hotel room, after seven hours of paralysis and convulsions.[citation needed]
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